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MIOMBO ECOLOGY RELATED TO TREE DYNAMICS FOR FOREST RESTORATION AND SOME OTHER REFERENCES RELATED TO MIOMBO

UTILISATION AND REGENERATION.

An Annotated Bibliography Anel Blignaut

for Kilombero Valley Teak Company

Wildhorus Limited February 2003

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Economics in miombo

• Leakey, R. R. B. 2001. Win:win landuse strategies for Africa: 1. Building on experience

with agroforests in Asia and Latin America. International Forestry Review 3 (1).

A win:win landuse strategy has to provide both economic and environmental benefits, ideally with

enhanced livelihoods for the poor and the provision of commodities for the international market.

This paper reviews recent developments in agroforestry (tree domestication, understanding of

biodiversity and ecological complexity, and climate change) and some case studies from South

East Asia and Latin America, where income-generating non-timber forest products are being

produced by subsistence farmers within either enriched forest fallows (agroforests) or other forms

of multistrata agroforestry. It then examines the opportunities for similarly producing non-timber

forest products in the four main regions of Africa (Humid lowland forests of West and Central

Africa, the East African Highlands, and the Miombo woodlands of southern Africa and the Sahel),

as well as opportunities to domesticate the priority tree species for income generation.

• Luoga, E. J.; Witkowski, E. T. F.; Balkwill, K. 2000. Economics of charcoal production in

miombo woodlands of eastern Tanzania: some hidden costs associated with

commercialization of the resources. Ecological Economics 35 (2):243-257.

This paper assigns monetary values to commercial production of charcoal (using traditional earth

kilns) in the miombo woodlands surrounding Kitulanghalo Forest Reserve in eastern Tanzania,

through cost-benefit analysis (CBA). Charcoal is the most commercialized resource in the study

area and the net present value (NPV) for the charcoal business over a 15-year period was US$

511 ha-1. The profit from charcoal production is attributable to very low capital outlays, 'free' own

labour, 'free' raw materials, lack of concern about associated external costs and high demand for

charcoal. When the cost of labour, raw materials and opportunity costs were considered, the NPV

value was negative (US$-868 ha-1), indicating that profit realization is accomplished at the

expense of other potential uses of the woodlands. The estimated local wood consumption for

charcoal of 6.01 m3 capita-1 year-1 is very high compared to subsistence firewood consumption of

1.5 m3 capita-1 year-1. The estimated area cleared for charcoal production locally was 1671 ha

year-1, which was about 13% of surrounding easily accessible communal woodlands in the area

(<5 km from settlements and <10 km from the Dar-es-Salaam-Morogoro highway), which were

estimated to cover 13 350 ha. This shows that although commercialization of wood resources

provides tangible monetary benefits to rural communities, it also contributes to the resource

depletion that will ultimately threaten their long-term survival. We recommend some policy

interventions in order to safeguard the resources.

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References covering a range of topics

• Kanschik, W. 1999. The Miombo woodland subclimax of the northern region of Zimbabwe:

a study of its major plant species and their potential use as bio-indicator[s].

Tropenlandwirt, Beiheft, 67:14.

A survey was undertaken of the northern miombo woodlands of Zimbabwe, in order to investigate

the ecology of the plant species present, and based on these characteristics, to assess the quality

of the study sites. The study area of 19 000 m2 was stratified according to altitude, precipitation

and geological characteristics; 214 sites and 640 species were sampled, and 205 sites classified

as miombo woodland on the basis of the results; these 205 sites were studied further. On each site

38-45 environmental variables (climatic, edaphic, geological, structural and land use variables)

were measured. The plant formations on each of the 5 major geological rock formations

(granite/gneiss, metavolcanics/metasediments, dolerite, and Lomagundi and Piriwiri - ultramafic

rocks) were tested for similarity, and shown to differ in species composition; within each geological

sequence the species composition also changed from high to middle veld. Ordination of the data

set by canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) highlighted the major coordinated variance

according to 3 significant quantitative factors - altitude, rainfall and sand fraction. The first

ordination axis represented the linear composition of these 3 factors expressing the available soil

moisture. The resulting species-site matrix has a diagonal form, with the upper left part composed

of humid high veld species, the lower right part of dry low veld species, and the species with

intermediate moisture demand in between. The ordinated plant species sequence was divided into

7 groups, and scores were assigned to each site based on the average values of the groups to

which the species belong, in order to describe average soil moisture conditions (synonymous with

the site quality). Since the sample plots were established only on woodlands, the evaluation of

agricultural sites in the region depends upon the assessment of the surrounding woodlands.

Further surveys are required to determine more precisely the position of species along the

moisture gradient of these dry miombo woodlands.

• Campbell, B. 1996. The miombo in transition: woodlands and welfare in Africa. Center for

International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia.

This book reviews the importance of miombo woodlands in the livelihood of rural communities in

tropical Africa south of the Sahara. The various aspects are dealt with in 9 chapters by different

authors. The miombo dry tropical savanna woodlands are the most extensive vegetation type in

Africa south of the equator. They cover some 2.5 million hectares and are home to over 40 million

people. Miombo products are very important to the livelihoods and basic needs of an additional 15

million urban Africans. The book demonstrates how much livelihood strategies of rural communities

depend on miombo goods and services, and indicates the strong differentiation of uses within

communities and in space and time. The ecological constraints to human activity in the region are

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described - ranging from nutrient poor soils to the presence of the tsetse fly. The host of policies

that have influenced miombo woodlands and their uses, from pre-colonial times to the present are

traced. The current importance of miombo products in markets, both locally and globally, is

documented in a chapter on trade patterns. Options for management are outlined, including

silvicultural treatment, fire management and grazing regimes. Institutional arrangements, both local

and state, for the management of woodlands are investigated, and an examination made of how

local communities can be empowered to manage and benefit from the woodlands. The final

chapter proposes a conceptual model of how all the diverse social, economic, political and

ecological processes interact to shape how the household and woodland situations are changing.

