Brown 1

To what extent did the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970 cause social and economic change that influenced the fall of apartheid? Daniel Brown 002828-0029 Kenner Collegiate and Vocational Institute Examination Session: May 2015 Subject Area: History Word Count: 3,576

Brown 2 Table of Contents

Abstract 3 Introduction 5 Background 7 Investigation 9 Short Term Social Change 9 Long Term Social Change 12 Short Term Economic Change 15 Long Term Economic Change 16 Conclusion 21 Works Cited 23 Appendix 1 26

Brown 3 Abstract: The Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act was one of the most important pieces of apartheid legislation, as it was a large step towards the National Party government establishing grand apartheid. This essay attempts to investigate the research question; To what extent did the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970 cause social and economic change that influenced the fall of apartheid? In order to answer this question, both primary and secondary sources that focused on social and economic change were used. It was important that sources from before and directly after the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act were used so that change could be seen. Sources from near the time of the fall of apartheid were also used so that it could be seen how the changes from the legislation influenced the fall. Economic changes were analyzed using the framework of agency theory. The conclusion that was reached is that the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act did in fact create social and economic change, both in the short and long term, which influenced the fall of apartheid. The short-term social change that occurred was that South Africa faced condemnation from the sporting world, the black resistance was fragmented, and African people were forced to question their identities. This led to Africans being more willing to support the Black Consciousness Movement. The most significant long-term social change that occurred was the emergence of the Black Consciousness Movement. The short-term economic change that occurred was the increase in the number of migrant laborers, which exposed the weakness of the

Brown 4 apartheid economy. The long-term economic change that occurred was increased government spending into the homelands, and international pressure on the apartheid regime via economic sanctions. Word Count: 278

Brown 5 Introduction: Apartheid in South Africa is an incredibly important part of world history. It is the most significant example of legislated segregation ever and acts as a testament to the power of international sanctions in changing the policies of nations acting in immoral ways, while inspiring social change within these countries. Specifically, studying the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970 is crucial as this was a large step towards the National Party achieving grand apartheid as Africans were stripped of South African citizenship and granted citizenship of their homeland, which were self-governing but initially not internationally recognized. 1 This meant that all Africans who wanted to work in South Africa needed to apply to act as guest workers typically in low-skill labor jobs or as slaves. The response to this act led to distinct short and long-term social and economic changes in South Africa, which in turn led to the fall of Apartheid in 1994. This issues raised in this paper still have contemporary relevance, as the effects of the Bantu Homeland Citizenship Act, and the social and economic changes that came with it, are still felt today, even in a democratic South Africa. Many of the economic changes that are touched upon in this paper will be analyzed using the framework of agency theory, otherwise known as the principal-agent problem. This problem arises when one entity (the agent) is able to make decisions on behalf of another entity (the principal). A problem arises in this case because the 1 Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act, 1970, Minister of Bantu Administration and Development

Brown 6 agent may be compelled to make decisions that benefit their own best interests rather than those of the principal. 2 This framework allows for an effective analysis of most economic concerns in this setting.

2 Kathleen Eisenhardt, Agency Theory: An Assesment and Review, The Academy of Management Review 14, no. 1 (1989), 57-74

Brown 7 Background The Bantu Homeland Citizenship Act of 1970 was a drastic step by the South African Government towards its policy of separate development. The eventual goal of separate development was to create ten separate self-governing states in which the various Black ethnic groups could develop a unique national identity. This would ensure that there was always a White demographic majority in South Africa. This specific act made all Black South Africans citizens of their homeland. The conditions that placed a certain person in a designate homeland were vague. Every African born in a particular area, domiciled there, every person using the language of that are or an associated linguistic group, every person related to a member of such a group, anyone who has identified himself with that population, or anyone associated with such a population by virtue of his cultural or racial background would and must be entitled to the appropriate citizenship.3 By becoming a citizen of their respective homelands, these African people were losing their South African citizenship. This meant that they were considered aliens in the urban areas of South Africa and could only live and work here with special permission. The pass laws enforce this system. All Africans had to carry a passbook that contained all of their social information as well as any special permission they had received to be present in or working in the urban areas from the South African government.4 3 Jeffrey Butler, Robert I. Rotberg and John Adams, The Black Homelands of South Africa (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), 36-37 4 Ernie Regehr, Perceptions of Apartheid (Scottdale: Herald Press, 1979), 42-43

