Unit 1: Concepts of Social Work

1.1) Introduction to Social Group Work- Angeline

Social Group work is a method of social work which develops the ability of establishing constructive relationship in the individuals though group activities. Group experiences are the essential needs of human being.

All cells originate from other cells; it is impossible for them to originate in any other way. Each cell of the organism is dependent for its proper functioning upon the interaction with it of every other cell of the organism. This is to say that every organism function as a whole and not as a mass of discrete, independent cellular elements. The organism is itself dependent and interdependent as a whole.

Hence Hamilton in 1949 defines, “Social Group work is a psycho social process which is concerned no less than with developing leadership ability and co – operation than with building on the interests of the group for a social purpose.

1.2) Objectives - Alex

Group work objectives:

It is enhancing the social adjustment of the individual with a group To help the individuals develop their capacities to participate in group To provide experience to be creative to share and express themselves To enrich community life and made individuals take responsibility To serve as a treatment program for various types of mal adjustment

One of the most challenging aspects of collaborative group work assignments knows how to get started:

What is the purpose of the project? What are u supposed to learn? What skills are you supposed to develop? Are the necessary resources readily available or should you secure them as soon

as possible? What criteria will be used to assess your work? What are the main components of the project? What are the deadlines?

Good Dynamics Whether you have been permitted to form your own group and you know the other group members socially, or if the groups have been assigned by the course instructor and the group members do not know each other at all, it is important to build a good working relationship early in the project.

Find common goals and expectations. Share information and insights on objectives and work styles. Identify preferences for which roles each group member would like to take on and

negotiate responsibilities. Determine the quantity, length, and protocol of all group meetings. Then establish a

regular meeting time.

Scheduling Problems

Occasionally, groups are so large or group members so busy, that it is impossible to find a time when every group member can attend all of the meetings. Absences can slow or stop work and can make it very difficult to coordinate the development of the project.

Encourage group members to be as flexible as possible in establishing meeting times. Make sure that family, work, extra-curricular commitments, and not mere preferences, are the cause of missed meetings. Keep accurate records of attendance at meetings.

Figure out what happens if a meeting is wholly or partially missed and establish procedures for how a group member would get caught up.

There are alternatives to meeting face to face. Keep in touch over the phone or via e-mail. If e-mail or conference calling will be used as a primary method of communication, be certain to establish a set time that is most convenient for all group members.

Dealing with Conflict

Some tension or internal struggle within groups is not unusual. Most students have spent years of their education working independently in a competitive, rather than collaborative, learning environment and are simply unfamiliar with the unique demands of group work.

Clearly establish separate and equitable roles and responsibilities for group members at the outset of the project, but check on how the process is working for everyone and be prepared to renegotiate these jobs if necessary.

Remember that patience and inclusive communication are essential to good group dynamics.

Be familiar with human rights and equity policies. Try to make collective decisions professionally and democratically. Socialize with one another and have fun together outside of group meetings.

Working Efficiently

Time is a precious commodity. Group work can conjure up fears of long, unproductive meetings spent doing something collaboratively that you are confident you could do much more efficiently on your own.

Ensure that group members know in advance what role they are to play during each meeting (i.e. leader, note-taker, trouble-shooter, detail person, big picture person, creative input, progress-chaser, reviewer).

Run efficient meetings — start and end on time.

Set clear objectives for each meeting, arrive prepared, and keep to a schedule .

Problem Members

Group work functions best when everyone participates actively in the development of the project; however, it is not unusual for a group to have one or more members who are occasionally or chronically unproductive.

Find out why the group member is not participating or producing. The solution will depend on the reason for their withdrawal, so begin by determining the cause.

Encourage shy individuals to contribute by soliciting their input on a topic that you are confident that they know something about. You may find that they just need an invitation and a positive experience before they will become more involved in discussions.

Disinterested learners may need some assistance in uncovering their motivation for contributing to the group project.

Let your professor or T.A. know what is happening.

Domineering Members

Some learners, whether they are highly goal-directed, self-confident, or extroverted, simply prefer to monopolize conversations or direct and delegate the work of the group.

Indicate that this is an issue of concern by addressing it in the ground rules for conducting group meetings.

Deliberately take turns presenting ideas or updates. Limit the amount of time each person has to talk and discourage any interruption during the presentations.

First try to discourage domination by using indirect, blanket statements regarding the nature of collaborative work, or by making humorous, but not critical, comments to the overly talkative or dictatorial group member.

Getting Help Understanding the learning objectives and requirements of the group project. If you need feedback or direction on process or content issues. For direction or advice on the use of resource materials. If you are having difficulties with group dynamics that you cannot resolve

independently. As recommended in your course outline, assignment outline, or lecture.

So, The two major objectives of group work are :

What is learned : factual material as well as the process What is produced : written paper , presentation , and/or media project

Conclusion

Thus, the success of the outcome depends on the clarity of the objectives given by teachers, as well as guidelines on expectations. The group’s challenge is to interpret these objectives, and then determine how to meet them.

1.3) Functions - Aarthi

Functions of group work:

It provides remedial experience instantly to individuals whom have defunctional social situation.

It prevents personal to social break down. It is used for personal growth. It inculcates democratic values. Helps in participating approach. It inculcates leadership qualities among members. It provides equal opportunities for all. It helps in the process of socialization.

It provides experience to the individuals those who have defunctional social situation and it prevents the person from personal to social break down (i.e) the person who didn’t have much experience to move socially in the society in that case group work makes comfortable and helps in formally to move in the society.

Group work helps in the person individually to develop his attitude, behavior (i.e) how to behave with other person in the society and the group work also helps the person to develop individually the talent and other important aspects which makes personal growth.

The group work helps in participating approach among the members of the group. The group work process always makes each and every member participate in all the activities which helps in to achieve the target or the main goal of the group. And the group work process helps in to inculcate the leadership qualities among members which the members might not even know that they have the leadership qualities in them in such cases the group work explores the talents of the individual by them many tasks to perform.

The group work process gives equal opportunities for all the members of the group so that each and every member of the group can be improved individually. And moreover equal importance should also be given so that they can share their ideas and views with the other members of the group and no one should be avoided or ignored in the group. Group work also helps in the process of socialization among the members of the group.

1.4) Principles- Canius

Principle of planned group formation: “In social group work, the group is the basic unit through which service is provided to the individual, consequently, the agency and worker responsible for the formation of groups or the acceptance into the agency of already formed groups must be consciously aware of the factors inherent to the group situation which make the given group a positive potential for the individual growth and for meting recognizable needs.” Behind this principle is the fact that groups, like individuals are unique. Groups are tremendously influential upon the behavior of the individuals. The influence of the group on the person may not necessarily social or positive. It may opposite. The group worker who accepts this principle and its implications will study groups already formed and gives help to groups on the threshold of group formation.

Principle of specific objectives: The specific objectives of individual and group development must be consciously formulated by the worker in harmony with group wishes and capacities and in keeping with the agency functions.

Individuals want and get different things from groups. A worker must be aware of what people want from group experiences and help them to get it. The group worker who recognizes the need for consciously formulated objectives for individuals and groups become a purposeful worker. Group work becomes planned rather than haphazard, but remains in format when he works with a group to help the members see their strength and see objectives accordingly.

The principle of purposeful worker-group relationship: A purposeful relationship should be maintained between the group members and worker. This relation is a conscious one. It is based on the worker’s acceptance of the group members as they are and upon the group’s willingness to accept help from the worker because of the confidence the members have in him and in the agency. This principle assumes that it is both possible and necessary to create an effective working relationship with a group before the worker can be of help to the group. Effective relationship grows out of the mutual acceptance of one another by worker and group. The worker relationship is in itself a major tool.

Principle of continuous individualization: There are different personalities in the group. Each personality is unique. No two members alike. Special attention should be given for each and every individual. It is recognized that group experience are different and that individuals utilize group experience in a variety of ways to meet their different needs. Consequently, continuous individualization must be understood as developing and changing. When the worker individualizes a group he accepts the naturalness of the differences.

Principle of guided group interaction: In social group work the primary source of energy which propels the group and influences the individual to change is the interaction or reciprocal responses of the members. The group worker influences this interaction by the type and quality of his participation. When people are together in groups the possibility of interaction or interstimulation is always present. This influence of person on person is a major dynamic in social group work. At times all the members may not interact equally. There may be conflicts. There may be few who are dominating. They prevent the other members from sharing. For ultimate growth and development of group each member should contribute. This is done through guided group interaction. All members should be encouraged

to participate. The program experience in which the group engages should begin at the level of member interest, need experience and competence and should process in relation to the developing capacities of the group. It implies that there is a starting point for group work program and that definition of that starting point is important.

Principle of democratic group self- determination: In social group work, the group must be helped to make its own decisions and determine its own activities, taking the maximum amount of responsibility in line with its capacity and ability. The primary source of control over the group is the group itself. Individuals and groups can develop in social responsibility only when they are given opportunities to have responsibility. Participation level should be democratically identified and executed. Worker’s idea should not be thrusted upon the group. Objectives should be democratically carried out.

Principle of flexible functional organization: The group should be flexible enough to encourage the participation when they succeed and support when they fall. Must accept the failures of the members too. A group is a dynamic organization in which members participate and interact according to the convenience of the group. In spite of the rules and regulation, the functioning of the group has to be flexible.

Principle of progressive programmed experiences: The ultimate aim and objective of the group is its development, there by leading to the development of the individual. Leader should identify the needs of the group and initiates programs to reach the goal. Plan along with the group. They should not remain stagnant. Maximum experience and competence and should progress in relation to the developing capacity of the group.

Principle of resource utilization: In social group work, the total environment of agency and community possesses resources which should be utilized to enrich the content of the group experience for individuals and for the as a whole. The total needs of the individuals and group can be both materialistic as well as non –materialistic resources can be tapped within a group within an agency, community. Members should be helped to identify these resources.

Principle of evaluation: In social group work, continuous evaluation of process and programmes in terms of outcomes is essential. Worker, group and agency share in this procedure as a means of guaranteeing the greatest possible self fulfillment for all.

