Introduction to Zoology

Unit 1- Mrs. Stahl

Zoology- What is it?

• The study of animals of course!

• Extremely broad because there are so many concentrations and sooooo many animals.

• There are 8.7 million organisms on Earth, only 1.7 millions have been described.

• Only 14% of the worlds species have been identified- that leave 86% left

• Only 9% of the oceans species have been identified.

▫ Ex- 20,000 species of bony fish

▫ Ex- 300,000 species of beetles

Category Species Totals

Vertebrate Animals

Mammals 5,490

Birds 9,998

Reptiles 9,084

Amphibians 6,433

Fishes 31,300

Total Vertebrates 62,305

Invertebrate Animals

Insects 1,000,000

Spiders and scorpions 102,248

Molluscs 85,000

Crustaceans 47,000

Corals 2,175

Others 68,827

Total Invertebrates 1,305,250

Plants

Flowering plants (angiosperms) 281,821

Conifers (gymnosperms) 1,021

Ferns and horsetails 12,000

Mosses 16,236

Red and green algae 10,134

Total Plants 321,212

Others

Lichens 17,000

Mushrooms 31,496

Brown algae 3,067

Total Others 51,563

TOTAL SPECIES 1,740,330

What is an animal???????????????

• A living organism that feeds on organic matter, typically having specialized sense organs and nervous system and able to respond rapidly.

Why do we want to study animals?

So we can study their:

- Functionality

- Structure

- Ecological Role and

Importance

- Evolution

Some areas of study:

• Ichthyology- Study of fish

• Entomology- Insects

• Herpetology- Amphibians & Reptiles

• Mammalogy- Mammals

• Ornithology- Birds

• Protozoology- Protozoa

Characteristics of Living Things!

• All living things must be able to: ▫ 1. Reproduce ▫ 2. Made up of cells ▫ 3. Respond to a stimulus ▫ 4. Grow and develop ▫ 5. Evolve and change ▫ 6. Metabolize- need and use chemical energy ▫ 7. Maintain Homeostasis ▫ 8. Be made up of DNA ▫ 9. Chemical Uniqueness

Chemical Uniqueness

• Complex molecular organization

• Macromolecules- Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates, and Nucleic Acids

• Ex- Proteins- 20 specific amino acids

Made up of Cells • Smallest and basic unit of

life. • Each level builds on the level

below it. • Ex- within a cell

macromolecules are assembled into ribosomes, chromosomes, and membranes and they are then built upon to form organelles such as the mitochondria.

Continues on to populations and species.

DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid

• Stores genetic information

• Made up of nucleotides (4 nitrogenous base pairs-AGCT), sugars, and phosphates.

• Adenine (A) pairs up with Thymine (T)

• Guanine (G) pairs up with Cytosine (C)

• The sequence of the bases is what codes for the order of amino acids in the protein sequence (amino acids).

Reproduction

• Life has to come from prior life / DNA has to be passed on.

• Living forms reproduce to generate others like themselves: binary fission, asexual reproduction, or sexual reproduction.

• Genes replicate to form new genes

• Cells divide to produce new cells- binary fission

• Populations split up and new species are produced= speciation.

Metabolism • Have to acquire nutrients from their environment in

order to maintain proper energy levels. • Nutrients-> chemical energy for the body to use in the

form of ATP. • Chemical processes include digestion, respiration, and

synthesis of molecules. • Interaction between catabolic (destructive) and

anabolic (constructive) • Cellular Respiration-> mitochondria • Cellular and nuclear membranes regulate metabolism

by controlling the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.

Growth and Development

• All organisms have a life cycle that they go through from origin (when the sperm fertilizes the egg = fertilization) to adulthood.

• Changes in size, shape, and differentiation in structures.

• Unicellular are more simple than Multicellular.

• Metamorphosis- many organisms have similar early stages of development and are hard to tell apart and then they change.

Stimulus

• How do they interact / respond with their environment?

• Often referred to as ecology, focusing on geographic distribution and population abundance.

• They respond by adapting their metabolism and physiology so that they can survive in the environment in which they live.

Evolution • Change over time.

• Ex- Darwin’s finches- he found 14 different species of finches that derived from one. They had different beaks to adapt to the type of seed they fed upon.