Brown 8 As citizens of the homelands, Africans who wanted to work in the urban areas of South Africa were considered migrant laborers This way the Nationalist government could maintain the advantages of the black work force, while making the Bantustan governments responsible for these workers welfare. In order to effectively establish this system, the nationalist government instituted the forced removals of 3.5 million Africans from 1960 to 1983, with many of these occurring after 1970. 5 The distribution of land to the homelands clearly favored White economic and demographic domination. 87% of the land in South Africa was allotted to 20% of the population (White people) and the remaining 13% was designated as the homelands for the remaining 80% of the population. Furthermore, the most industrially and agriculturally prosperous areas within the homelands were designated as white-controlled areas, and not one of the homelands had access to a major port. (See Appendix 1) The South African government also controlled all mineral rights in the Bantustans.6 This made economic success in the developing world almost impossible for the homelands.

5 African Studies Centre at Michigan State University, Forced Removals, http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu (accessed 3 Jan. 2015) 6 Steve Biko, Lets Talk About Bantustans, in I Write What I Like, (London: Heinemann, 1978), 82-83

Brown 9 Investigation

Short Term Social Change The first changes as a result of the Bantu Citizenship Act of 1970 that are being analyzed are short-term social changes. These changes are classified as short-term, because their greatest effect on the country, and the fall of apartheid, occurred shortly after the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act. The first short-term social change being investigated is the condemnation South Africa faced from the sporting world. After the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970, the sporting world, with recommendation from the United Nations, began to take a stand against apartheid. The United Nations General Assembly Resolution: The Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa Apartheid in

Sports has three key points: 3. Solemnly calls upon all national and international sports organizations to uphold the Olympic principle of non-discrimination and to discourage and deny support to sporting events organized in violation of this principle; 4. Encourages individual sportsmen to refuse to participate in any sports activity in a country in which there is an official policy of racial discrimination or apartheid in the field of sports; 7. Condemns the actions of the Government of South Africa in enforcing racial discrimination and segregation in sports; 7 This resolution was passed less than a year after the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act, and during the same general assembly in which resolutions specifically 7 The United Nations, General Assembly Resolution: The Policies of the Government of South Africa Apartheid in Sports in The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994 (Geneva: United Nations Publications, 1994), 314

Brown 10 addressing the act were passed, so this considered a direct response. South Africa was banned from the 1970 Davis Cup, expelled from the IOC, and was expelled from the International Association of Athletics Foundation. 8 As it is in many cultures, sport incredibly important to the South African people. By taking away sports, the majority of the Afrikaner population was affected socially, as they lost a central point of their national pride. This was also an effective political statement against the National Party by the member countries of the United Nations, as they were willing to boycott major sporting events such as the Olympics, forfeiting the economic and social benefits of such an event, in order to condemn apartheid. Both as a social and political tool, the international sporting world created immediate change using the sporting boycott. There were also a number of short-term social changes that occurred as a result of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act that affected the lives of Africans. First of all, many Africans were left to question their identity and culture when they were assigned as citizens of a homeland even if they had never lived outside of white South Africa and had no direct personal links to that homeland. Not only did this law force Africans to question their identities, it added to an already substantial collective inferiority complex that had grown through years of deliberate oppression. 9 Despite the fact that this change made the lives of African people much 8 Douglas Booth, The Race Game: Sport and Politics in South Africa, (New York: Frank Cass Publishers, 1998) 9 Steve Biko We Blacks in I Write What I Like (London: Heinemann, 1978), 27-33.