Evaluation in social group work is desirable and necessary. Evaluation is not judging them but giving them valuable suggestions for their growth and development.

1.5) Approaches to Social Group work

Recreational, Developmental- Alan

Approaches to group work:

Remedial group work : Group acts as a platform for identifying out remedies for the persisting problem among the members. It is primarily concerned with the treatment of psychological, social and cultural adjustments through the experience of the group. It is concerned with specific behavior change.

Recreational group work : This method relaxes our minds through recreation. It is one of the easy and a better form of help. Through the entertainment process the group worker tries to help the group. In this approach members tend to loose their anxiety, fear, and stress. Eg through conducting games.

Preventive group work: The main aim of this approach is to prevent certain dysfunctional roles played by the individuals. Certain members may have dysfunctional attitude, behavior that is , may cause problem which have to be prevented . The intervention of group must start even before the problem begins or stop the securing of the existing problem. The role of the group worker is to identify the problem and prevent it from becoming severe ex: stress management

Development group approach: This approach is formed for the growth and development of its members .there is no such problem existing. But the group worker can pool in all the members resources to help each other in order to make them equipped and develop opportunities are given to individuals to exhibit their competence . Enables an individual to strive for betterment in ones life. The role of worker is that of a guide an expert.

Remedial, Preventive approach -Robert

The following are the approaches of group work

1. Remedial group work2. Recreational group work3. Preventive group4. Developmental group work

Remedial group work : The remedial approaches is helpful in giving the remedial solution for the problem which can help the person in solving the problem and helps him to come out from the problem

Recreational group work: The recreational group work helps in to recreate the person as a whole as by sparing some time and help the person to come out from the tension which can make the persons mind clearer or relief from the tension.

Preventive group: The preventive group work is helpful in giving some preventive or safty measures which can the person to be safe from the problem which might be arise. As such like giving suggestion to be in limit.

Developmental group work: The developmental group work are those which are made to make the person to be independent so that the person can help himself. This is like similar to the self help groups.

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Unit 2: Understanding Group and Group Processes

2.1) Understanding Group and Group Processes – Introduction - Fr. Jebamalai

Influence of Groups on Individuals

Man is born into a family Though out his life man has been associated with various form of groups With every group that he encounters man is being influenced and he influences the

group simultaneously People with whom he is related are shaping every individual’s personality Every individual learns to communicate because of group influence Every individual is dependent on other social groups for his existence Every individual learns how to relate himself with others in a group Sharing and caring can be learnt only through group Every individual learns how to compete, cooperate and coordinate through groups Family, friendship group and colleague groups are some of the most important groups

that influence the individual Team work always paves ways for success for individuals.

Group’s influence on Individual’s personality Development

Learning is a development process that occurs through participation with groups Group influences the individual’s attitudes Group influences the individual’s level of aspiration and striving Group modifies the individual’s habit of living, working and his life pursuits. It has a powerful influence upon the individual’s perception, self-understanding Groups provide psychological support to individuals Groups influences the choices individual make Individual’s speed, accuracy and productivity is influenced by groups Individual’s problem solving capacity is strengthened or weakened by the group to

which he belongs Groups teach the individual how to follow rules and regulations.

2.2) Influence of Groups & Individuals - Kalaivani

Numerous definitions of the term.

A number of individuals who are interacting with each other. Several individuals who are interdependent in some way. A number of individuals who join together to achieve a goal. A social unit consisting of two or more people who perceive themselves as belonging

to a group. A collection of individuals whose interactions are structured by a set of roles and

norms.

Different Forums of Group Influence

Collective influence in minimal group situations:

Social facilitation Social Loafing Deindividuation

Group influence in interacting groups

Group polarization Groupthink Minority Influence

Social Facilitation The strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of others. Why? Evaluation Apprehension: enhancement is strongest when people think they are being

evaluated. Mere presence: occurs in other species, may be a built-in biological mechanism. Social Loafing Tendency to reduce effort when pooling effort toward a common goal and when they

are not individually accountable. Tug of war, clapping studies. In essence, social loafing appears to occur due to a reduction in evaluation

apprehension. Increases when not individually evaluated or rewarded. Decreases when tasks are challenging or appealing, and when fellow group members

are friends (as opposed to strangers). Deindividuation Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension. Factors Physical anonymity (Zimbardo study with masked women delivering shocks, drivers

in convertibles are less likely to honk, anthropological research that suggests that cultures with depersonalized warriors also were the cultures more likely to brutalize enemies).

Deindividuation

• However, deindividuation does not automatically lead to negative behavior.

– Makes one more responsive to cues in the environment, thus altruistic cues lead a deindividuated person to be kinder.

• Why?

Diminished self-awareness: those made self-aware exhibit more self-control and their actions are more consistent with their attitudes.

Group Polarization

• Originally dubbed the “risky shift”

The risky shift involved the tendency for group decisions to be riskier than the average decision of the individuals in the group.

• However, subsequent research showed that groups may get more cautious

Group polarization is the tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than that of individuals. Amplifies pre-existing tendencies.

Same logic as social facilitation.

Group Polarization

• Why? Group discussion leads you to hear more information. Active participation in a discussion leads you to “rehearse” your thoughts leading to

more attitude change. Safer to provide more extreme answers once the normative opinion of the group has

been determined. Minority Influence and Leadership

• What makes someone a good leader?• Theories

Trait Theory/Great Leader: Charisma, intelligence? Social Determinism. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory: person vs. task oriented leaders.

2.3) Group Process, New Comers, Isolation, Rejection, Group Bond, Sub Group, Model of Group Development

- Suzy

GROUP PROCESS:

The interaction and interpersonal relationship among the group members lead to the development of each and every individual. This group interaction is known as group process.

B – BONDING : It is affinity , affection that every group member has towards every other member . It brings in a sense of belongingness. It can also become damaging when its strength prevents members from seeking an association outside the group. It represents the feeling of cohesive that makes for a group. The sense of belonging. We can measure a group’s effectiveness by group bond.

A – ACCEPTANCE : In some group members are easily accepted where as in some group it is difficult. Acceptance of each other’s feeling is necessary. Genuine acceptance of each individual is unique strength and weakness.

I – ISOLATION : These members are a part of the group but are not totally accepted and remains as isolation. There is no emotional attachment among the members. The group members are just physical entities in the groups. Isolate is usually a member who has a low self esteem. He is often negated. He is tolerated but he is surrounded by glass wall. There is no bridge. They earn for nearness to others. They cannot reach out. They find satisfactory in just being tolerated by the group or in pretending to themselves that they truly a part of the group.

REJECTED ISOLATION : Actively involved in a total group situation. He usually reaches out to other member of the group or to group as a whole but finds himself rebuffed. The reason. The reason for this may be again inside the rejection he might be a person who provokes other, who never wants to do what others want to do. Who starts goat for others, this occurs when the group projects something on him \ her.

R – REJECTION : When there is weakness in the bonding or acceptance then the member rejects a group or a group rejects a group rejects a member. The rejected member is tolerated by the group but he \ she is surrounded by a glass well.

S – SUB GROUPS : It is founded in all groups. A group with in a group is called sub groups. Sub group are formed because of the common likeness among 2 or 3 members. They associate more clearly then others. Sub groups may consist of 2 or 3 members of the group. Sub groups enhance the quality of the total group. They can be dangerous to the groups also.

C – CONFLICTS : In a group where there are different personalities and different of opinion is inevitable. Conflicts are such differences in the opinion. A group that shows no conflicts is a dead one. A group that has constant conflicts is called as a sick group. Bringing the conflict in to open , define the problem , search for significance rather than dramatic features , try to reconciliation.

C – CONTROL : Conflicts arise in a group has to be controlled in a group has to be controlled and cooperation has to be maintained for the smooth functioning in the group. Control is done by

Majority taking over the minority Minority giving its consent to the majority By bringing in a third parts for arbitration Negotiation

N – NEW COMERS : When new comers join the group or when the group

are formed for the first time such members are called as new comers. They are in need of more attention as they as are fresh in to group and are unaware of the process going on in a group. They need time for adjustment.

MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT:

FORMING: Personal interactions are characterized by dependence. Group member rely on safe , pattern of behavior and look to the group leader for guidance and a need to be know that the group is safe. They set about gather impression and data about similarities and difference among members serious topic are avoided.

STORMING: As group members become more comfortable with each other they will engage each other in argument and they will seek for status in the group these activities mark the storming phase. This is characterized by competition and conflict in personal relationships. Individual have to bend and mold their feeling , ideas , attitude and belief to suit the group. Because of the discomfort generated during this stage some members may remain silent and other try to dominate. In order to progress to the next stage the group members have to move from a testing and proving mentality to a problem solving mentality. The most important trait in helping groups to move on.

NORMING: Here the establish implicit or explicit rules about how they will achieve their goals. Cohesion is present. Members try to change their pre conceived notions on the facts presented by other members. When members begin to know and identify with one and other the level of trust develop.

PERFORMING: Group reaches a conclusion and imp lent the conclusion. Here people can work independently, in sub groups or as a total. Good relationship and problem solving skills are there. Group morale is high, loyalty is good.

ADJOURNING: As the group disbands in the adjourning phase this involves the termination of task behavior and disengagement from relationships. As planned conclusion usually includes recognition for participation. The termination of the group is a regression movement from giving up control to giving up inclusion in the group.

2.4) Group Dynamics – Basic Assumption, Group and Group membership, Group cohesiveness, Group Norm

- Mangai

2.5) Group Culture, Group Control, Group Morale, Group Attraction -- Priya

Group Culture:

Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate") generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance. Cultures can be "understood as systems of symbols and meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one another"

Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population that is passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been called "the way of life for an entire society." As such, it includes codes of manners, dress, language,

religion, rituals, norms of behavior such as law and morality, and systems of belief as well as the art.

"Group culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, custom and other capabilities acquired by man as member of society" - TYLER. Every group has its own culture or practice its own custom.