This conceptual framework is then used to identify key issues for research, which will facilitate

formulation of new management strategies, policies and institutions. The 9 chapters are: (1)

Miombo woodlands and their use: overview and key issues (Campbell, B.; Frost, P.; Byron, N.); (2)

The ecology of miombo woodlands (Frost, P.); (3) Population biology of miombo trees (Chidumayo,

E.; Frost, P.); (4) Miombo woodlands in the wider context: macro-economic and inter-sectoral

influences (Misana, S.; Mung'ong'o, C.; Mukamuri, B.); (5) Rural households and miombo

woodlands: use, value and management (Clarke, J.; Cavendish, W.; Coot, C.); (6) Trade in

woodland products from the miombo region (Brigham, T.; Chihongo, A.; Chidumayo, E.); (7)

Managing miombo woodlands (Chidumayo, E.; Gambiza, J.; Grundy, I.); (8) Institutional

arrangements [tenure systems, legislation] governing the use and management of miombo

woodlands (Matose, F.; Wily, L.); and (9) Miombo woodlands and rural livelihoods: options and

opportunities (Campbell, B. Byron, N.). An index to scientific names is included.

• Dewees, P. A. 1996. The miombo woodlands of southern Africa: emerging priorities and

common themes for dryland forest management. Commonwealth Forestry Review 75

(2):130-135, 186.

Dry woodlands occupy very large areas in many tropical countries. Particularly where population

pressures are high, such woodland types constitute increasingly important elements in land uses,

which integrate woodland management with crop and livestock production. In southern Africa,

colonial and post-colonial management objectives commonly failed to satisfy the end-use

requirements of those most dependent on miombo woodlands (dominated by Brachystegia

spiciformis and Julbernardia globiflora). With ever-growing pressures on this vegetation type, the

empowerment of local people in seen as the most promising means of satisfying wants and

avoiding the alternative of woodland destruction. Past community controls are by no means

necessarily the means of ensuring survival of miombo with its multifarious range of products,

including environmental protection. The necessary reorientation of miombo management calls for a

deeper understanding of the impacts of past measures and practices, combined with the equitable

devolution of responsibility for natural resources to locally based management. These steps,

together with information on household requirements and improved operation of markets, will help

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to assure the future of miombo which will otherwise continue to be degraded and destroyed.

Finally, it is recommended that there is a need for reorientation of miombo management by

broadening silvicultural and ecological approaches to meet the local needs and social and

economic factors, which most significantly impacts, on how miombo is used.

Species specific research

• Ishengoma, R. C.; Chihongo, A. W. 1995. Strength properties of lesser known Brachystegia

species from miombo woodlands of Tanzania. Commonwealth Forestry Review 74(2):

155-157.

This note reports strength properties of three lesser known Brachystegia tree species, viz. B.

bohemii [B. boehmii], B. longifolia and B. tamarindoides var. microphylla. It contains a description

of which species are utilized the most or the most sought after. The paper is concluded by stating

that the three lesser known Brachystegia spp. Are heavier and in most cases stronger than

Pterocarpus angolensis (mninga), which is one of the finest timbers and in very high demand.

Impacts on miombo and use of miombo species

• Luoga, E. J.; Witkowski, E. T. F.; Balkwill, K. 2000. Differential utilization and

ethnobotany of trees in Kitulanghalo forest reserve and surrounding communal lands,

eastern Tanzania. Economic Botany 54 (3):328-343.

This study documents the utilization aspects and distribution of ethnobotanical knowledge of the

local people of Morogoro, Tanzania, as a first step towards sustainable utilization and conservation

of tropical woodlands. A total of 133 arborescent species in 31 families was identified of which 69%

had a variety of uses. These uses were classified into 12 categories and major uses were

charcoal, firewood, medicine, and poles. Most tree species have occasional uses, but a few are

exceptionally useful and thus their levels of utilization may far exceed their regeneration and

production. The questionnaire survey indicated that 62% of the respondents agreed that traditional

medical services were more available than modern services. Utilization surveys indicated that

wooden poles are the building material used in 98% of the dwellings and storage structures, wild

foods were useful for food security especially during drought years, and high quality timber trees

have been depleted in the forest because of earlier exploitation by pit-sawing. The distribution of

ethnobotanical knowledge indicated that much of the relevant ethnobotanical and utilization

information was held by more aged members of the society and hence there is a clear need to

capture this knowledge before it is lost. This study has shown that resources are defined by use

and culture, and some components of ethnobotanical knowledge have potential for the sustainable

management of miombo woodlands.

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• Temu, R. A. P. C.; Munyanziza, E.; Kessy, J. F. 2000. The role of natural vegetation in

the supply of wild food plants to rural Tanzanians: a case study of Ruvuma region

southern Tanzania. Annals of Forestry 8 (2):161-169.

Household, field and market surveys of edible plants of Tanzania were carried out in the Ruvuma

region, located in the south of the country. More than 90% of the area is covered by natural or

pseudo-natural vegetation, and miombo woodlands are the dominant vegetation type; other

vegetation types include Zambesian swamp, and riparian and Afromontane rain forests. The

surveys, which were based on questionnaires, interviews, field observation and a literature search,

revealed that 160 plants were used as food. Seventy four per cent of these were wild foods. Four

major habitats were identified, viz. forests or woodlands, riparian vegetation, agricultural land and

valley. Out of the thirteen food categories identified, three were highly represented in terms of the

number of species. These categories were wild fruits, vegetables and mushrooms. About 87% of

fruit plant species and 100% of mushrooms came from the forests or agricultural lands. On the

other hand, agricultural land constituted an important source of wild vegetables. The distribution of

harvest of wild fruits in time followed a pattern, which ensured supply of one or a combination of

food categories at any one period of the year. Wild fruits were plentiful during the dry season,

mushrooms during the rainy season while an important proportion of vegetables were available

throughout the year. Wild foods face an inevitable extinction since the level of domestication of wild

plants was very low. Since the various habitats seem to supplement each other, it is recommended

that measures to conserve and devise proper management strategies for each habitat are

undertaken, in order to ensure a sustained harvest of wild foods. Domestication of important wild

plants should be undertaken without delay.