Brown 11 worse, it increased the frustration that black people had with the National Party regime. Another short-term social issue brought on by the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act is the fragmentation of the African resistance to apartheid. After this act was passed, leadership of the African people became the responsibility of the leadership groups of the ten homelands, not one common party or movement. 10 Although these governments were responsible for the Africans who were citizens of the homelands before the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act, after the act the governments in the Bantustans became responsible for any African who was declared a citizen of their homeland. This greatly increased the fragmentation of the anti-apartheid struggle. A perfect example of this is when South Africa was celebrating the 10th anniversary of the republic in 1971. The chief of Zululand decided that they would be celebrating, whereas the Labor Party argued that it should not be celebrated, and in other homelands, pamphlets were distributed speaking against celebration. 11 When you combine this with the banning of many black or inter-racial political parties, such as the African National Congress, as a result of the Unlawful Organizations Act of 1960, there was hardly any consistent political representation for blacks in South Africa. 12 10 Ernie Regehr, Perceptions of Apartheid, (Scottdale: Herald Press, 1979), 35-36. 11 Steve Biko Fragmentation of Black Resistance in I Write What I Like (London: Heinemann, 1978), 33-40. 12 Unlawful Organizations Act, 1960, Minister of Justice

Brown 12 In the short term, the fragmentation of the black resistance further consolidated the National Partys power. But, many Black politicians who tried to fight the system from the inside came to realize what had occurred, and how powerless they were becoming, and this left them much more prepared to participate in the Black Consciousness Movement, which united blacks and helped bring the fall of apartheid.

Long Term Social Change The second type of social change being investigated is the long-term social change that occurred as a result of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act. These changes are classified as long-term, because their greatest effect on the fall on apartheid occurred years after the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act. The long-term social change being analyzed is the emergence of the black consciousness movement. This was a grassroots anti-apartheid movement led by Steve Biko that emerged in the mid 1960s following the Sharpeville massacre, which was a protest in which 5000-10000 people showed up at a police station in Sharpeville and protested by not carrying their passbooks. After the crowd grew larger and could not be subdued, police opened fire killing 69 people and injuring 180.13 Although this event sparked the Black Consciousness Movement, it truly emerged and gained momentum following the Bantu Citizenship Act. 13 Klaus D. Vague, The Plot Against South Africa, (Pretoria: Varama, 1989)

Brown 13 This movement is based on the idea that the black people needed to rally together to rid themselves of the shackles that bind them to perpetual servitude. 14 They also wanted to create a sense black pride, in order to make the black people not feel like appendages of white society. Another goal was to unite all of the colored people as they were all being oppressed on various levels by the apartheid system. Black consciousness stated that integration did not mean black people assimilating into a culture and set of expectations established by white people, but it means that black people would contribute a proportionate amount to their joint culture. Ultimately, black consciousness rejected apartheid and all systems and legislation that made the black man a foreigner in his country of birth and racial majority. 15 The Black Consciousness Movement continued to grow until 1976 when the Soweto riot occurred. This protest was a student-led response to the National Party Policy that black students were to learn Afrikaner as opposed to their native language or English. The protests eventually turned violent with 176 people being killed by security forces. 16 Following the incident in Soweto, the National Party felt more at risk than they had during their reign and began to crack down on associations and individuals associated with the Black Consciousness Movement. The most significant of these arrests was that of SASO leader Steve Biko who died in prison shortly after his incarceration, after being assaulted by white police officers 14 Steve Biko, The Definition of Black Consciousness in I Write What I Like (London: Heinemann, 1978),48-54 15 South African Student Association, SASO Policy Manifesto, In Black Student

Politics, Higher Education and Apartheid: From SASO to SANSCO 1968-1990, (Pretoria: Human Science Research Council, 1999) 376-378 16 Ernie Regehr, Perceptions of Apartheid, (Scottdale: Herald Press, 1979), 42-43.

Brown 14 and forced to live in terrible conditions, on September 12th 1977. Shortly after Bikos death on October 19th 1977 SASO and its associated Black Consciousness organizations were deemed illegal. These organizations did not continue in a significant way underground. 17 This movement had varying levels of success at reaching its objectives. The leaders of the black consciousness movement themselves never brought down the apartheid regime. Although the Black Community Programs that were run by the leaders of the Black Consciousness Movement were fairly successful at networking black community leaders, building communities, and uplifting the black spirit, they were fairly limited in scale to due to the resources available to them as a result of the National Party regime. 18 Although this movement did not directly influence the fall of apartheid, its legacy is that it helped create social change, and inspire young black activists, who grew to be the leaders that helped bring the fall of apartheid such as Desmond Tutu. Following the banning of SASO, the ideas of the Black Consciousness Movement, the new fearlessness instilled in the everyday black citizen, and the liberation of the black people carried on. Well some members of SASO formed new small organizations, many members joined larger groups such as the African National Congress, which became the leader in the struggle against Apartheid. The Black 17 (South African History Online, South African Student Organization (SASO) last modified: June 2000, http://www.sahistory.org.za 18 Ernie Regehr, Perceptions of Apartheid, (Scottdale: Herald Press, 1979), 43