Culture in terms of language, exercise, programmes etc. every group has its distance name to denote its culture.

The Clothing, eating habit etc is also unique for every group and varies from one group to another group.. speech and language, weapons, art, mythology and scientific knowledge, religious practice etc..

Group culture gives identity to the group. An individual gains his identity from the group culture.

Functions of group culture:

it keeps relationship intact. it creates new needs. broadsens the vision of the individual towards cooperation.

GROUP CONTROL

"Group Control is the sum of those methods by which a group tries to influence human behavior to maintain a given order" - Manheim... every group keeps its process under its influence and prevents any kind of deviance (breaking rules)...

Every group needs to have control on its activities otherwise there will be chaos in the group and gradually the group will dissolve. For the growth and development of the group there should be control measure in each and every group.

Rigid group- they follow the rules and regulation strictly and violation will be punished strictly.Example once you become a member of terrorist group or military, you have to follow the rules and regulations otherwise you shall be punished.

Flexible group also follow the rules and regulations.Punishment given- loss of status, loss of certain privileges, fine, shame or termination from the group.

Need for group control:

to maintain order.. to establish unity... to control individual behaviour... to check cultural maladjustment....

GROUP MORALE

Morale, also known as esprit de corps when discussing the morale of a group, is an intangible term used for the capacity of people to maintain belief in an institution or a goal, or even in oneself and others. The second term applies particularly to military personnel and to members of sports teams, but is also applicable in business and in any other organizational context, particularly in times of stress or controversy.

According to Alexander H. Leighton, "morale is the capacity of a group of people to pull together persistently and consistently in pursuit of a common purpose".

Few points related to morale: Morale is a state of attitudes, feeling and judgement of the group of people about their

group... It is a state of discipline and spirit.. Each and every group is facilitated by the boundaries in the power relationship. Some members may violate these boundaries while some follow.. It is the ability to work together for a common purpose. It refers to team work... It is the spirit and confidence with individuals do their work.

GROUP ATTRACTION

Attractiveness, attractive quality or attraction refer to a quality to be the cause of the emotion of attraction in a person. An attraction emotion is an interest or desire in something or someone.

The term "attraction" may also refer to the object of the attraction itself

Group attraction means through bonding between members. Attraction and repulsion between people based on the similarities and dissimilarities. The characteristic features of any group is keep its member intact.. These physical, social and psychological forces that bring the members of the group

together are known as forces of attraction

2.6) Communication and interaction pattern, Sociometry other tools in assessing group interaction

- Vivian

Communication & Interaction Pattern

Children with significant communication and interaction difficulties will be identified before school age or early in their school career. The impact of such difficulties can be considerable, affecting learning, socialization and emotional development. These pupils are at particular risk of experiencing literacy difficulties. Most children with special educational needs have strengths and difficulties in on , some or all of the areas of speech, language and communication. Their communication needs maybe both diverse and complex. They will

need to continue to develop their linguistic competence in order to support their thinking as well as their communication. The range of difficulties will encompass children and young people with:

speech and language delay; impairments or disorders; specific learning difficulties, such as dyslexia

and dysphasia; hearing impairment; and those who demonstrate features within the

autistic spectrum.

They may also apply to some children and young people with moderate, severe or profound learning difficulties. The range of need will include those for whom language and communication difficulties are the result of permanent sensory or physical impairment. (Code of Practice 7:55). Children with less severe difficulties, or difficulties that only affect one aspect of speech and language, may be less easy to identify and may appear to be developing normally at an early age. Communication and interaction difficulties may become more apparent with the increased demands of school life, but the exact nature of the difficulty may not be immediately apparent. Whatever the level of the child the Code advises that inadequate progress should be the key test of whether additional or different action should be taken (see Introduction). Communication andinteraction difficulties cover a wide and complex range of impairments that frequently overlap.

These includes:

Developmental language delayThis may be a delay in one or more aspect of language (comprehension, expression, interaction) but progress, however slow, follows a ‘normal pattern’ of development.

Developmental language disorderDevelopment in one or more aspects of language (comprehension, expression, interaction) will show an uneven or unusual pattern.

Phonological/speech difficultyThis refers to the child’s ability to produce intelligible speech and will include those withspecific difficulties, including verbal dyspraxia and dysarthria. Complete normal development of the speech sound system may not be in place until the age of 6 years.

Receptive language difficultyChildren may have particular difficulty attaching meaning to words and developingconcepts or have difficulties understanding complex grammar or implied meaning.

Expressive language difficultyChildren may have difficulty accessing vocabulary, using complex grammar, organisingideas, structuring sentences and conveying intended meaning.

Tools of a Group Interaction

1. Information and opinion giver: Offers facts, opinions, ideas, suggestions, and relevant information to help group discussion.

2. Information and opinon seeker: Asks for facts, opinions, ideas, suggestions, and relevant information to help group discussion.

3. Starter: Proposes goals and tasks to initiate action within the group.

4. Direction giver: Develops plans on how to proceed and focuses attention on the task to be done.

5. Summarizer: Pulls together related ideas or suggestions and restates and summarizes main point discussed.

6. Coordinator: Shows relationships among various ideas by pulling them together and harmonizes activities of various subgroups and members.

7. Diagnoser: Figures out sources of difficulties the group has in working effectively and the blocks to progress in accomplishing the group's goals.

8. Energizer: Stimulates a higher quality of work from the group.

9. Reality tester: Examines the practicality and workability of ideas, evaluates alternative solutions, and applies them to real situations to see how they will work.

10. Evaluator: Compares group decisions and accomplishments with group standards and goals.

11. Encourager of participation: Warmly encourages everyone to participate, giving recognition for contributions, demonstrating acceptance and openness to ideasof others, is friendly and responsive to group members.

12. Harmonizer and compromiser: Persuades members to analyze constructively their differences in opinion, searches for common elements in conflicts, and tries to reconcile differences.

13. Tension reliever: Eases tensions and increases the enjoyment of group members by joking, suggesting breaks, and proposing fun approaches to group work.

14. Communication helper: Shows good communication skills and makes sure that each member understands what other members are saying.

15. Evaluator of emotional climate: Asks members how they feel about the way in which the group is working and about each other, and shares own feelings about both.

16. Process observer: Watches the process by which the group is working and uses the observations to help examine group effectiveness.

17. Standard setter: Expresses group standards and goals to make members aware of the direction of the work and the progress being made toward the goal and to get open

acceptance of groups norms and procedures.

18. Active listener: Listens and serves as an interested audience for other members, is receptive to others' ideas, goes along with the group when not in disagreement.

19. Trust builder: Accepts and supports openness of other group members, reinforcing risk taking and encouraging individually.

20. Interpersonal problem solver: Promotes open discussion of conflicts between group members in order to resolve conflicts and increase group togetherness. You'll notice that the first ten of these functions focus on getting the job done while the second ten focus on keeping the members together as an amiable group. Both types of actions are important to the effective work of a group. Each person can play more than one of these roles in a group. Being aware of what you normally do and working at some complementary skill in the other half of the process will make you a more effective group member and will help the group work more smoothly as well.

2.7) Problem Solving, Decision Making, Goal setting, Conflict resolution- Vijay

Goal Setting

Goal setting is a technique that helps people achieves their goals. It is used by all sorts of people (such as successful business-people, students and athletes) and provides them with long-term vision and short-term motivation.

The use of a structured goal setting method can greatly increase your chances of attaining your goals.

By setting goals on a routine basis you decide what you want to achieve, and then step-by-step move towards the achievement of these goals.

The process of setting goals allows you to choose where you want to go in life. By knowing precisely what you want to achieve, you know what you have to concentrate on to do it.

By setting goals, you will also raise your self-confidence, as you recognize your ability and competence in achieving the goals that you have set. The process of achieving goals and seeing this achievement gives you confidence that you will be able to achieve higher and more difficult goals.

The Goal Setting Method

1) List your goals and select one or two to work towards2) Define your goals clearly and break them down into small steps3) Review your progress and revise4) Take satisfaction in your efforts and achievements

Problem solving

There is nothing wrong in making a mistake the first time around; just don’t let that mistake stop you from achieving your goal. Try, try, try again!

1. Identify the problem

Be sure to state or define what is hindering your progress in achieving your goal. Don’t mistake contributors to the problem as the actual problem.

2. Assess your available resources / options

Look at all the things you can do to eliminate the problem and list all the resources available to you to use in resolving the problem.

3. Set objectives

Determine what results you want to achieve or what is beneficial to you as the outcome.

4. Plan development

Select, one by one, the resources you will test and get all available information about the resources so that you can eliminate the least helpful ones and make a selection.

5. Implement the plan

Now that you have made your decision on which resources serve you the best, it is time to implement your plan. Plans or strategies are of little value if you do not follow-though to work the plan you have developed. This is the test period also to see if you made the best selection of your resources.

6. Evaluate the results

Obviously, some results are immediate and therefore evaluation will be easy. You will be able to see that you made the right decision because you are able to begin achieving your goal. However, if you are dissatisfied with the results/ resources you choose after a reasonable period of time, then start over again and make another selection using the same procedure as before.

Decision making

Decision-makers have to choose between alternative actions every day. Often the alternatives and supporting information presented is inadequate to support or explain the recommended action. \

Good decisions can best be reached when everyone involved uses a clearly defined and acknowledged decision-making process.

STEP 1Define problem

STEP 2Determine the requirements that the solution to the problem must meet

STEP 3Establish goals that solving the problem should accomplish

STEP 4Identify alternatives that will solve the problem

STEP 5Develop evaluation criteria based on the goals

STEP 6Select a decision-making tool

STEP 7Apply the tool to select a preferred alternative

STEP 8Check the answer to make sure it solves the problem

Conflict Resolution

Conflict is not a disagreement.

Conflict is characterized by:• Tension• Mistrust• Poor communications• Intense emotions• Unclear goals• Confusion over roles

Conflict:• tends to polarize and paralyze the parties involved.• is normal.• is not harmful or destructive. It is our reaction to conflict that can be harmful or destructive.