• Holden, S. 2001. A century of technological change and deforestation in the Miombo

woodlands of northern Zambia. Agricultural technologies and tropical deforestation, p. 251-

269 Angelsen, A.; Kaimowitz, D (eds.) CAB International; Wallingford; UK

Economic theory and agroecosystem analysis were used to assess the effects of technological

changes on deforestation during the 20th century in the miombo savanna woodlands of northern

Zambia. Historical facts concerning demographic, policy and technological changes are combined

with applied farm household models to illustrate how these changes affected typical land users in

the area. Two major technological changes are highlighted: the introduction of cassava during the

first half of the century (initially within the chitemene shifting cultivation system) and the expansion

of fertilized maize systems in the late 1970s. It is concluded that the most significant technological

change in the region during the 20th century was the introduction of cassava. It represented a

labour- and land-saving technological change, which also made production less risky. It reduced

short-run deforestation but at the same time facilitated population growth and concentration.

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• Luoga, E. J.; Witkowski, E. T. F.; Balkwill, K. 2002. Harvested and standing wood stocks in

protected and communal miombo woodlands of eastern Tanzania. Forest Ecology and

Management 164 (1/3):15-30.

Plots of protected and communal miombo in eastern Tanzania were examined in order to compare

the standing and harvested wood stocks and investigate different human disturbance gradients

and utilization/management regimes.

This paper starts off with the argument that the dynamics of miombo woodlands are mostly

affected by people through clearance of the land for cultivation and subsequent abandonment,

selective harvesting of trees and initiation of fires. These woodlands are usually annually burnt.

The anthropogenic impacts across the miombo region id described and the differences in various

countries or regions.

Stating that the levels of harvesting in communal lands are not sustainable and that the

forest reserves are not effectively conserved concludes the paper. Further study is recommended

in order to show how anthropogenic disturbances and environmental factors affect the

regeneration, abundance, distribution and population dynamics of important species.

• Lowore, J. D.; Abbot, P. G.; Werren, M. 1994. Stackwood volume estimations for miombo

woodlands in Malawi. Commonwealth Forestry Review 73 (3):193-197.

One metre billets of known volume were piled in 1 m3 stacks to estimate a stacked to solid volume

conversion ratio. An average conversion factor of 0.44 for stacked to solid volume was calculated.

Mean stackwood yield (m3) per m 2 of basal area removed was 16.1 m3/m2. Stand basal area

(m2/ha) and height (m) varied between sample plots. There was no significant correlation between

total plot basal area (m2) and yield (m3) per m2 basal area removed, but there was a significant

correlation between tree height and yield. Regression models of stackwood yield against basal

area removed and mean heights were developed for the estimation of stackwood volume for

miombo woodland in Malawi.

• Chidumayo, E. N. 1993. Zambian charcoal production: miombo woodland recovery. Energy

Policy 21(5): 586-597.

The recovery of miombo woodlands following clearance for woodfuel is being monitored at four

sites in central Zambia. This paper reports data collected in 1990-92. Charcoal production removes

50% of the total woody biomass and the woodland regenerates from a pool of stunted old

seedlings and stumps of cut trees. Productivity is correlated with tree density before felling.

Clearing of successive regrowth miombo does not appear to affect productivity. Annual wood

biomass increment in unmanaged regrowth miombo is estimated at 2-3 t/ha of which about 1.1 t is

cordwood suitable for charcoal production. However, the charcoal spots within the deforested area

are severely affected by the carbonization process, which destroys soil structure, seedlings and

rootstocks. Woodland regeneration on such spots is protracted. Fortunately, charcoal spots only

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cover 2-3% of the deforested area. The concern about land degradation due to deforestation

caused by woodfuel harvesting for urban charcoal in the miombo woodland region of central and

southern Africa is not supported by the results of this study.

• Guy, P. R. 1989. The influence of elephants and fire on a Brachystegia-Julbernardia

woodland in Zimbabwe. Journal of Tropical Ecology 5 (2): 215-226.

Brachystegia-Julbernardia (miombo) woodlands (B. boehmii, J. globiflora, B. spiciformis dominant)

inside and outside the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, show major differences in

structure, biomass and species composition. Woodlands inside the research area have a lower

stem area, tree density and biomass than those outside it. Shrubs inside the research area occur

at a higher density than they do outside it, but the biomasses of shrubs in the two woodlands are

similar. The woodlands inside the research area are affected by elephants and fire, whereas those

outside it are affected mainly by fire. It is postulated that the policy of maintaining the elephant

population at 250 in the research area is having a beneficial effect and, provided elephants and fire

are kept in check, the woodlands inside the research area will eventually recover.

• Shaba, MWM. 1993. A perspective of indigenous forest management in the SADCC

Region. In:Piearce, GD and Gumbo, DJ (eds) The ecology and management of

indigenous forests in Southern Africa, 29-37. Proceedings of an international symposium,

Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, 27-29 July 1992. Zimbabwe forestry Commission and SAREC,

Harare.

It is estimated that half a million hectares of woodland are cleared annually in seven countries of the miombo region. Miombo regeneration and restoration methods

• Kalumiana, O. S.; Chilukusha, G. 1995. Management of indigenous woodlands for

household energy use - monitoring responses of miombo woodlands to tree felling and

charcoal production. Report - SADC Environment and Land Management Sector

Coordination Unit 37:119-134.

Results are reported and discussed from 4 permanent research plots in the miombo

(Brachystegia/Julbernardia) savanna woodlands of Zambia, which studied productivity and post-

felling recovery. The plots were set up in 1988-89 as part of the Zambian Urban Household Energy

Strategy (ZUHE) Study, a Zambian government project supported by the World Bank. All woody

species had 30-50% below-ground biomass which contributed significantly to plant regeneration

and system stability under the present felling and burning regime. Nutrient status of the soil was

not adversely affected by present practices, although soil moisture stress resulting from burning did

cause seedling mortality.

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• Blakesley, D., Elliott, S., Kuarak, C., Navakitbumrung, P., Zangkum, S., Anusarnsunthorn,

V. 2002. Propagating framework tree species to restore seasonally dry tropical forest:

implications of seasonal seed dispersal and dormancy. Forest Ecology and Management

164:31-38

The framework species method is used as an approach to forest restoration. It involves the

selection of 20-30 indigenous forest tree species to plant in order to re-establish a basic forest

structure that catalyze the recovery of biodiversity. This method is particularly useful when there is

a lack in knowledge on how to propagate the majority of indigenous tree species.