Brown 15 Consciousness Movement brought strength to Black politics in general. As the government arrested leaders of various organizations, others were able to carry on the struggle against apartheid, as they all possessed this series of ideals that superseded any specific organizations agenda. 19

Short Term Economic Change . As a result of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act, there were many economic changes that occurred in South Africa. The first changes that will be analyzed are the short-term changes. These changes are classified as short-term, because their greatest effect on the country, and the fall of apartheid, occurred shortly after the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act. One short-term economic effect of this act is an increase in the number of migrant laborers. But, this increase in migrant labor actually allowed the weaknesses of the apartheid economy to be observed. It became clear, that a settled labor force and a free job market with an eroded color bar would be much more efficient that the migrant labor system. 20 Due to this observation, the South African government was forced to make drastic changes in the short-term in order to try to preserve both the economy and apartheid. Between 1970 and 1975, the South African government had removed job 19 Nigel Gibson, Black Consciousness 1977-1987; The Dialects of Liberation in South Africa (Durban: Centre For Civil Sociery, 2004) 20 Stephen R. Lewis, The Economics of Apartheid, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1990) 130

Brown 16 reservation for whites, opened apprentice training to Africans, extended the right of freedom of association to the African workforce, and granted legal recognition to African trade unions. 21 This was incredibly significant in terms of the fall of apartheid, as it demonstrated that Africans had to be an integral part of the economy in order for it to expand. Socially, as the workforce became more integrated, Africans were able to gain a greater respect from their white colleagues, which in the long-term made the white everyman less resistant to change away from the apartheid structure. In terms of agency theory, this is an example of the agent (National Party government) making responsible decisions as they benefited the principal (African people) but when analyzing the political and economic context of these decisions, it is clear that they were not made with the motivation of benefiting the agent, but to salvage their system.

Long Term Economic Change The second type of economic change being investigated is the long-term economic change that occurred as a result of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act. These changes are classified as long-term, because their greatest effect on the fall on apartheid occurred years after the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act. The first long-term economic changes that will be analyzed is the increased government spending into the homelands as a result of this and oppressive 21 Jill Nattrass, The South African Economy: Its Growth and Change, (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1981)

Brown 17 legislation fell under the umbrella of grand apartheid. As the idea of grand apartheid became a reality, it became clear that it was not an economically sustainable system. It was difficult to build a strong economy that was capable of trading with and investing in first world European countries, when there were incredibly limited resources, training, and education for approximately 80 percent of the population. As of 1970, the homelands only contributed to 2.4% of the South African GDP while housing 32.7% of the population as permanent residents.22 In fact it could be argued that South Africa was a microcosm of the first and third worlds. 23 In an attempt to remain in power and increase the economic sustainability of the apartheid system, the government began to invest heavily in the homelands. Between 1970 and 1985 government expenditure as a percentage of the homelands contribution to the South African GDP increased from 30.8 percent to 88.7 percent.24 It is also apparent that along with investing in education and training, many industrial and government were created in or moved to the homelands, as agriculture as a percentage of the homelands GDP dropped from 25.1 percent to 10.7 percent between 1970 and 1985. 25 This helped to contribute to the end of apartheid, because the increase in investment in the homelands placed a strain on 22 Stephen R. Lewis, The Economics of Apartheid, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1990), 43 23 Colin McCarthy, Apartheid Ideology and Economic Development Policy in The Political Economy of South Africa, (Cape Town: Oxford Univesity Press, 1990), 43-55 24 Stephen R. Lewis, The Economics of Apartheid, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1990), 45 25 Stephen R. Lewis, The Economics of Apartheid, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1990), 45