Conflict can arise from a variety of sources:• Poor communication• Differences in attitudes• Differences in beliefs• Differences in expectations• Lack of effective leadership• Lack of effective decision making• Confusion over roles• Confusion about performance measures• Low productivity• Change

• Unresolved prior conflicts

In order to resolve any conflict the parties involved in the conflict must come to some mutually agreeable solution.• Negotiation is the process by which a conflict is resolved in a mutually agreeable manner.

Resolution

SET THE AGENDA- Identify and define the conflict that you are trying to resolve.

A CONFLICT IS A PROBLEM- Problems have solutions.

ESTABLISH YOUR GOALS- Know what you want to accomplish or the outcome you wish to have when the negotiations are completed.

KNOW YOUR WANTS AND NEEDS- There is a difference between what you want and what you need to resolve the conflict.

DO NOT CONFUSE YOUR GOALS WITH THE ISSUES- Goals are the outcome you wish to have. Issues are differences that arise.

KNOW YOUR EMOTIONS- Emotions drive many of our decisions. Identify the emotions that are important to you, especially identify your fears.

MUTUAL PROTECTION IS BETTER THAN MUTUAL DESTRUCTION- Negotiate to find a solution that will benefit all.

SAY “AND” NOT “BUT”- The word “and” ties people together. “But” holds people apart.

RELATIONSHIPS ARE IMPORTANT- Do not destroy the relationship that you have with the other parties who are involved in the conflict in order to accomplish your goal.

AVOID TRYING TO EXERCISE POWER OR CONTROLLING THE PROCESS OF NEGOTIATIONS- Recognize the needs of the other parties involved in the conflict.

DO NOT STEREOTYPE- Recognize people for who they really are, not who you think they are.

DO NOT BARGAIN AGAINST YOURSELF- Wait for a response from the other parties involved in the conflict.

KNOW HOW TO BARGAIN- What you bargain for is important, but how you bargain for it is more important.

IDENTIFY INTERFERENCE- Know what it is that interferes with you meeting your needs.

SEEK A SETTLEMENT- Respond in such a way as to meet your needs and goals.

BE PROACTIVE, NOT REACTIVE- Do not wait for the other parties involved to take the lead in seeking a solution, make a proposal.

BE FLEXIBLE- Be willing to “give” in order to “get”.

SYNTHESIZE- Compromise can be an unacceptable word to some.

IMPASSE- Agree to disagree. Do not agree to be disagreeable

Unit 3: Social Group Work Process

3.1) Social Group Work Process – Introduction- Fr. Charles

3.2) Pre Group & Group Formation - Dhilip

There are different stages in the social group work process:

Pre GroupGroup FormationBeginning phaseMiddle PhaseAdvanced PhaseUse of ProgrammesEvaluation in Groups and Termination Phase

Let us see in detail about each stages:

Pre Group Stage:

It is also called as understanding stage.

It is an assembling process, where members come together

The Group consciousness is very low during this stage.

There is not much of Group feeling

There is lack of participation

There is lack of Enthusiasm

Individuals try to explore the activities of the group

Group Formation Stage:

The group is almost formed completely

Members meet often in the group

There are Signs of Development

Leadership Patterns are visible

Group Feeling starts developing

Members start discussing what to do in the next meeting.

Members start experiencing each other through the activities conducted by the Group Workers.

3.3) Beginning phase & Middle Phase- Francis

Beginning phase:

The first is a stimulating experience for the group. Much depends upon the members’ previous experiences of group. Help members share previous experience. Members are not fully certain about the group purpose. As well as the process- what demands will be placed on them. At the beginning there is a caution and tentativeness about the expectation about each other persons. First exchanges are stereotyped. We often feel that we are the only ones, we alone have with our problems, knowing that others have same problems encourages us and gives strength. It is the stage in which members try to find a place to themselves in a group. Group worker serves as a model for disclosing characteristic about them. They fear disclosure, fear of getting too close. Because it makes them vulnerable. Pattern developed are affectionate acceptance, rejection, alliances and sub group, status rating leader/follower pattern.

Objective of this stage:

1) Introduce the members and make them comfortable.2) State the purpose and functions of group and the agency.3) Balance task and social emotional aspects of the group process.4) Provide opportunity and climate for feedback about the fit between their needs

and the worker’s view of their need and the services provided.5) Setting goals contracting 6) Motivation expectation of the group.

Introduction can be done by self introduction, round robin, dividing into pairs, top secret, treasure hunt pick an animal (games)

Purpose of group: Worker makes statement about the purpose of the group, discuss confidentiality.

Members come together with the purpose of helping each other. The group feeling starts developing through some preliminary exercise opportunities are provided for the members to participate, interact and inter relate with each other. Members start accepting their roles in the group as well as other members in the group. Exploration within the group takes place.

Middle Phase:

The group has slowly picked up the momentum. There are rules and regulations, which guides the proceeding in the group. Group norms are formed. Members’ behavior is regulated by the group norms. The members are well aware of every other member in the group. There may be sub group in this stage. The group is open for interaction and criticism.

3.4) Advanced Phase, Use of Programmes- Gnanraj

3.5) Evaluation in Groups and Termination Phase- Hoshang

Evaluation stage:

THE WORKER ATTEMPTS TO MEASURE THE QUALITY OF A GROUP. Through evaluation the worker and the members know the extent to which they are accomplishing their objectives. The individuals as well as the group as the whole should be evaluated. The following factors should be evaluated.

The characteristics (age, sex, and other demographic details) of the group. Evaluate whether the formation of the group was genuine and the right members were grouped properly.

Evaluate the individual members attitude, behaviour and characteristics. Evaluate the group relationship. Evaluate group programme planning Evaluate the programme implementation process Evaluate the outcome of the programme Evaluate the participatory level of the members Evaluate the group resources Evaluate the role of group worker Evaluate the ability of the group to relate with other groups

Termination stage:

The group worker and the group when feel that the group has obtained the desired change then the group work intervention should be terminated. Termination is that stage when the group has become self sufficient. Termination can be done when the following is reached:-

There is a desired change in the individual attitude and behavior. There is a desired change in the group interpersonal relationship. There is desired outcome of the programmes are obtained. The group feels that they can be independent and no longer need the support from the

group worker. The group worker feels that the group has shown the desired changes towards growth

and development.

3.6) Conclusion – Summarizing the unit- Ezhil

As far as conclusion is concerned the social group work process consists of the following;

1. Pre -  group2. Group  formation3. Begining phase4. Middle phase5. Advanced phase6. Uses of programes7. Evaluation in groups8. Termination phase

                      Hence these are the different aspects of the social group work process and they act in forming the social group as well. the various points given here was the major steps for social group process. this tells the divisions of the group and its origin.the uses of programmes also included with the group work process.

Unit 4: Recording in Group Work

4.1) Recording in Group Work- Nagendra

4.2) Different types of recording in relation to Groups -- Ranjith

Recording is down to recall the information for future reference. It helps to evaluate the programs that are conducted. Recording is very use full for research in that topic, learn, development etc.

Different Type Of Recording

Individual Records

Individual recording is the recording related to the personnel information like age, name etc.

Narrative Records

It is the recording as the meeting goes on. This is a recording that is done while the meeting is happening simultaneously taking notes.

Summary Records

These records contain the main points of a meeting that is already conducted. That is, it is the summary of the main points.

4.3) Process, Block Summaries and Summary- Malini

Types of Recording a) Individual records

Identification of particulars such as age, sex and family background are recorded. Personality pattern, strengths and weaknesses are recorded.

b) Narrative/ process Records:Detailed recording is needed. Details of date, time, place, members present, absent is recorded. Narrate how the members came together, their reactions and interactions. Narrate the activities conducted and it’s influence on the members. The worker should interpret the individual behavior and record it. Details obtained from collateral contacts, future plans of next programs should be recorded.Narrative recording:In this kind of record each meeting of the group is described in full detail. It is a process records in the sense that primary attention. It is a tool for improvement of group worker to do more effectively join with the group. This helps in improving the quality of experience provided for the group. These help the worker see emerging and changing interest of individual, he can see the evolving needs and how these needs are to be met. He can develop skills and attitudes. Records show the worker the variety of patterns of interpersonal relationships which shape the group acceptance of the individual by the group is reflected by this change in status which can be discovered from records. This development of the workers relations are role can be ascertained attention should be focused upon the status of the group in the agency and in the community as inter group.

c) Summary recording: It is a selective recording. It is useful for self evaluation and appraisal. The whole process of group work is recorded in a summary.

Types of group: Purpose of group Meeting group Frequency of group Average attendance Nature of work done Evaluation

) Group Leadership- Nithyanandhan

Leadership is concerned with control and power in a group. Leadership can be aimed at either maintaining the interpersonal relationships in the group or prodding the group to achieve its task. Groups will sometimes have two leaders: one for the social dimension and one for the task dimension. There are also three main perspectives on leadership. First, some researchers believe some people are born with traits that will make them a good leader. A second perspective is that the group's leader selects an appropriate leadership style for the given task. A third way of understaning leadership says that to some degree, leaders are born with traits that make them good leaders, but that they also learn how to become a leader and use strategies appropriate to a given situation. Learn more about leadership and then complete

the interactive exercise at the end of the discussion. The mission of the Leadership Group is to improve the effectiveness of nonprofit organizations by providing state-of-the-art consulting and training services.

We have been in business since 1994 working with nonprofits to increase their accountability, strengthen their governance strucuture and plan for their unique future. The Leadership Group only works with nonprofit organizations and brings years of hands-on experience to each task. We know what it takes to create change, we've done it ourselves as past executives of nonprofit organizations. We are sensitive to the unique challenges faced by nonprofit staffs and boards and know that time is a very scarce and treasured commodity.

We believe that nonprofit organizations must have a strategic focus, clear mission and measurable results. They also need effective staff leadership, sound business practices and a board that governs effectively. We have real-life expertise in all the above and can help you move your mission forward.

The Leadership Group takes pride in customizing our approach to your unique needs. We need to hear your "story" before we can develop a customized proposal to meet your needs.