Homeostasis Maintaining constant internal conditions in an

organism. Body temp. is 37 C or 98.6 F Important because cells function best within a

certain range of conditions. Temperature, blood sugar, acidity, must be controlled or it can be fatal. Maintained-> negative feedback loop= change

in a system causes a response that tends to return that system back to its original state.

Ex- The control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin is another good example of a negative feedback mechanism. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense a change . In turn, the control center (pancreas) secretes insulin into the blood effectively lowering blood sugar levels. Once blood sugar levels reach homeostasis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin. http://anatomyandphysiologyi.com/homeostasis-positivenegative-feedback-mechanisms/

Life Obeys the Laws of Physics • The first law of thermodynamics-> conserving energy.

Energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be transferred from one form to another. ▫ a. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can be

transformed from one form to another. ▫ b. All aspects of life require energy. ▫ c. In animals, chemical energy in food is converted to chemical

energy in cells and then converted to mechanical energy of muscle contraction.

• All our energy comes from the sun-> reaches Earth as light or heat-> Plants capture this light in the form of Photosynthesis in green plants and cyanobacteria transforms energy into chemical bonds-> bonds form potential energy (stored)-> bond breaks and the energy is released and used to perform many cellular tasks-> transferred to animals (cellular respiration).

Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Physical systems tend to proceed toward a state of greater disorder or entropy.

• Energy obtained and stored by plants is released by various mechanisms and then dissipated as heat.

• It takes a constant input of usable energy from food to keep an animal organized.

• The process of evolution does not violate the second law; complexity is achieved by constant use and loss of energy flowing into the biosphere from the sun.

• Physiologists study survival, growth, reproduction, etc. from an energetic perspective.

Characteristics of Animals

• Originated in the Precambrian Era over 600 mya. • Eukaryotes- organisms whose cells contain a

nucleus. • Includes Plants, Fungi, and some unicellular

organisms. • Animals -unique in nutrition; they eat other

organisms and therefore need to capture food. • Animals lack photosynthesis; cell walls found in

plants. • Fungi absorb food through little tubular filaments

called hyphae which animals do not have.

Some don’t fall into either category..

• Euglena- motile, single celled organism that resembles plants, in that they can be photosynthetic, but also resembles animals in that they eat food particles.

• Kingdom Protista.

Animals are also….. • Motile- move about from one location to the

next.

• Sessile- Cannot move from place to place but they still have moving parts.

• What are 5 animals that are sessile and 5 that are motile?

• Respiration

• Digestion

• Ingestion

Sessile

Motile

How are they classified???? • Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) • He came up with a means of naming organisms that was

simple and universal. • Problem before this was that people were naming things

multiple names that were really long, and there wasn’t any consistency.

• Taxonomy- science of classifying organisms and assigning each organism a universally accepted name.

• Linnaeus came up with binomial nomenclature-> two word naming system ▫ Genus, species ▫ Always in italics ▫ Genus is capitalized and species lowercased ▫ Ex- Homo sapiens

Classification

System

• Domain • Kingdom • Phylum • Class • Order • Family • Genus • Species

Dear King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain!!!!

Three Domains & Six Major Kingdoms

Domains Kingdoms

• Bacteria-> contains single celled prokaryotes. Largest group on Earth.

• Archaea-> Microbes that live in extreme environments

• Eukarya-> organisms with compartmentalized cells, eukaryotic cells.

• Animalia- Animals

• Plantae- Plants

• Fungi- Fungus

• Protista- animal like and plant like

• Bacteria

• Archaea

Kingdom Animalia

• Multicellular • Eukaryotic • Consumers / Heterotrophs • Specialized Tissues- various tissues and organs • Aerobic Respiration / Cellular Respiration-

metabolically break down food and use ATP energy to drive all of their functions.

• Sexual Reproduction • Mobility • Over one million

Plants!

• Photosynthesis

• Autotrophs- make their own food

• Multicellular

• Complex cells

• 2nd largest kingdom

• Over 250,000 species

• Sessile

Protista

• Slime molds, algae, amoebas, diatoms, dinoflagellates

• All microscopic organisms

• Unicellular (most)

• Move using cilia, flagella, pseudopodia

• Mostly autotrophic

Fungi

• Mushrooms, mold, and mildews

• Multicellular with complex cells

• Eat by decaying / decomposers

• Sessile

Eubacteria

• Complex, single celled

• Different chemical make-up

• Some are helpful such as yogurt and vitamins

• Some are harmful such as streptococci= strep throat.