Brown 18 the National Party government, and empowered Africans as the ratio of white wages to black wages decreased by 40 percent between 1970 and 1985. 26 Although on the surface this appears to be a case in which the agent is acting in a way which directly benefits the principal, it is clear when analyzing the political situation in South Africa that the government (the agent) had no choice but to act in a way that benefited the African population (the principal). Another long-term economic effect of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act was the international economic pressure that was placed on the apartheid regime. Economic sanctions did not make a large impact on the South African economy until 1986 when the United States, Japan and the European Commission all imposed sanctions. 27 But, this is still considered a long-term change that occurred as a result of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act because as of 1970, the United Nations urged all member states, and private companies within those states, to take economic and political action against South Africa. 28 After the amount of disinvestment increased greatly in 1984, South Africa has suffered from a copious amount of capital flight. Between 1985 and 1988 23.9 26 Stephen R. Lewis, The Economics of Apartheid, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1990), 38 27 Phillip I. Levy, Sanctions on South Africa: What Did They Do? (New Haven: Yale University, 1999) 28 The United Nations, General Assembly Resolution: The Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa in The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994 (New York: United Nations Publications, 1994), 313-314

Brown 19 billion rand (South African currency) in capital flowed out of South Africa. This triggered a dangerously high inflation rate of 12 to 15 percent per year. 29 By comparison, the United States inflation rate on the dollar at this time ranged from 2 to 4 percent. 30 In 1990, these clear indications of the economic instability of apartheid, combined with the intense international pressures, forced newly elected president FEW. De Klerk, to begin to negotiate the end of apartheid in South Africa. 31 International sanctions present an interesting case of the principal-agent problem. As U.S. companies disinvested from South Africa, they were taking a large risk, as many financial ventures in South Africa were quite successful. By extension, these companies that invested in them at risk. In this case the agent acted in a way that put the principal at risk based on what the agent felt were ethical obligations. It would be predicted that disinvesting, and therefore losing opportunities, would hurt stakeholder wealth. But, according to Posnikoff, shareholder wealth increased following announcements of withdrawals from South Africa, as the market responded positively to this action due to the vast amount social pressure to disinvest along with the fear of instability in the South African market. 32 Although it helped bring the fall of apartheid, and ultimately increased stakeholder wealth, 29 Richard Knight, Sanctions, Disinvestment, and U.S. Corporations in South Africa, (Trenton: Africa World Press, 1990) 67-91 30 (United States Bureau of Labour Statistics n.d.) 31 F.W. de Klerk, F.W. de Klerks Speech at the Opening of Parliament 2 February 1990, Nelson Mandela Center of Memory, http://www.nelsonmandela.org, Accessed February 20th 2015. 32 Judith F. Posnikoff, Disinvestment From South Africa: They Did Well By Doing Good, Contemporary Economic Policy 15, no. 1 (1997), 76-86

Brown 20 based on agency theory, disinvestment from South Africa was not necessarily a responsible decision made by the agent as it put the principal at risk.

Brown 21 Conclusion: This investigation has sought to answer the question To what extent did the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970 cause social and economic change that influenced the fall of apartheid? When looking at the implications of this legislation in isolation, it appears that it would have led South Africa further away from the fall of apartheid. But, upon analyzing both primary and secondary sources dealing with the socio-economic state of South Africa, it is clear that the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act played a critical role in creating social and economic change that helped lead to the fall of apartheid. Based on the evidence presented in this investigation, the social change that occurred as a result of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act played a greater role in bringing the fall of apartheid than the economic change. The social change created by the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act and its effect on the fall of apartheid is clear. Specifically, the emergence of the black consciousness movement enabled African activists of all political affiliation to unite around an ideology; the power of this change cannot be underestimated. Although the economic changes that came as a result of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act are legitimate and clear, there is less certainty that: a) the changes that occurred were exclusively a result of the legislation. and b) the economic changes that occurred had direct link to the fall of apartheid.