4.5) Concepts, Theories and types, roles - Mamoon

What is Leadership?Leadership involves a variety of skills. Leaders must have skills in communicating effectively, listening actively, working with people, and helping others work together in groups. Leaders must have integrity and honesty. Good leaders must first learn to be good followers. Leaders do not dominate a group, but lead by their actions

Leadership needs change with the situation, thus different people can lead at different times. The best leaders take on many different roles to support the needs of the group. True leaders focus on helping their group achieve its goals rather than on their own personal recognition

the process of leading.those entities that perform one or more acts of leading.the ablity to affect human behaviour so as to accomplish a mission designated by the leader.

Definition of Leadership:Leadership defined as "the ability of an individual to influence , motivate,and enable

other to contribute toward the effectiveness andsucess of the organisation of which they are member ".

Organizationally, leadership directly impacts the effectiveness of the cost ,revenue generation,service,satisfaction,earnings,marketvalue,shareprice,socialcapital,motivation,engagement,and sustainability. Leadership is the ability of an individual to ser rules for others and lead from the front.It is an attitude that influences the enviroment around us.

maintaining a questioning attitude bolstering confidence in one's own decision-making abilities seeking independent verfication through appropriate measurement and reporting

infrastructures

Categories and types of leadership One can categorize the exercise of leadership as either actual or potential:

actual-giving guidance or direction as in the phrase "the emperor has provided satisfactory lesdership"

potential-the capacity or ability to lead,as in the phrase "she could have exercised effective leadership" or in the concept"born to lead"

In both cades as a result of the constancy of change some people detect within the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the act of learning appears fundamental to certain types of leading and leadership. When learning and leadership coalesce, one could characterize this as "learnership"

Leader ship can have a formal aspect (as in most political or business leadership) or an informal one (as in most friendships). Speaking of "leadership" (the abstract term) rather than of "leading" (the action) usually implies that the entities doing the leading have some "leadership skills" or competencies.

ROLES

1. Task Leadership Roles which help the group accomplish its tasks and get the job done

2. Group Building and Maintenance Roles which help the group develop and maintain good working relationships, effective team work and high morale among the group's members

Helpful Task Leadership Behaviors include:• Initiating activities • Asking for or giving information• Asking for opinions from others or giving one's own opinion• Clarifying or summarizing what's been said or agreed to• Keeping the group focused and on track• Testing for consensus on an issue• Analyzing or evaluating alternatives.

Helpful Group Building/Maintenance Leadership Behaviors include:• Encouraging individuals or the group as a whole• "Gatekeeping" (i.e., managing the communications flow and ensuring thatall group members have a chance to speak)• Active listening• Acknowledging the contributions of others• Mediating differences of opinion; managing conflict• Agreeing with others' ideas• Relieving tension• Diagnosing and expressing group feelings

All of these behaviors are group oriented--when used appropriately, they help

the group accomplish its goals and make everyone feel good about being amember of the group.

Leadership theories

Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:

1. “Great Man” Theories: Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.2. Trait Theories: Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories, trait theory assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.3. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.4. Situational Theories: Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.5. Behavioral Theories: Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.6. Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.7. Management Theories: Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.8. Relationship Theories: Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.

4.6) Qualities of Leadership, participatory, Leadership Training - Praveeen

LeadershipThe word leadership can refer to:

1. Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading.2. The ability to affect human behavior so as to accomplish a mission.3. Influencing a group of people to move towards its goal setting or goal achievement.

(Stogdill 1950: 3)

A leader is simply someone who has followers.

Contents 1 Categories and types of leadership

o 1.1 Types of leadership styles 2 Leadership associated with positions of authority

o 2.1 Representative democracyo 2.2 Leadership cycleso 2.3 Titles emphasizing authorityo 2.4 Symbolism of leadership

3 Scope of leadership 4 Leadership in organizations

o 4.1 Leadership in formal organizationso 4.2 Leadership in informal organizationso 4.3 Leader in organizations

5 Orthogonality and leadership 6 Support-structures for leadership 7 Determining what makes "effective leadership"

o 7.1 Suggested qualities of leadershipo 7.2 Leadership "styles" (per House and Podsakoff)

8 Leadership and vision 9 Leadership's relation with management 10 Leadership by a group

o 10.1 Orpheus orchestra 11 Historical views on leadership 12 Alternatives to leadership 13 See also 14 References

o 14.1 General references

Categories and types of leadership

Leadership has a formal aspect (as in most political or business leadership) or an informal one (as in most friendships). Speaking of "leadership" (the abstract term) rather than of "leading" (the action) usually it implies that the entities doing the leading have some "leadership skills" or competencies.

Types of leadership styles

The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905)[1] is very structured and follows the procedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no space to explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority. Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustration and anxiety.

The charismatic leader (Weber, 1905)[1] leads by infusing energy and eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to the organization for the long run. If the success of the division or project is attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk for the company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of a charismatic leader.

The autocratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)[2] is given the power to make decisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good for employees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative employees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable to enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction.

The democratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)[2] listens to the team's ideas and studies them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are needed in a short period of time or at the moment.

The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)[2] gives no continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that don’t lead at all, failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs, bad service or failure to meet deadlines.

The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967)[3] is the one that, in order to comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job.

The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967)[3] focuses on the job, and concentrates on the specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership, showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and control to achieve expected results. Another

name for this is deal maker (Rowley & Roevens, 1999)[4] and is linked to a first phase in managing Change, enhance, according to the Organize with Chaos approach.

The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977)[5] facilitates goal accomplishment by giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles, although employee engagement is higher.

The transaction leader (Burns, 1978)[6] is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team’s performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.

The transformation leader (Burns, 1978)[6] motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the company’s vision.

The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005)[7] is the one who nurtures group or organisational environment to affect the emotional and psychological perception of an individual’s place in that group or organisation. An understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for this style to be effective. The leader uses organisational culture to inspire individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all.

Leadership associated with positions of authority

According to Thomas Carlyle, leadership emerges when an entity as "leader" contrives to receive deference from other entities who become "followers". The process of getting deference can become competitive in that the emerging "leader" draws "followers" from the factions of the prior or alternative "leaders". [8]

Representative democracy

In representative democracies the people retain sovereignty (popular sovereignty) but delegate day-to-day administration and leadership to elected officials. In the United States,

for example, the Constitution provides an example of recycling authority. In the Constitutional Convention of 1787, the American Founders rejected the idea of a monarch, but they still proposed leadership by people in positions of authority, with the authority split into three powers: in this case the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary. Under the American theory, the authority of the leadership derives from the power of the voters as conveyed through the electoral college. Many individuals share authority, including the many legislators in the Senate and the House of Representatives. [1]

Leadership cycles

If a group or an organization wants or expects identifiable leadership, it will require processes for appointing/acquiring and replacing leaders.

Traditional closed groups rely on bloodlines or seniority to select leaders and/or leadership candidates: monarchies, tribal chiefdoms, oligarchies and aristocratic societies rely on (and often define their institutions by) such methods.

Competence or perceived competence provides a possible basis for selecting leadership elites from a broader pool of potential talent. Political lobbying may prove necessary in electoral systems, but immediately demonstrated skill and character may secure leadership in smaller groups such as gangs.

Many organizations and groups aim to identify, grow, foster and promote what they see as leadership potential or ability - especially among younger members of society. See for example the Scouting movement. For a specific environment, see leadership development.

The issues of succession planning or of legitimation become important at times when leadership (particularly individual leadership) might or must change due to term-expiry, accident or senescence.

Titles emphasizing authority

At certain stages in their development, the hierarchies of social ranks implied different degrees or ranks of leadership in society. Thus a knight led fewer men in general than did a duke; a baronet might in theory control less land than an earl. See peerage for a systematization of this hierarchy, and order of precedence for links to various systems.

In the course of the 18th and 20th centuries, several political operators took non-traditional paths to become dominant in their societies. They or their systems often expressed a belief in strong individual leadership, but existing titles and labels ("King", "Emperor", "President" and so on) often seemed inappropriate, insufficient or downright inaccurate in some circumstances. The formal or informal titles or descriptions they or their flunkies employe express and foster a general veneration for leadership of the inspired and autocratic variety. The definite article when used as part of the title (in languages which use definite articles) emphasizes the existence of a sole "true" leader.

Symbolism of leadership

Various symbolic attributes — often varying according to the cultural milieu — mark out authority-figures and help make them seem special and revered or feared.

Scope of leadership

One can govern oneself, or one can govern the whole earth. In between, we may find leaders who operate primarily within:

youth families bands tribes organizations states and nations empires

Intertwined with such categories, and overlapping them, we find for example religious leaders potentially with their own internal hierarchies,work-place leaders=corporate officer|executives,senior management-senior/upper managers; middle management|middle managers, staff-managers, line-managers,team leader, supervisors and leaders of voluntary associations.

Some anthropological ideas envisage a widespread but by no means universal pattern of progression in the organization of society in ever-larger groups,with the needs and practices of leadership changing accordingly. Thus simple dispute resolution may become legalistic dispensation of justice before developing into proactive legislature/legislative activity. Some leadership careers parallel this sort of progression: today's school-board chairperson may become tomorrow's city councilor, then take in say a mayor dom before graduating to nation-wide politics. Compare the "cursus honorum" in ancient Rome.

Leadership in organizationsLeadership in formal organizations

An organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Each employee receives a salary and enjoys a degree of tenure that safeguards him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position. [9]

Leadership in informal organizations

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal

organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.

In prehistoric times, man was preoccupied with his personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now man spends a major portion of his waking hours working for organizations. His need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.[10]

Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.[10]

Leader in organizations

A leader is anyone who influences a group toward obtaining a particular result. It is not dependant on title or formal authority. (elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar). An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However, he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority.[10] Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.[11]

Orthogonality and leadership

Those who praise leadership may encounter problems in implementing consistent leadership structures. For example, a pyramidal structure in which authority consistently emanates from the summit can stifle initiative and leave no path for grooming future leaders in the ranks of subordinate levels. Similarly, a belief in universal direct democracy may become unwieldy, and a system consisting of nothing but representative leaders may well become stymied in committees.