Framework tree species should be species that are fast growing with dense spreading canopies,

which rapidly shade out weeds. They should also provide resources for wildlife, which in turn could

assist with the dispersal of seeds and therefore accelerating the return of biodiversity. The seed of

the framework species should be easy to collect and germinate in the nursery. A reasonable

growth rate is also required.

This paper shows that nursery production of native species of which very little is known, could

present considerable logistic problems to the nursery manager due to the considerable variation in

dormancy and germination synchrony.

This paper is currently being followed up by research in the weaning and dispatching of seedlings.

• Chidumayo, E. N. 1993. Zambian charcoal production: miombo woodland recovery. Energy

Policy 21(5):586-597. The recovery of miombo woodlands following clearance for woodfuel is being monitored at four

sites in central Zambia. This paper reports data collected in 1990-92. Charcoal production removes

50% of the total woody biomass and the woodland regenerates from a pool of stunted old

seedlings and stumps of cut trees. Productivity is correlated with tree density before felling.

Clearing of successive regrowth miombo does not appear to affect productivity. Annual wood

biomass increment in unmanaged regrowth miombo is estimated at 2-3 t/ha of which about 1.1 t is

cordwood suitable for charcoal production. However, the charcoal spots within the deforested area

are severely affected by the carbonization process which destroys soil structure, seedlings and

rootstocks. Woodland regeneration on such spots is protracted. Fortunately, charcoal spots only

cover 2-3% of the deforested area. The concern about land degradation due to deforestation

caused by woodfuel harvesting for urban charcoal in the miombo woodland region of central and

southern Africa is not supported by the results of this study.

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• Hosier, R.H., Boberg, J., Luhanga, M. & Mwandosya, M. 1990. Energy planning and wood

balances. Sustainable energy future for Tanzania. Natural Resources Forum 14(2):143-

154.

Energy utilization has been linked to environmental degradation in the form of deforestation. When

the resource is harvested faster than it generates, biomass mining is said to occur and is reflected

as a deficit in the wood balance. It is only beneficial economically in the short run and if continued

it will exhaust the region’s forest resources.

The ability of woodland to grow back following clearing, known as ecosystem resiliency, is still

poorly understood.

Taking the ecological argument first Blaikie ad Brookfield has argued that the two components of

ecosystem stability should guide thinking with respect to human-induced environmental

degradation. The first, ecosystem resiliency, is the ability of an ecosystem to spring back following

a disturbance. The second, ecosystem sensitivity, describes how susceptible an ecosystem is to

human interference. These two factors define a two-by two matrix wherein sensitivity and

resiliency are the different dimensions. Each component is then broken up into areas of high and

low resiliency or sensitivity. The most ecologically unstable areas are regarded as the low-

resiliency, high sensitivity areas. From an ecological perspective these areas should receive

careful management attention.

Chidumayo has pointed out that miombo woodlands show relatively high resiliency in terms of

biomass production, but not necessarily in terms of species diversity.

• Blaikie, P. & Brookfield, H. 1987. Land degradation and society. Methuen, New York.

See citing above.

• Chidumayo, E.N. 1987. Estimating fuelwood production and yield in regrowth dry

miombo woodland in Zambia. Forest Ecology and Management 24:59-66.

See citing above.

• Chidumayo, E.N. 1987. Species structure in Zambian miombo woodland. Journal of

Tropical Ecology 3:109-118.

See citing above.

• Bellefontaine, A., Gaston & Petrucci, Y. 2000. Management of natural forests of dry

tropical zones. FAO Conservation Guide 32. Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations (FAO), Rome.

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Topics covered in this guide are the following:

• Diversity of Woody-Vegetation Formations

• Evolutionary Factors in Dry Forests

• The Concept of Forest Management – Evolution, Principles and Technical Requirements

• Biology of Forest Species

• Forest Resources Evaluation

• Silviculture and Silvo-Pastoralism

• Social Sciences

• Operational Guidelines

• Criteria and Indicators

• Research

• Case studies

In this guide, miombo is described as Open woodlands and it gives a very good description of open

woodlands e.g. how it is formed and what species it consists of and where it occurs. The author is

of the opinion that, open woodlands or miombo for that matter is derived from dry deciduous

forests. The author furthermore states that due to ancestral burning the flora have been reduced

to a very small number of species, which have become fairly fire-tolerant.

Kelly (1995) has drawn conclusions from improvement planting trials carried out in 1988, 1990

and 1991. Khaya senegalensis and Afzelia Africana performed particularly well, whilst the other

species used had much lower growth and survival rates. The results clearly show that the success

of a plantation of indigenous species is often quite unpredictable.

The author lists the drawbacks of improvement planting in dry tropical zones and states that

management through natural regeneration should be preferred to planting in stand establishment

and /or regeneration. He suggests that direct seeding should be preferred on account of its low

cost and comparative simplicity.

Conclusions of Burning experiment by Aubréville (1953) in Côte d’Ivoire:

• In the absence of fire, on two soils types of differing fertility, a semi-deciduous closed rain

forest is developing.

• With early prescribed burning, soil fertility is of primary importance. On fertile soils the cover

closes here and there and patches of closed forest appears and grow until crowns meet.

The number of species increases. On poor soils, the fire kills the young individuals, however

in some years (possible wet years) some saplings escape the fire and creates a balance

which keeps the woody stand stable.

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• The late fires rapidly destroy the pole stands and the stump sprouts are unable to develop.

The stumps gradually die. The adult trees can resist these fires, but there is no guarantee of

regeneration. After about 40 years, the large individuals die without being replaced by

saplings. Eventually the trees will give way to grassy savanna.

• To recolonize a fallow site by a forest formation can only be done under total fire protection.

However, on more fertile soils an early dry season fire is prescribed.

• With the aim of wood production, it is negatively affected if one regularly resort to early

prescribed burning. Continual use of early prescribed burning eventually leads to a

reduction of biological diversity through elimination of all species with fine bark that are

sensitive to fires.

The guide provides good information on harvesting, including the stump height at which should be

harvested, optimum cutting period, rotation and removal of wood.

Definitely worthwhile reading!