• True bacteria

• Prokaryotic

Archaebacteria

• Unicellular

• Lives in extreme environments such as hot boiling springs (Yellowstone National Park) and hydrothermal vents.

• Live and thrive in no oxygen and they are highly acidic

Classification into a kingdom is based

on certain criteria

• Number of cells

• How it obtains energy

• Type of cell

• DNA

Kingdom Animalia & its Major Phyla

• Porifera- sponges • Cnidaria- hydras, sea anemones, jellies, and corals • Ctenophora- comb jellies • Platyhelminthes- flatworms, tapeworms • Nematoda- roundworms • Annelida- marine worms, earthworms, and leeches • Mollusca- snails, octopi, squids, clams, mussels,

conchs, etc. • Arthropoda- insects, spiders, crustaceans • Echinodermata- sea stars, sea urchins, sand

dollars, brittle stars • Chordata- fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds,

mammals

Class Agnatha

Chondrichthyes

Osteichthyes

Amphibia

Reptila

Aves

Mammalia

Vertebrate facts and

Characteristics • More than one million species of animals.

• Tens of millions undiscovered

• Specialized tissues and organs

• Found EVERYWHERE!!!

• Have a backbone or vertebrate column

• Have a skull or cranium

• An internal skeleton

• Range in size. Largest being the blue whale.

Seven Essential Functions

to all Vertebrates • 1. Feeding-

▫ Herbivore- eats plants

▫ Carnivore- eats meat

▫ Omnivore- eats both plants and animals

▫ Detritivore- feeds on dead things

▫ Filter Feeders- strain food from the water

▫ Parasite- lives on or in another organism.

• 2. Respiration- takes in oxygen, gives off carbon dioxide. Can be done through gills, lungs, skin, diffusion

• 3. Circulation- circulating of blood through vessels.

• 4. Excretion- primary waste is ammonia. Liquid waste filtered by the kidneys.

• 5. Response- receptor cells= sound, light, external stimuli

• 6. Movement- most are motile and the muscles work with skeleton

• 7. Reproduction- most sexually= genetic diversity.

Let’s Narrow it down a little….

• Ichthyology- Study of fish

• Entomology- insects

• Herpetology- amphibians & reptiles

• Mammalogy- mammals

• Ornithology- birds

• Protozoology- Protozoa

Let’s Review a little…..

• All living things must be able to: ▫ 1. Reproduce ▫ 2. Made up of cells ▫ 3. Respond to a stimulus ▫ 4. Grow and develop ▫ 5. Evolve and change ▫ 6. Metabolize- need and use chemical energy ▫ 7. Maintain Homeostasis ▫ 8. Be made up of DNA ▫ 9. Chemical Uniqueness

Made up of Cells • Smallest and basic unit of

life. • Each level builds on the level

below it. • Ex- within a cell

macromolecules are assembled into ribosome's, chromosomes, and membranes and they are then built upon to form organelles such as the mitochondria.

Continues on to populations and species.

DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid

• Stores genetic information

• Made up of nucleotides (4 nitrogenous base pairs-AGCT), sugars, and phosphates.

• Adenine (A) pairs up with Thymine (T)

• Guanine (G) pairs up with Cytosine (C)

• The sequence of the bases is what codes for the order of amino acids in the protein sequence (amino acids).

Chemical Uniqueness

• Complex molecular organization

• Macromolecules- Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates, and Nucleic Acids

• Ex- Proteins- 20 specific amino acids

Reproduction

• Life has to come from prior life.

• Living forms reproduce to generate others like themselves.

• Genes replicate to form new genes

• Cells divide to produce new cells

• Reproduce sexually or asexually

• Populations split up and new species are produced= speciation.

Metabolism • Have to acquire nutrients from their environment in

order to maintain proper energy levels. • Nutrients-> chemical energy for the body to use in the

form of ATP. • Chemical processes include digestion, respiration, and

synthesis of molecules. • Interaction between catabolic (destructive) and

anabolic (constructive) • Cellular Respiration-> mitochondria • Cellular and nuclear membranes (nucleus) regulate

metabolism by controlling the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.