Thus many leadership systems promote different rules for different levels of leadership. Hereditary autocrats meet in the United Nations on equal representative terms with elected governments in a collegial leadership. Or individual local democracies may assign some of their powers to temporary dictators in emergencies, as in ancient Rome. Hierarchies intermingle with equality of opportunity at different levels.

Support-structures for leadership

Charisma and personality alone can work miracles, yet most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and executive agents who carry out and monitor the expressed or filtered-down will of the leader. This undercutting of the importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the existence of the follower: compare followership. A more or less formal bureaucracy (in the Weberian sense) can throw up a colorless nonentity as an entirely effective leader: this phenomenon may occur (for example) in a politburo environment. Bureaucratic organizations can also raise incompetent people to levels of leadership (see Peter Principle).

In modern dynamic environments formal bureaucratic organizations have started to become less common because of their inability to deal with fast-changing circumstances. Most modern business organizations (and some government departments) encourage what they see as "leadership skills" and reward identified potential leaders with promotions.

The foundational support structure for leadership will be the organizations Corporate culture, this is where the structure of the environment either supports or degrades a leaders potential. A leaders ability to influence Organizational culture will be directly related to the results they achieve.

In a potential down-side to this sort of development, a big-picture grand-vision leader may foster another sort of hierarchy: a fetish of leadership amongst subordinate sub-leaders, encouraged to seize resources for their own sub-empires and to apply to the supreme leader only for ultimate arbitration.

Some leaders build coalitions and alliances: political parties abound with this type of leader. Still others depend on rapport with the masses: they labor on the shop-floor or stand in the front-line of battle, leading by example.

Determining what makes "effective leadership"

Leadership maintains its effectiveness sometimes by natural succession according to established rules, and sometimes by the imposition of brute force.

The simplest way to measure the effectiveness of leadership involves evaluating the size of the following that the leader can muster. By this standard, Adolf Hitler became a very effective leader for a period — even if through delusional promises and coercive techniques. However, this approach may measure power rather than leadership. To measure leadership more specifically, one may assess the extent of influence on the followers, that is, the amount of leading. Within an organizational context this means financially valuing productivity. Effective leaders generate higher productivity, lower costs, and more opportunities than ineffective leaders. Effective leaders create results, attain goal, realize vision, and other objectives more quickly and at a higher level of quality than ineffective leaders.

James MacGregor Burns introduced a normative element: an effective Burnsian leader will unite followers in a shared vision that will improve an organization and society at large. Burns calls leadership that delivers "true" value, integrity, and trust transformational leadership. He distinguishes such leadership from "mere" transactional leadership that builds power by doing whatever will get more followers. [2] But problems arise in quantifying the

transformational quality of leadership - evaluation of that quality seems more difficult to quantify than merely counting the followers that the straw man of transactional leadership James MacGregor Burns has set as a primary standard for effectiveness. Thus transformational leadership requires an evaluation of quality, independent of the market demand that exhibits in the number of followers.

Current assessments of transformational and transactional leadership commonly make use of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), developed by Bass and Avolio in 1990 and revised in 1995. It measures five dimensions of transformational leadership:

1. idealized influence - attributions2. idealized influence - behaviors3. inspirational motivation4. individualized consideration5. intellectual stimulation

The three dimensions of transactional leadership measured by the MLQ[citation needed] cover:

1. contingent reward2. management by exception (active)3. management by exception (passive)

The functional leadership model conceives leadership as a set of behaviors that helps a group perform a task, reach their goal, or perform their function. In this model, effective leaders encourage functional behaviors and discourage dysfunctional ones.

In the path-goal model of leadership, developed jointly by Martin Evans and Robert House and based on the "Expectancy Theory of Motivation", a leader has the function of clearing the path toward the goal(s) of the group, by meeting the needs of subordinates.

Some commentators use the metaphor of an orchestral conductor to describe the quality of the leadership process. An effective leader resembles an orchestra conductor in some ways. He/she has to somehow get a group of potentially diverse and talented people - many of whom have strong personalities - to work together toward a common output. Will the conductor harness and blend all the gifts his or her players possess? Will the players accept the degree of creative expression they have? Will the audience enjoy the sound they make? The conductor may have a clear determining influence on all of these questions.

Suggested qualities of leadership

Studies of leadership have suggested qualities that people often associate with leadership. They include:

Technical/specific skill at some task at hand Charismatic inspiration - attractiveness to others and the ability to leverage this

esteem to motivate others Preoccupation with a role - a dedication that consumes much of leaders' life - service

to a cause A clear sense of purpose (or mission) - clear goals - focus - commitment

Results-orientation - directing every action towards a mission - prioritizing activities to spend time where results most accrue

Cooperation - work well with others Optimism - very few pessimists become leaders Rejection of determinism - belief in one's ability to "make a difference" Ability to encourage and nurture those that report to them - delegate in such a way as

people will grow Role models - leaders may adopt a persona that encapsulates their mission and lead

by example Self-knowledge (in non-bureaucratic structures) Self-awareness - the ability to "lead" (as it were) one's own self prior to leading other

selves similarly Awareness of environment - the ability to understand the environment they lead in

and how they affect and are affected by it With regards to people and to projects, the ability to choose winners - recognizing

that, unlike with skills, one cannot (in general) teach attitude. Note that "picking winners" ("choosing winners") carries implications of gamblers' luck as well as of the capacity to take risks, but "true" leaders, like gamblers but unlike "false" leaders, base their decisions on realistic insight (and usually on many other factors partially derived from "real" wisdom).

Empathy - Understanding what others say, rather than listening to how they say things - this could partly sum this quality up as "walking in someone else's shoes" (to use a common cliché).

Integrity - the integration of outward actions and inner values. Sense of Humour - people work better when they're happy.

In 2008 Burman and Evans[12] published a 'charter' for leaders:

1. Leading by example in accordance with the company’s core values.2. Building the trust and confidence of the people with which they work.3. Continually seeking improvement in their methods and effectiveness.4. Keeping people informed.5. Being accountable for their actions and holding others accountable for theirs.6. Involving people, seeking their views, listening actively to what they have to say and

representing these views honestly.7. Being clear on what is expected, and providing feedback on progress.8. Showing tolerance of people’s differences and dealing with their issues fairly.9. Acknowledging and recognizing people for their contributions and performance.10. Weighing alternatives, considering both short and long-term effects and then being

resolute in the decisions they make.

The approach of listing leadership qualities, often termed "trait theory of leadership", assumes certain traits or characteristics will tend to lead to effective leadership. Although trait theory has an intuitive appeal, difficulties may arise in proving its tenets, and opponents frequently challenge this approach. The "strongest" versions of trait theory see these "leadership characteristics" as innate, and accordingly labels some people as "born leaders" due to their psychological makeup. On this reading of the theory, leadership development involves identifying and measuring leadership qualities, screening potential leaders from non-leaders, then training those with potential.

David McClelland saw leadership skills, not so much as a set of traits, but as a pattern of motives. He claimed that successful leaders will tend to have a high need for power, a low need for affiliation, and a high level of what he called activity inhibition (one might call it self-control).

Situational leadership theory offers an alternative approach. It proceeds from the assumption that different situations call for different characteristics. According to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. The situational leadership model of Hersey and Blanchard, for example, suggest four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of followership-development. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well. Other situational leadership models introduce a variety of situational variables. These determinants include:

the nature of the task (structured or routine) organizational policies, climate, and culture the preferences of the leader's superiors the expectations of peers the reciprocal responses of followers

The contingency model of Vroom and Yetton uses other situational variables, including:

the nature of the problem the requirements for accuracy the acceptance of an initiative time-constraints cost constraints

However one determines leadership behavior, one can categorize it into various leadership styles. Many ways of doing this exist. For example, the Managerial Grid Model, a behavioral leadership-model, suggests five different leadership styles, based on leaders' strength of concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.

Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and R. K. White identified three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire, based on the amount of influence and power exercised by the leader.

The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader’s effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorableness (later called "situational control").

Leadership "styles" (per House and Podsakoff)

In 1994 House and Podsakoff attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches of "outstanding leaders" that they obtained from some more modern theories and research findings. These leadership behaviors and approaches do not constitute specific styles, but cumulatively they probably[citation needed] characterize the most effective style of today's leaders/managers. The listed leadership "styles" cover:

1. Vision. Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision congruent with the deeply-held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have an alleged moral right.

2. Passion and self-sacrifice. Leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, what they regard as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and mission.

3. Confidence, determination, and persistence. Outstanding leaders display a high degree of faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they articulate. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the status quo and, therefore, may offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order.

4. Image-building. House and Podsakoff regard outstanding leaders as self-conscious about their own image. They recognize the desirability of followers perceiving them as competent, credible, and trustworthy.

5. Role-modeling. Leader-image-building sets the stage for effective role-modeling because followers identify with the values of role models whom they perceived in positive terms.

6. External representation. Outstanding leaders act as spokespersons for their respective organizations and symbolically represent those organizations to external constituencies.

7. Expectations of and confidence in followers. Outstanding leaders communicate expectations of high performance from their followers and strong confidence in their followers’ ability to meet such expectations.

8. Selective motive-arousal. Outstanding leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that the outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission.

9. Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement change, outstanding leaders engage in "frame alignment". This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers’ interests, values, and beliefs, as well as the leader’s activities, goals, and ideology, becomes congruent and complementary.

10. Inspirational communication. Outstanding leaders often, but not always, communicate their message in an inspirational manner using vivid stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies.

Even though these ten leadership behaviors and approaches do not really equate to specific styles, evidence has started to accumulate[citation needed] that a leader’s style can make a difference. Style becomes the key to the formulation and implementation of strategy[citation

needed] and plays an important role in work-group members’ activity and in team citizenship. Little doubt exists that the way (style) in which leaders influence work-group members can make a difference in their own and their people’s performance[citation needed].