• Jaenicke, H. 1999. Good tree nursery practices. International centre for research in

agroforestry. Majestic Printing Works. Nairobi.

Factors such as nursery bed density, shading, pricking out techniques, seedling size at planting,

watering and fertilizing before (and after planting) will have a significant and long-lasting effect on

the seedling qualities and subsequent seedling development, insect and pest resistance and

tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought.

• Fanshawe, DB. 1971. The vegetation of Zambia. Kirkia 6:169-179.

Miombo woodland regrows virtually unchanged following clearing. This is because regeneration

consists of stump/root sucker shoots and recruitment from old stunted seedlings already present in

the grass alyer at the time of cutting.

• Munyanziza, E. 1994. Miombo trees and mycorrhizae: ecological strategies. A basis for

afforestation. CIP-Data Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Den Haag.

This publication contains practical hints for nurserymen raising Miombo species.

• Grundy, IM, Campbell, BM & Frost, PGH. 1994. Spatial pattern, regeneration and growth

rates of Brachystegia spiciformis and Julbernardia globiflora. Vegetatio 115:101-107.

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Significantly greater numbers of seedlings of B. spiciformis seedlings were found beneath tree

canopies than in the open either because of greater seedling survival in more mesic and fertile

environment under tree canopies or because of higher initial seed input.

• Seydack, A.H.W.; Vermeulen, W.J. & Vermeulen, C. 2000. Towards Sustainable

Management Based on Scientific Understanding of Natural Forests and Woodlands.

Proceedings Natural Forests and Savanna Woodlands Symposiium ii, Knysna, South

Africa. 5-9 September 1999.

Although these proceedings deal with natural forests and woodlands and not only with miombo,

one can find a lot of information that is generally applicable to forest management. Topics covered

are:

Ø Timber harvesting in natural forests and their responses to harvesting.

Ø Disturbance and regeneration ecology in mainly the southern Cape forests.

Ø Forest biodiversity and conservation.

Ø Ecology and management of natural forests. In this section there is a paper by Luoga,

Witkowski and Balkwill in which they discuss the economics and sustainability of

commercial production of wood fuel in miombo woodlands of Eastern Tanzania.

Ø Biome utilization for socio-economic benefit.

• Munyanziza, E. 1994. Miombo Trees and Mychorrhizae. Ecological strategies, a basis for

afforestation. Phd. Thesis at the Agricultural University of Wageningen.CIP-Data

Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag.

This thesis contains a short overview of miombo vegetation and specifically the pant ecological

aspects and distribution. It then proceeds to chapters 2-5 in which 4 different miombo species are

discussed, including the investigation into various aspects such as germination, survival of

seedlings, etc. Chapter 5 contains the results and discussion of greenhouse experiments in

Tanzania on exotic pines.

• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 1998. Guidelines for the

management of tropical forests. The production of wood. FAO Forestry Paper 135. FAO,

Rome.

This is a useful guideline for forest management and not so much fro restoration. This publication

covers the following topics:

Ø Principles of Tropical Forest Management

Ø Guidelines for defining forest resources

Ø Guidelines for defining financial, economic, environmental and social information

Ø Guidelines for forest management planning

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Ø Implementation

Ø Monitoring, reporting and review

The section on Sampling and Measurement of Forest Growth and Yield is particularly usefull for its

explanations on how to choose a permit sample plot and what the different design are that one can

use as well as the size and shape of the plots. It also explains what to measure and how to

measure it, for e.g. tree diameter measurements, tree numbering, etc.

In the Environmental consideration section, it defines and lists practical steps for watershed

conservation, conservation of biological diversity, wildlife conservation, buffer zone formation and

forests and global climate.

The very short paragraph on Site restoration doesn’t say much. The short section, Guidelines for

Enrichment Planting and Release Weeding is more useful. It includes the guidelines for planning,

the choice of species to be planted and forest practices.

• Ball, J.B. 1992. Forest plantations and the wise management of tropical forests. In: F.R.

Miller & Adam, K.L. Wise Management of Tropical Forests 1992. Proceedings of the

Oxford Conference on Tropical Forests. Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford,

Oxford.

This paper looks at the correct matching of species and provenances with site. It specifically

reviews large-scale attacks by pests and diseases. The need for techniques to establish

plantations on poor soils is emphasized. The use of nurse species to provide shade to reduce

attack on Meliaceae by Hypsipyla robusta has been commonly used in West Africa. In Nigeria, the

nurse was Nauclea diderichii (Opepe) Mixed in a ratio of 5:1 with Meliceae.

• Rukuba, M.L.S.B. 1992. Linkages between wise forest management for forest production

and local markets and industries: Example from Uganda. In: F.R. Miller & Adam, K.L. Wise

Management of Tropical Forests 1992. Proceedings of the Oxford Conference on Tropical

Forests. Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford.

This paper describes the management of tropical forest reserves for the past 60 years in Uganda

for the purpose of producing timber, fuelwood and charcoal for domestic consumption and for the

conservation of ecosystems. Harvesting systems and forest regeneration techniques are

described.

In 1951, 600ha had been planted in the savanna woodlands using Mahoganies and Mvule. In the

natural high forest about 8100ha had received enrichment planting. These practices were later

abandoned due to a shortage in funds, labour, wildlife damage and Mvule gallfly. They then

. 15

started to use contact arboricides for selective “weeding” at all levels of the forest. This natural

regeneration technique was developed by H.C. Dawkins, full described in Dawkins, 1958.

Full reference: Dawkins, H.C. 1958. The management of natural high forest with special reference

to Uganda. Commonwealth Forestry Institute Paper 34:155.

This resulted that in 1991 one could find a good stocking of valuable timber in compartments which

were treated with arboricides.

Charcoal burning in Mengo Natural High Forest created ideal conditions for enrichment planting.

This was later developed and became standard practice where charcoal production was possible.

Enrichment planting of illegally cultivated areas and of degraded areas are two of the targets of the

Natural Forestry Rehabilitation Project.

• Norman, J.D. 1992. Tropical Hardwoods from well-managed forests – Myth or Model? In:

F.R. Miller & Adam, K.L. Wise Management of Tropical Forests 1992. Proceedings of the

Oxford Conference on Tropical Forests. Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford,

Oxford.