Growth and Development

• All organisms have a life cycle that they go through from origin (when the sperm fertilizes the egg = fertilization) to adulthood.

• Changes in size, shape, and differentiation in structures.

• Unicellular are more simple than Multicellular.

• Metamorphosis- many organisms have similar early stages of development and are hard to tell apart.

Stimulus

• How do they interact / respond with their environment?

• Often referred to as ecology focusing on geographic distribution and population abundance.

• They respond by adapting their metabolism and physiology so that they can survive in the environment in which they live.

Evolution • Change over time.

Homeostasis

• Maintaining an internal balance.

Life Obeys the Laws of Physics • The first law of thermodynamics-> conserving energy.

Energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be transferred from one form to another. ▫ a. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can be

transformed from one form to another. ▫ b. All aspects of life require energy. ▫ c. In animals, chemical energy in food is converted to chemical

energy in cells and then converted to mechanical energy of muscle contraction.

• All our energy comes from the sun-> reaches Earth as light or heat-> Plants capture this light in the form of Photosynthesis in green plants and cyanobacteria transforms energy into chemical bonds-> bonds form potential energy (stored)-> bond breaks and the energy is released and used to perform many cellular tasks-> transferred to animals.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Physical systems tend to proceed toward a state of greater disorder or entropy.

• Energy obtained and stored by plants is released by various mechanisms and then dissipated as heat.

• It takes a constant input of usable energy from food to keep an animal organized.

• The process of evolution does not violate the second law; complexity is achieved by constant use and loss of energy flowing into the biosphere from the sun.

• Physiologists study survival, growth, reproduction, etc. from an energetic perspective.

Classification into a kingdom is based

on certain criteria

• Number of cells

• How it obtains energy

• Type of cell

• DNA

The Scientific Method

•Used to set up an experiment in order to test a hypothesis or solve a problem.

Steps 1. Make an observation 2. Ask a question / Research 3. Form a hypothesis 4. Experimentation 5. Collect data / Results 6. Analyze and Conclude 7. Repeat

Observation

Use senses to study the world. Can also use tools such as previous biological research and computers.

Inference= logical interpretation based on prior knowledge.

Which is it- observation or

inference?

1. The skin is red?

2. The apple is edible.

3. There are seeds inside.

4. It can make you healthy.

5. It feels smooth.

Example of an observation

The white shark just jumped out of the water.

Conduct Research-

to gain knowledge about what your

studying / researching

Periodicals

Research reports

Trade magazines- science news

Trade books

Dictionaries

Encyclopedias

Indexes

Handbooks

Ask a Question

Do other sharks jump out of the water or just white sharks?

Hypothesis

Not an EDUCATED GUESS- in science we don’t like to say that we are “guessing” Prediction based on prior knowledge. Typically use the words If and Then! If a great white shark jumps out of the water

when attacking their prey, then other sharks such as bull sharks should jump out of the water when attacking prey because they belong to the same family, therefore they should have similar behaviors.

• Inductive ▫ Looking at individual

observations and proposing a general explanation for them.

▫ Example-> Scientist may observe an octopus and squid, both cephalopods, have arms with suckers and conclude that all cephalopods have arms with suckers.

• Deductive ▫ Observations suggest a

general principle from which a specific statement can be derived.

▫ Example-> all cephalopods have arms with suckers and since a cuttlefish is a cephalopod then it must also have arms with suckers.

Experiment Try to find the cause and effect relationship.

A. Independent Variable-> What you, the experimenter changes or manipulates. Example- conditions= hot / cold

B. Dependent Variable> the variable that changes because of the IV (results / data). Example- height of the plant (you, the experimenter has zero control over how high that plant grows).

C. Constants or Control Variables-> variables that remain the same. What is normal, for example- keeping the plant at room temperature.

Data

Qualitative= descriptions using your senses

Quantitative= Numbers

Results

• Statistical analysis

▫ Statistically significant= the data showed an effect that is likely not due to chance.

▫ Nonsignificant= the data shows no effect, or an effect so small that the results could have happened by chance.