(Adopted from: Robert House and Philip M. Podsakoff, "Leadership Effectiveness: Past Perspectives and Future Directions for Research" in Greenberg, Jerald ed.),pp. 45-82 Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science, Hillsdale, NJ, England: Erlbaum Associates, Inc, 1994. x, 312 pp. .)

Leadership and vision

Many definitions of leadership involve an element of Goal management|vision — except in cases of involuntary leadership and often in cases of traditional leadership. A vision provides direction to the influence process. A leader or group of leaders can have one or more visions of the future to aid them to move a group successfully towards this goal. A vision, for effectiveness, should allegedly:

appear as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of the leader describe a future state, credible and preferable to the present state act as a bridge between the current state and a future optimum state appear desirable enough to energize followers succeed in speaking to followers at an emotional or spiritual level (logical appeals by

themselves seldom muster a following)

For leadership to occur, according to this theory, some people "leaders" must communicate the vision to others "followers" in such a way that the followers adopt the vision as their own. Leaders must not just see the vision themselves, they must have the ability to get others to see it also. Numerous techniques aid in this process, including: narratives, metaphors, symbolic actions, leading by example,incentives, and penalty|penalties.

Stacey (1992) has suggested that the emphasis on vision puts an unrealistic burden on the leader. Such emphasis appears to perpetuate the myth that an organization must depend on a single, uncommonly talented individual to decide what to do. Stacey claims that this fosters a culture of dependency and conformity in which followers take no pro-active incentives and do not think independently.

Kanungo's charismatic leadership model describes the role of the vision in three stages that are continuously ongoing, overlapping one another. Assessing the status quo, formulation and articulation of the vision, and implementation of the vision.

Leadership's relation with management

Some commentators link leadership closely with the idea of management. Some regard the two as synonymous, and others consider management a subset of leadership. If one accepts this premise, one can view leadership as:

centralized or decentralized broad or focused decision-oriented or morale-centred intrinsic or derived from some authority

Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to management style could also apply to leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard use this approach: they claim that management merely consists of leadership applied to business situations; or in other words: management forms a sub-set of the broader process of leadership. They put it this way: "Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason.Management is a kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount."

However, a clear distinction between management and leadership may nevertheless prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and management, implying that an effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an effective leader should demonstrate management skills. One clear distinction could provide the following definition:

Management involves power by position. Leadership involves power by influence.

Abraham Zaleznik (1977),for example, delineated differences between leadership and management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned about substance; while managers he views as planners who have concerns with process.Warren Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups:

Managers administer, leaders innovate Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people Managers do things right, leaders do the right things Managers maintain, leaders develop Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer-term perspective Managers accept the status-quo, leaders challenge the status-quo Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon Managers imitate, leaders originate Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person Managers copy, leaders show originality

Paul Birch (1999) also sees a distinction between leadership and management. He observed that, as a broad generalization, managers concerned themselves with tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Birch does not suggest that leaders do not focus on "the task." Indeed, the things that characterise a great leader include the fact that they achieve. Effective leaders create and sustain competitive advantage through the attainment of cost leadership, revenue leadership, time leadership, and market value leadership. Managers typically follow and realize a leader's vision. The difference lies in the leader realising that the achievement of the task comes about through the goodwill and support of others (influence), while the manager may not.

This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as another resource for deployment in support of "the task". The manager often has the role of organizing resources to get something done. People form one of these resources, and many of the worst managers treat people as just another interchangeable item. A leader has the role of causing others to follow a path he/she has laid out or a vision he/she has articulated in order to achieve a task. Often, people see the task as subordinate to the vision. For instance, an organization might have the overall task of generating profit, but a good leader may see profit as a by-product that flows from whatever aspect of their vision differentiates their company from the competition.

Leadership does not only manifest itself as purely a business phenomenon. Many people can think of an inspiring leader they have encountered who has nothing whatever to do with

business: a politician, an officer in the armed forces, a Scout or Guide leader, a teacher, etc. Similarly, management does not occur only as a purely business phenomenon. Again, we can think of examples of people that we have met who fill the management niche in non-business organisationsNon-business organizations should find it easier to articulate a non-money-driven inspiring vision that will support true leadership. However, often this does not occur.

Differences in the mix of leadership and management can define various management styles. Some management styles tend to de-emphasize leadership. Included in this group one could include participatory management, democratic management, and collaborative management styles. Other management styles, such as authoritarian management, micro-management, and top-down management, depend more on a leader to provide direction. Note, however, that just because an organisation has no single leader giving it direction, does not mean it necessarily has weak leadership. In many cases group leadership (multiple leaders) can prove effective. Having a single leader (as in dictatorship) allows for quick and decisive decision-making when needed as well as when not needed. Group decision-making sometimes earns the derisive label "committee-itis" because of the longer times required to make decisions, but group leadership can bring more expertise, experience, and perspectives through a democratic process.

Patricia Pitcher (1994) has challenged the bifurcation into leaders and managers. She used a factor analysis (in marketing)factor analysis technique on data collected over 8 years, and concluded that three types of leaders exist, each with very different psychological profiles:'Artists' imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial, intuitive, daring, and emotional Craftsmen: well-balanced, steady, reasonable, sensible, predictable, and trustworthy Technocrats: cerebral, detail-oriented, fastidious, uncompromising, and hard-headed She speculates that no one profile offers a preferred leadership style. She claims that if we want to build, we should find an "artist leader" if we want to solidify our position, we should find a "craftsman leader" and if we have an ugly job that needs to get done like downsizing.we should find a "technocratic leader".Pitcher also observed that a balanced leader exhibiting all three sets of traits occurs extremely rarely: she found none in her study.

Bruce Lynn postulates a differentiation between 'Leadership' and ‘Management’ based on perspectives to risk. Specifically,"A Leader optimises upside opportunity; a Manager minimises downside risk." He argues that successful executives need to apply both disciplines in a balance appropriate to the enterprise and its context. Leadership without Management yields steps forward, but as many if not more steps backwards. Management without Leadership avoids any step backwards, but doesn’t move forward.

Leadership by a group

In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive - either by draining the resources of the group as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team, even unintentionally.

A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional teams. A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project. A team

structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more commonly uses rotating leadership. The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s). According to Ogbonnia (2007), "effective leadership is the ability to successfully integrate and maximize available resources within the internal and external environment for the attainment of organizational or societal goals". Ogbonnia defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be recognized as meeting the expectations of an organization or society."

Orpheus orchestra

For example, the Orpheus orchestra has performed for over thirty years without a conductor -- that is, without a sole leader. As a team of over 25 members, it has drawn discriminating audiences, and has produced over 60 recordings for Deutsche Grammophon in successful competition with other world-class orchestras.[3]

Rather than an autocratic or charismatic conductor deciding the overall conception of a work and then dictating how each individual is to perform the individual tasks, the Orpheus team generally selects a different "core group" for each piece of music. The core group provides leadership in working out the details of the piece, and presents their ideas to the whole team. Members of the whole team then participate in refining the final conception, rehearsal, and product, including checking from various places in the auditorium how the sound balances and verifying the quality of the final recording.

At times the entire Orpheus team may follow a single leader, but whom the team follows rotates from task to task, depending on the capabilities of its members.

The orchestra has developed seminars and training sessions for adapting the Orpheus Process to business.[4]

Historical views on leadership

Sanskrit literature identifies ten types of leaders. Defining characteristics of the ten types of leaders are explained with examples from history and mythology.[13]

Aristocratic thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's blue blood or genes: monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction: see the divine right of kings. Contrariwise, more democratically-inclined theorists have pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent.

In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater familias. Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may damn such models as patriarchal and posit against them emotionally-attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance and matriarchies.

Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on "right living" relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.

In On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History, Thomas Carlyle demonstrated the concept of leadership associated with a position of authority. In praising Oliver Cromwell's use of power to bring King Charles I to trial and eventual beheading, he wrote the following: "Let us remark, meanwhile, how indispensable everywhere a King is, in all movements of men. It is strikingly shown, in this very War, what becomes of men when they cannot find a Chief Man, and their enemies can." [8]

Within the context of Islam, views on the nature, scope and inheritance of leadership have played a major role in shaping sects and their history. See caliphate.

In the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. (Note that the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as the 19th century.) One response to this denial of élitism came with Leninism, which demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as the vanguard of a socialist revolution, bringing into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources - human and material - and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare servant leadership.

For a more general take on leadership in politics, compare the concept of the statesman.

The great traits that a leader must have, have been debated over time, and most people agree that these are the five key traits. You must have a vision. We've all heard the saying "You must stand for something, or you'll fall for everything." But what does that really mean? Standing firm when it comes to your company's policies and procedures is all well and good, but it doesn't speak to having a vision. As a leader, you have to learn to communicate your vision or the vision of your company to the people you want to follow you. You must have passion, you have to show your team that you want to accomplish the goal as badly as they do, your passion will drive them. You must learn to be a great decision maker. Sometimes, leaders must face times of pressure where they are forced to make quick decisions, a great leader must have this skill. You must be a team builder. To become a great leader, you must first make your team great, you must have the power to give your team responsibilities, and trust them too, you must slowly make them greater and greater. You must have character. Without character, all the other "keys" are for naught. That's because your innate character strengths and limitations play a critical role in your leadership style. The real question is, are you aware of just what role they play? All great leaders have taken steps to learn about their individual personality and what part it plays in their leadership style.

Alternatives to leadership

Within groups, alternatives to leadership include using decision-making structures such as co-operative ventures, collegiality, consensus, anarchism and applied democracy. One can downplay the ubiquitous idea of leadership by using structures such as information clearing houses or stressing functions such as administration. Note the different implications and connotations of the two phrases "coalition of the willing" and "US-led coalition". The

Orpheus Chamber Orchestra, which practices a form of distributed leadership, provides a textbook example of alternative leadership.

Situational leadership theory

Situational leadership theories in organizational studies are a type of leadership theory, leadership style, and leadership model that presumes that different leadership styles are better in different situations, and that leaders must be flexible enough to adapt their style to the situation they are in.