Brown 22 For example, Martin B. Meznars paper Effect of Announcements of

Withdrawal from South Africa on Stockholder Wealth, analyzes the economic effects of American companies withdrawing investment from South Africa. This paper presents contradictory findings to those of Posnikoff on the subjects of the impacts of disinvestment from South Africa on American stakeholders and on the fall of apartheid. 33 Both are very credible papers from prominent economists, but during the investigation it became that economic change was much more complex to analyze, as there were many more outside influences that needed to be considered, such as the economic situation for countries trading with South Africa. There was an abundance of valuable primary and secondary sources that make it simple to conclude that the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act created economic and social change that helped lead to the fall of apartheid. One limitation of many of the book sources is that they were written after this change took place, but before the fall of apartheid, so they commented on the state of the country after the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act, but not on the fall of apartheid. This did not significantly hinder the investigation in anyway. The contradictory findings in some economic studies made finding conclusive evidence in that area difficult. But nevertheless, it is clear that significant economic change occurred as a result of the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act. 33 Martin B. Mezner, Effect of Announcements of Withdrawl from South Africa on Stakeholder Wealth Academy of Management Journal 37, no. 6 (1994), 1633-1648

Brown 23 Works Cited

African Studies Centre at Michigan State University. Forced Removals. 2005. http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu (accessed January 3, 2015). Biko, Steve. "Fragmentation of Black Resistance ." In I Write What I Like , by Steve Biko, 33-40. London: Heinemann, 1978. Biko, Steve. "Let's Talk About Bantustans." In I Write What I Like, by Steve Biko, 82-83. London: Heinemann, 1978. Biko, Steve. "The Definition of Black Consciousness." In I Write What I Like, by Steve Biko, 48-54. London: Heinemann, 1978. Biko, Steve. "We Blacks." In I Write What I Like, by Steve Biko, 27-33. London: Heinemann, 1978. Booth, Douglas. The Race Game: Sport and Politics in South Africa . New York : Frank Cass Publishers, 1998. Butler, Jeffrey, I Robert Rotberg, and John Adams. The Black Homelands of South Africa. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1977. de Klerk, F.W. "F.W. de Klerk's Speech at the Opening of Parliment 2 February 1990." Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory. February 2, 1990. www.nelsonmandela.org (accessed February 20, 2015). Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. "Agency Theory: An Assessment and Review." The Academy of Management Review 14, no. 1 (January 1989): 57-74.

Brown 24 Gibson, Nigel. Black Consciousness 1977-1987; The Dialects of Liberation in South Africa . Seminal Article, Durban: Centre For Civil Society, 2004. Knight, Richard. Sanctions, Disinvestment, and U.S. Corporations in South Africa. Trenton: Africa World Press, 1990. Levy, Phillip I. Sanctions on South Africa: What Did They Do? Center Discussion Paper, New Haven: Yale University, 1999. Lewis, Jr. , Stephen R. The Economics of Apartheid. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1990. McCarthy, Colin. "Apartheid Ideology and Economic Development Policy ." In The Political

Economy of South Africa , 43-55. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1990. Mezner, Martin B. "Effect of Announcements of Withdrawl from South Africa on Stakeholer Wealth." Academy of Management Journal 37, no. 6 (1994): 1633-1648. Minister of Bantu Administration and Development. "Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act." Cape Town: Parliment of South Africa, March 26, 1970. Minister of Justice. "Unlawful Organizations Act." Cape Town: Parliment of South Africa, April 7, 1960. Nattrass, Jill. The South African Economy: Its Growth and Change. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1981. Posnikoff, Judith F. "Disinvestment from South Africa: They Did Well by Doing Good." Contemporary Economic Policy 15, no. 1 (January 1997): 76-86. Regehr, Ernie. Perceptions of Apartheid . Scottdale: Herald Press, 1979. South African History Online . South African Student Organization (SASO). June 2000. www.sahistory.org.za (accessed January 22, 2015).

Brown 25 South African Student Association. "SASO Policy Manifesto." In Black Student Politics,

Higher Education and Apartheid: From SASO to SANSCO 1968-1990, by Saleem Badt, 376-378. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 1999. The United Nations. "General Assembly Resolution: The Policies of apartheid of the Government of South Africa - Apartheid in Sports." In The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, by The United Nations, 314. New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1994. The United Nations. "General Assembly Resolution: The Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa." In The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994, by The United Nations, 313-314. New York: The United Nations Department of Public Information, 1994. United States Bureau of Labour Statistics. Databases, Tables and Calculators by Subject. www.bls.gov/data (accessed February 19, 2015). Vague, Klaus D. The Plot Against South Africa . Pretoria: Varama, 1989.

Brown 26 Appendix 1

Figure 1: This figure is a map of the Bantustans in South Africa as of 1970.