This paper is a summary of the success of three timber suppliers in Brazil and one in Indonesia in

terms of their replanting and nursery operations. The most popular method of replanting involves

planting lines of trees approximately 10m apart with the seedlings on the lines at intervals of 3-

10m, depending on the species. The main costs of this operation lie in the clearing of the area

around the seedlings to prevent suffocation by the re-growth vegetation. Another threat is the

larvae of the Hypsipella grandella moth.

• Hartshorn, G.S. & Whitmore, J.L. 1999. Anthropogenic disturbance and tropical forestry:

Implications for sustainable management. In: L.R. Walker (editor). Ecosystems of disturbed

ground. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

As the title of this chapter describes, it discusses disturbance effects and therefore impacts on soil

and soil organisms, plants, animals and the ecosystem as a whole. In the recovery and restoration

section it is argued that scientific evidence does not support the claims that the tropics are fragile.

They are much better described as resilient. A detailed discussion can be found in this section.

Various usefull bits of information can be found in the Tropical Forest Management section of this

Chapter. Disturbance is said to be the central factor in dominance-diversity relations of tropical

forests and that maximum diverisity occur at intermediate levels of disturbance. The use of

Mahogany is discussed as an excellent species to use for regeneration in areas of larger

disturbance. There are various managerial responses to disturbance, firstly the low budget

response, which allow for natural regeneration, which can be appropriate in areas with low human

population. A more intensive approach would be to encourage desired species and discourage

. 16

undesired species. An even more intensive approach would be enrichment planting in secondary

forest. In cases where the management objective is to restore the disturbed site to a natural

condition, abandonment may permit nature to run its course.

In badly degraded areas where human intervention is required, soil restoration and the planting of

trees may be required. Restorative plantations could improve microclimatic conditions ona site to

the point that indigenous vegetation can get a foothold. It seems to matter little, whether

indigenous or exotic species are used in this nurse crop. The exotics may perform better under the

harsh conditions.

In conclusion, disturbance is an integral cause of tropical forest dynamic and regeneration.

Silviculture is a principle tool to maintain a healthy, vigorous and productive forest. Removal of

trees often leads to renovation of a forest. Harvest should be conducted in a way to promote

regeneration of new forest. There is a need for research on restoration of productivity to degraded

or disturbed sites. More attention is needed to integrating the principles of disturbance ecology

into transdisciplinary efforts to manage complex tropical forests, secondary forests and tropical tree

plantations sustainably.

• Mbuya, LP; Msanga, HP; Ruffo, CK; Birnie, A & Tengnas, B.1994. Useful trees and shrubs

for Tanzania. SIDA’s Regional Soil Conservation Unit, Kenya.

This book is very useful in order to identify what miombo species are easy to propagate and

relatively fast growing. It also provides information on the various uses of the different miombo

trees and shrubs.

• Rocheleau, D.; Weber, F. & Field-Juma, A. 1988. Agroforestry in dryland Africa.

International Council for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi.

A very comprehensive and practical book on agroforestry practices and systems. It also contains

useful information on specific trees and shrubs.

• Tucker, N.I.J. & Murphy, T.M. 1997. The effects of ecological rehabilitation on vegetation

recruitment: some observations from the Wet Tropics of North Queensland. Forest Ecology

and Management 99: 133-152.

The nature of vegetation colonisation in four small rehabilitations and adjacent, protected control

sites in tropical north Queensland were studied. Seven-year-old rehabilitation plots next to forest

had recruited up to seventy-two plant species across all growth forms and successional phases.

Recruitment in 5-year-old plots was less abundant and diverse. The control site by comparison

was dominated by disclimax grasses and diversity was reduced to only 19 species.

. 17

The ability of ecologically rehabilitated areas to recruit and sustain new life forms is a true measure

of their contribution to biodiversity conservation. In the tropics, the process of plant colonisation

may be accelerated by establishing combinations of fleshy-fruited native plant species from

different stages of a normal forest succession, which attract seed dispersing birds and mammals.

The author also stresses the paucity of information on the recruitment of most forms of biodiversity,

which indicates the relative infancy of the practice of rehabilitation ecology, and this lack of

knowledge and practice is nowhere more apparent than in tropical forests. The authors concludes

by stating that a strategic approach, combining accelerated succession with manipulated site

conditions seems to be the most appropriate form of rehabilitation management.

• Hardwick, K., Healey, J., Elliot, S., Garwood, N. & Anusarnsunthorn, V. 1997.

Understanding and assisting natural regeneration processes in degraded seasonal

evergreen forests in northern Thailand. Forestry Ecology and Management 99: 203-214.

The approach looked at in this study is called Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR). In this

process particular limiting factors are counteracted, such as insufficient dispersal of tree seeds into

cleared areas or lack of beneficial shade. In this paper these limiting factors were identified by

analyzing, stage by stage, the regeneration from seed of various species in an abandoned

agricultural clearing in Northern Thailand. The knowledge about these limiting factors was then

used to develop appropriate ANR techniques.

Fruit production, seed dispersal, seed germination and seedling survival were monitored in the

field. The authors aim to to demonstrate how systematic study of regeneration processes can be

of use in devising strategies to accelerate tree regeneration in deforested areas. Raising seedlings

in nurseries and planting them out in degraded areas under the shade of existing herbaceous

vegetation may be a suitable method of accelerating the regeneration of Beilschmiedia sp. The

direct seed sowing of Prunus cerasoides in degraded areas may be appropriate or the habitat for

birds could be encouraged which would result in natural seed dispersal. The cutting back of weeds

or by shading them out by nurse trees could facilitate the establishment of Engelhardia spicata

(wind dispersed) seedlings.

The authors stresses the importance of knowledge on the most limiting factors that prevent

regeneration of trees in deforested areas, so that the minimum input strategies may be devised to

overcome them. When restoring a site, the chosen management approach will always be

influenced by practicalities such as, the end use of the restored site, available capital, facilities for

collecting seeds and raising seedlings and the distance over which seeds and seedlings would

have to be transported.

. 18

• Tuite, P.; Gardiner, J. J. 1990. The miombo woodlands of central, eastern and southern

Africa. Irish Forestry 47(2):90-107.