A good situational leader is one who can quickly change leadership styles as the situation changes. Most of us attempt to do this in our dealings with people: we try not to get angry with a new employee, and we remind forgetful people. The model doesn't apply only to people in leadership or management positions; all people lead others at work, at play, and at home.

Contentso 1.1 Leadership styleso 1.2 Development levelso 1.3 Leadership and development matchingo 1.4 SL II

The Hersey and Blanchard model

As a leadership model, the best known example was developed by Paul Hersey, a professor who wrote a well known book "Situational Leader" and Ken Blanchard, the management guru who later became famous for his "One Minute Manager" series. They created a model of situational leadership in the late 1960s in their work Management of Organizational Behavior (now in its 9th edition) that allows one to analyze the needs of the situation, then adopt the most appropriate leadership style. It has been proven popular with managers over the years because it is simple to understand, and it works in most environments for most people.

The model rests on two fundamental concepts; leadership style, and development level.

Leadership styles

Blanchard and Hersey characterized leadership style in terms of the amount of direction and support that the leader provides to their followers. They categorized all leadership styles into four behavior types, which they named S1 to S4:

S1: Directing/Telling Leaders define the roles and tasks of the 'follower', and supervise them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one-way.

S2: Coaching/Selling Leaders still define roles and tasks, but seek ideas and suggestions from the follower. Decisions remain the leader's prerogative, but communication is much more two-way.

S3: Supporting/Participating Leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is with the follower.

S4: Delegating Leaders are still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with the follower. The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved.

Of these, no one style is considered optimal or desired for all leaders to possess. Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt themselves according to the situation. However, each leader tends to have a natural style, and in applying Situational Leadership he must know his intrinsic style.

Development levels

The right leadership style will depend on the person being led - the follower. Blanchard and Hersey extended their model to include the Development Level of the follower. They stated that the leader's chosen style should be based on the competence and commitment of her followers. They categorized the possible development of followers into four levels, which they named D1 to D4:

D1: Low Competence, High Commitment - They generally lack the specific skills required for the job in hand. However, they are eager to learn and willing to take direction.

D2: Some Competence, Low Commitment - They may have some relevant skills, but won't be able to do the job without help. The task or the situation may be new to them.

D3: High Competence, Variable Commitment - They are experienced and capable, but may lack the confidence to go it alone, or the motivation to do it well or quickly.

D4: High Competence, High Commitment - They are experienced at the job, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They may even be more skilled than the leader.

Development Levels are also situational. I might be generally skilled, confident and motivated in my job, but would still drop into Level D1 when faced, say, with a task requiring skills they don't possess. For example, many managers are D4 when dealing with the day-to-day running of their department, but move to D1 or D2 when dealing with a sensitive employee "issue"

The development level is now called the performance readiness level (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson, 2008). It is based on the Development levels and adapted from Hersey's Situational Selling and Ron Campbell of the Center for Leadership Studies has expanded the continuum of follower performance to include behavioral indicators of each readiness level.

R1: Unable and Insecure or Unwilling - Follower is unable and insecure and lacks confidence or the follower lacks commitment and motivation to complete tasks.

R2: Unable but Confident or Willing - Follower is unable to complete tasks but has the confidence as long as the leader provides guidance or the follower lacks the ability but is motivated and making an effort.

R3: Able but Insecure or Unwilling - Follower has the ability to complete tasks but is apprehensive about doing it alone or the follower is not willing to use that ability.

R4: Able and Confident and Willing - Follower has the ability to perform and is confident about doing so and is committed.

Leadership and development matching

Blanchard and Hersey said that the leadership style (S1 - S4) of the leader must correspond to the development level (D1 - D4) of the follower. Furthermore it is the leader who must adapt, not the follower. To get the most of situational leadership, a leader should be trained in how to operate effectively in various leadership styles, and how to determine the development level of others.

For an example of a mismatch, imagine the following scenario. A new person joins your team and you're asked to help him through the first few days. You sit him in front of a PC, show him a pile of invoices that need to be processed today and then excuse yourself to a meeting. He is at level D1, and you've adopted S4, an obvious mismatch. Everyone loses because the new person feels helpless and demotivated and you don't get the invoices processed.

For another example of a mismatch, imagine you're handing over your duties to an experienced colleague before you leave for a holiday. You've listed all the tasks that need to be done and given him a detailed set of instructions on how to carry out each one. He is at level D4, and you've adopted S1. The work will probably get done, but your colleague will despise you for treating him like an idiot.

But leave detailed instructions and a checklist for the new person, and they'll thank you for it. Give your colleague a quick chat and a few notes before you go on holiday, and everything will be fine. By adopting the right style to suit the follower's development level, work gets done, relationships are built, and most importantly, the follower's development level will rise, to everyone's benefit.

SL II

In 1979 Ken Blanchard and wife, Marjorie Blanchard formed a separate company now called The Ken Blanchard Companies where they and a group of founding associates continue to work on further refinements to the original Situational Leadership Model. The development of Situational Leadership® II has been the collaborative work of Blanchard associates over the years (Ken Blanchard, Margie Blanchard, Don Carew, Eunice Parisi-Carew, Fred Finch, Laurie Hawkins, Drea Zigarmi, and Patricia Zigarmi).

The work of Drs. Don Carew and Eunice Parisi-Carew with Group Development theory was the initial impetus to change the original model. In particular, the Carews cited the extensive research of Lacousiere, who found there is a sequence to the stages of development that groups and teams go through over time. The initial stage is orientation (Stage 1), when group members first come together and are eager to participate, but are unsure of how to work

together. Next comes the seemingly inevitable occurrence of dissatisfaction (Stage 2), as working together turns out to be more difficult than anticipated. If the group is able to work through this dissatisfaction, it moves into resolution or integration (Stage 3), where members learn how to work together. If interactions continue to improve, the group reaches the final stage of production (Stage 4). The Carews were able to show that the leadership styles needed to move a group through these stages correspond to the flow of the four leadership styles of Situational Leadership® II.

Style 1, Directing, is appropriate for orientation, where goals have to be made clear and roles defined. Style 2, Coaching, is necessary to move through the dissatisfaction stage, since the group still needs direction but now also needs support, encouragement, and listening behaviors. Once a group gets to the resolution or integration stage, the leader’s role could change to Style 3, Supporting, as a facilitator is needed. Now direction is provided by the group. Finally, in the production stage, an outside observer would not be able to determine the designated leader. Here, Style 4, Delegating, is appropriate.

The research influenced changes in the original model. The belief being that it is preferred to hire either winners—people who are experienced and already developed in a particular job and can operate effectively with an S3 or S4 style—or else potential winners who need to be trained. Potential winners, are often low in competence (knowledge and skills), but are high on commitment because of their initial motivation and eagerness to learn this particular job and their confidence in their learning capacity. Thus the second level of development/maturity should be “unable and unwilling” (some to low competence/low commitment) to correspond with the dissatisfaction stage of group development.

Moral Leadership Training :Bournemouth, England, UK.

Designed for small groups of personnel interested in a career in the uniformed Services, national government or local government, this 24/36-week intensive course in Professional & Specialised Communication Skills & Moral Leadership training aims to provide an understanding of the communication skills, mature cognitive abilities, and leadership and management practices in all types of organisations.

The purpose of the course is to examine personal character, consider the impact organisations have on character development and explore the impact of moral leadership on different organisations.

Course tutors will provide constant progress monitoring, regular testing, homework and directed self-study assignments. Emphasis will be placed on professional, operational and social teaching skills to:

build appropriate professional & specialised vocabulary &  terminology

develop moral character & character development develop techniques for measuring & predicting honesty develop techniques for moral leadership develop morality in organisations develop the concept of leadership development &

application of leadership principles explore models of leadership behaviour develop an understanding of the relationship linking

leadership with innovation & organisational change develop an understanding of the capacity for critical

analysis of issues that relate to leadership development in work  organisations

The course will be demanding and intensive, and comprise 20 lessons weekly in professional and specialised English-language communication skills conducted in small international classes at appropriate language levels, plus 10 lessons conducted in a closed group to focus on specific training topics. The colloquial, operational and specialised content for the

programme will be selected in each case from the following, in accordance with the specified training requirement and the individual needs of participants:

Moral Character understanding moral character honesty, integrity, and morality descriptions of character

Character Development levels of moral judgment components of character building character

Measuring & Predicting Honesty understanding honesty measuring honesty why good people go wrong

Moral Leadership moral decision making principles of moral leadership moral accountability

Developing Morality in Organisations moral climate moral standards organisational influences

Leadership Studies general introduction analysis of historical & current theories of leadership leadership as a social process examination of critical thinking, ethics & methods of

inquiry general analysis of leadership competencies

Critical Thinking & Methods of Inquiry examination of knowledge & argumentation as they

pertain to leadership analysis of scientific methodology & logic language & interpretation, & their influence on the

study & practice of leadership

Leading Groups group theory, concepts, research,& principles of

application understanding how groups function development of the skills necessary to lead & work

effectively in groups

Leadership in Organisations leadership theory & research within and across formal

organisation settings examination of rational, natural & open systems, & how

leadership differs in each

Leadership in International Contexts

Leadership in Other Cultures & in Cross-Cultural Organisations

Leadership & Motivation

Conflict Resolution

Leading Change

Analysing & Making Policy

Communicating & Leading

Leadership in a Diverse Society

Leadership & Religious Values

Ethics & Leadership

The programme will be adapted to a sponsor's specific requirements, and the trainees' areas of interest and expertise, as well as learning style. It will, however, be fully coordinated to provide intensive practice in presentation and communication in English at appropriate language levels and provide opportunities for participants to discuss management, leadership and moral issues.

training methods & resources interactive classroom work current affairs activities discussion & debate IT, audio & visual facilities manuals & formal publications practical work role play group exercises external visits social programme

Trainees are provided with a varied social programme that provides opportunities for them to integrate with senior BBSI staff, military and government trainees, and also the School's international student body.