• Use data tables and graphs to represent data collected.

Analysis and Conclusion

• Make sense of your experiment in words, submit a journal paper to your peers for review, and if it can be duplicated / repeated with the same results then your research could become published.

What happens if your hypothesis is

wrong? Try again, revamp your procedure / experiment.

Theory

• Proposed explanation for a wide range of observations and experimental results that is supported by a wide range of evidence. Provides explanations where scientific laws do not.

• It can be added to or disproven

• Ex- Theory of Evolution, Theory of Plate Tectonics

Scientific Law

A truth that is valid everywhere in the universe. It does not provide any explanations

like a theory does Ex- the law of conservation of

energy- energy may change form but it can’t be created nor destroyed.

Graphing and Measurements

X- axis / IV

Y-axis / DV

We use charts and graphs to:

• Analyze the results and to provide visual summaries

Data Tables • Contains the numerical results of an experiment.

Compiled before you make a chart or graph.

Color of M&M in a bag Frequency

Red 5

Green 2

Blue 4

Yellow 1

Brown 5

Line Graphs • Shows a relationship between two variables.

Bar Graphs • Compares quantitative / qualitative data.

Histograms • Show the frequency distribution of the data.

• The bars touch!

• Ex- using the numbers make a data table and histogram in your notes.

▫ 7, 12, 12, 18, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 36, 36, 39, 43, 47

Histogram Data Table Data Range Frequency

0-10 1

11-20 3

21-30 6

31-40 4

41-50 2

Stem and Leaf Plot • Another way to present a frequency distribution.

• Represents actual data point

• Tens= “stem”

• Ones= “leaves”

Stem Leaf

0 7

1 2 2 8

2 2 4 6 7 8 9

3 1 6 6 9

4 3 7

Circle Graph • Shows data as proportions of a whole

• “pie chart”- percentages

The Metric System- see attached

note sheets • IS- International System of Measurements

▫ Used worldwide

▫ Based on the metric system

▫ Common units:

Length- Meters (m)

Volume- Liter (L)

Mass- Kilograms (kg)

Temperature- Kelvin (K)

Microscopes!!!!!!!!!!

Light or Compound Microscopes • What we use in the classroom-

basic

• Several lenses to increase magnification

• Uses glass lenses to focus on a specimen.

• Can be used on living or preserved specimens

• Can magnify objects up to 1500 times their actual size.

• Specimens are often stained with chemicals so that we can see them.

stoma

Dissecting Microscope

• Stereoscope

• Three dimensional image / view of the specimen

• Essentially two compound microscopes that are focused on the same thing.

• Low magnification so its hard to see individual cells- used for larger cells.

Scanning Electron Microscope • Narrow beams of

electrons that scan the surface of the specimen

• Usually the specimen is covered with a thin layer of metal such as gold that deflects the electrons from passing through the specimen and onto a computer where color is added.

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Transmission Electron Microscope

• Passes beams of electrons through the specimen and projects it onto a computerized screen where color is added.

• Produces the best image because it magnifies the object so much.

stoma

Parts of a Microscope • Nosepiece- holds the objective lenses above the

stage and rotates so that all the lenses can be used.

• Low Power Objective- magnifies an image 10X

• Stage clip- holds the slide in place

• Stage- supports the object being looked at.

• Diaphragm- adjusts the amount of light passing through the slide and into the lens.

• Light source- lights up the specimen

• Eyepiece- contains a lens that magnifies the object 10X. You look through this to view the specimen.

• Body- separates the lens in the eyepiece from the other lens.

• Arm- supports the body and this is where you hold it while supporting the base.

• Scanning Objective- smallest lens and magnifies 4X • High Power Objective- largest lens and magnifies

40X • Fine Adjustment- dial used to focus in on the object

when it’s on high power. • Course Adjustment- used to focus the image when

it’s on scanning or low power. • Base- supports the scope.

Magnification

3 types- scanning, low, and high

Ocular lens Total Magnification

Total Magnification

Total Magnification

Scanning 4x 10x 40x

Low Power

10x 10x 100x

High Power

40x 10x 400x

Videos

The End!!!!!!!

Review Next Class

Test Class After that!!!!!!!!!!!!