The climate, geology, structure and botanical composition of miombo woodlands are briefly

described. Productivity and yield are discussed in view of the low rate of growth, which may not

exceed 4 m3/ha per annum. Miombo woodland succession, representing either a fire or climatic

climax, together with seral stages, is discussed. The historical multipurpose resource use of

miombo woodland for shifting cultivation, pastoral and energy use is described, as is the

commercial exploitation of Pterocarpus angolensis by forestry authorities. A matrix of miombo

woodland resource uses is presented, with 18 options assigned to 3 resource use strategies

('traditional', 'management' and 'exploitation'). An exploitation strategy including heavy grazing,

large-scale tobacco curing and urban charcoal production is shown to be highly incompatible with

other options. Management strategies for miombo woodlands (particularly agroforestry and

woodland coppicing systems) are discussed.

• Jolin, D. & Torquebiau, E. 1992. Large cuttings. A jump start for tree planting. Agroforestry

Today 4(4):1576.

In the Northwestern part of Costa Rica te farmers use a traditional technique to establish living

fences from large cuttings. Some trees grow large shoots straight up from lateral branches.

These shoots are cut at their base when they are 15cm in diameter. The shoots are then trimmed

to a length of 2.5m an laid down horizontally in the shade under the tree for one week. After this

they are stacked vertically against the tree for three weeks. They are then planted, burying the

lower ends 50cm in the ground.

These branches are called apicormic shoots, which originate from special buds. The resting of the

shoots for one week on the ground probably allows for the cuts to heal and stacking them vertically

may encourage minerals and hormones to concentrate at the bottom end. The 4 week rest period

may also strengthen the bark. Trees established for these shoots yield products of commercial

value in only 7 to 10 years. This technique could hold promise for reforestation projects. These

shoots can withstand burning and competition better than seedlings. It will however be difficult to

obtain large quantities of planting material for large areas.

Fire in Miombo

. 19

• Belnap, J.; Sanford, R. L.; Lungu, L. 1996. Biological soil crusts: ecological roles and

response to fire in Miombo woodlands of Zimbabwe. Transactions of the Zimbabwe

Scientific Association 70:14-20.

The ecological role and response to fire of biological soil crusts in miombo woodland, Zimbabwe,

was investigated. Using forest canopy and soil moisture mapping, it was shown that where canopy

cover was least and lowest, soil moisture was greatest. These areas also had the highest cover of

biological soil crusts. The effects of no-burn, 2 year burn-only, 2 year burn-mattock, 4 year burn-

only and 4 year burn-mattock treatments on cyanobacterial cover, biomass, and shear strength of

soils was compared. The 4 year burn-mattock treatment resulted in the greatest cyanobacterial

cover, the greatest cyanobacterial biomass, and the greatest soil shear strength among the

different burn treatments.

• Louppe, D., Oattara, N. & Coulibaly, A. 1995. The effects of brush fires on vegetation: the

Aubréville fire plots after 60 years. Commonwealth Forestry Review 74(4):228-291.

The Aubréville experiment (*see full reference below) is the oldest African experiment on the

dynamics of woody vegetation in relation to brush fires. These experiments were set up in 1936 in

Cote d’Ivoire. The findings of the most recent assessment show that a forest has developed (117

species) in the plot protected from fires and that a savanna-type development is taking place in the

plot, which was affected by late dry season fires. The plot affected by early dry season fires shows

variable development, depending on the soil fertility. The more fertile soils are covered with less

mature closed forest than the totally protected plot. The infertile area is covered with wooded

savanna.

After a short time, late fires have destroyed pole stage trees and coppice shoots have not

managed to grow. Stumps have died off progressively. With early fires, the young specimens are

killed off by the fire, but in wet years some saplings escape the fire and a sort of balance is

established which keeps the woody stand stable. There is virtually no timber production.

The natural recolonisatiion of fallow land can only be achieved by total fire protection on all soil

types or by the use of early dry season fires in the most fertile areas. Late fires should be banned,

as should early fires on poor soils. This is if your goal is to re-develop a closed formation which is

productive and sustainable, especially if fire is used as a management tool.

Similar results in terms of the total fire protection plot has been obtained in Ghana by Swaine et al.

1992 and in Nigeria by Charter & Keay, 1960.

*Aubreville, A. 1953. Les expériences de reconstitution de la savane boisée en Coté d’Ivoire. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques 32:1-8.

. 20

• Hursh, CR. 1960. The dry woodlands of Nysaland. International Cooperation

Administration, Salisbury.

This crippling effect takes place in the early stages of regeneration while in older trees fires also

cause basal scars and stem lesions which produce defective stems of poor pole and timber quality.

• Trapnell, CG. 1959. Ecological results of woodland burning experiments in Northern

Rhodesia. Journal of Ecology 47:129-168.

Where wood production is the objective, burning should be done at the end of the rainy season,

when the moisture levels in both grass and tree layer are relatively high. ). Fire results in changes

in species composition as well as changes in vegetation structure. Frequent late dry-season fires

eventually transform woodland into open, tall grass savanna with only isolated, fire-tolerant canopy

trees and scattered understorey trees and shrubs. Woody plants, however, are favoured by both

early burning and complete protection.

• Van Wyk, M., Campbell, BM., Calvert, GM and Piearce, GD. 1993. Mukwa dieback in the

state forests of western Zimbabwe. In: Piearce, GD & Gumbo, DJ. (eds) The ecology and

management of indigenous forests in Southern Africa, 29-37. Proceedings of an

international symposium, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, 27-29 July 1992. Zimbabwe forestry

Commission and SAREC, Harare.

Fire does not only kill seedlings and retards coppice regrowth, but also damages the base of the

trees, which results in an increased probability of fungal infection. Experimental design and

statistics.

• Shepherd, G. 1992. Managing Africa’s Tropical Dry Forests. A review of indigenous

methods. Overseas Development Institute. London.

Fire is both a cleanser and enricher of the earth, and a potent danger to savanna woodland.

Miombo farmers has a sophisticated understanding of the effect of fire on the tree and grass

species.

Mention is made of two fire control experiments. The first is that of Charter (see later) and that of Onochie (also see later). A worthwhile read for a summary of techniques used for the management of woodlands.

• Charter, J.A. & Kay, R.W.J. 1960. Assessment of the Olokemeji Fire Control Experiment 28

years after institution. Nigerian Forestry Information Bulletin (new series) 3. Lagos, Nigeria.

The experiment was conducted in savanna woodland close to and derived from closed forest.

After 28 years in the plot protected from fire, savanna grasses had been eliminated and 46% of

tree stems were of fire-sensitive rain-forest species. The changes in the plots, which had been

. 21

early burnt, were going in the same direction, but more slowly. The late burn plots has remained

as open savanna woodland.

• Onochie, C.F.A. 1964. An experiment in controlled burning in the Sudan zone.

Proceedings, First Nigerian Forestry Conference, Kaduna. pp. 131-155.

Experiments were conducted in Anogeissus-Combretum forest, (600-900mm rainfall) on a variety

of combinations of protection and burning regimes, to discover which gives the greatest Mean

Annual Increment (MAI), and which the greatest number of stems per hectare.

In order of success, the greatest MAI was obtained:

1. by early burning every fourth year, and by fire protection the rest of the time.

2. by early burning and fire protection every alternating year.

3. by fire protection alone.

4. & 5. by early or late burning annually.

In order to obtain a large number of large stems per hectare (50cm and over) protection,

without burning was the best regime, even though some MAI was sacrificed this way.

Experimental design & models

• Gambiza, J.; Bond, W.; Frost, P. G. H.; Higgins, S. 2000. A simulation model of miombo

woodland dynamics under different management regimes. Ecological Economics

33(3):353-368.

Miombo woodlands are crucial to the livelihoods of rural people throughout southern, eastern and

central Africa. This paper describes a dynamic simulation model of key ecological processes in

miombo and examines the ecological and economic impacts of various forms of management. The

model shows that removing harvestable trees and reducing the level of grazing by livestock causes

an increase in grass fuel loads and a corresponding increase in the frequency of fires. More

frequent and intense fires in turn suppress woody regrowth, thereby adversely affecting

harvestable tree stocks. Despite the marked ecological response to manipulating the level of

grazing, the impacts on economic performance were minimal. The NPVs for Forestry Commission

in particular remained relatively constant under different management regimes. Given these low

potential returns, the advantage of applying some of the known silvicultural management

treatments to miombo woodlands seems questionable. Varying the proportion of harvestable

timber trees cut and changing the length of the cutting cycle might suggest that profits to the

Forestry Commission or timber concessionaires could be maximized by harvesting as much timber

as possible in a single cutting period. Under such a scenario, however, the woodland would be

rapidly converted to bushland. There is a need to explore further the trade-offs between direct use

. 22

values, as derived from harvesting and selling timber, and ecological service functions, such as

carbon sequestration and modifications of the hydrological cycle.

• Cauldwell, A. E.; Zieger, U.; Bredenkamp, G. J.; Bothma, J. du P. 1999. The responses

of grass species to grazing intensity in the miombo woodlands of the Chibombo District

of the Central Province, Zambia. South African Journal of Botany 65, (5/6):310-314.

The aim of the research was establish a monitoring system for the assessment of the vegetation

condition in woodlands. This was done by measuring the response of various grass species

occurring in central Zambia to grazing intensity.

A grazing intensity gradient covering four sites with long-term grazing histories was defined

through ordination procedures. Grazing intensity ranged from zero grazing to severe over

utilization, and grazing was by cattle and/or game. The frequency and level of abundance of 28

commonly occurring grass species were recorded over the gradient to determine their responses

to grazing intensity. Each of the grasses were allocated to one of five ecological status groups.

Andropogon gayanus could be a reliable indicator of underutilization, while Eragrostis patens and

Sporobolus pyramidalis could be reliable indicators of overgrazed conditions. One of the main

conclusions of this paper is that if miombo woodland is to be managed for the promotion of

biodiversity, the grazing intensity must be light.

• Desanker, P. V.; Prentice, I. C.1994. MIOMBO - a vegetation dynamics model for the miombo woodlands of Zambezian Africa. Forest Ecology and Management 69:87-95.

The gap model FORSKA was modified to develop MIOMBO, a model to simulate productivity and

succession in the miombo tropical dry woodlands of Central Africa. A few measured parameters of

the miombo were used to establish suitable ranges of the rest of the parameters in the model by

simulation to form a 'base case'. This base case, which does not represent any specific site, was

used to apply drought routines to simulate the differential development of miombo species

(Brachystegia spiciformis, B. boehmii, Pericopsis angolensis, Syzygium sp., Uapaca kirkiana, U.

sansibarica, Marquesia macroura and Julbernardia globiflora) in Malawi. The MIOMBO model can

be used as a starting point for more detailed parameterization for specific sites. In this paper,

changes made to the FORSKA model are emphasized. The paper also contains a good description

of miombo vegetation and its moisture requirements.

• Wong. J.L.G.; Thornber, K. & Baker, N. 2001. Resource assessment of non-wood forest

products. Experience and biometric principles. Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations. Rome.

Methods for experimental design.

. 23

• Alidi, F. S.; Hanmer, P. S. D. 1991. Inventory of indigenous forests and woodlands in the

SARCCUS region: Botswana. South African Forestry Journal 158:81-82.

A paper presented at the 13th meeting of the SARCCUS (Southern African Regional Commission

for the Conservation and Utilization of the Soil) Standing Committee for forestry held at Knysna,

South Africa, 24 October 1990. Four inventories are planned for the 1990's, viz. (1) a pilot

woodfuel inventory covering 120 000 ha of lowveld surrounding the major towns of E. Botswana

where large-scale deforestation is occurring, (2) a rangeland inventory and monitoring project to

cover the majority of the country, to provide guidelines for the management of communal grazing

lands and ranches, (3) a natural resource inventory, following the 1st forest inventory (1965), of the

'miombo' woodlands of the Chobe District in N. Botswana - this is to be conducted initially in the 6

gazetted forest reserves, totalling 500 000 ha, surrounding Chobe National Park and (4) the latter

inventory is ultimately to be extended to cover an area in excess of 5 million ha including the whole

of the Chobe National Park, Ngamiland and the Okavango Delta.

• Kwesiga, F. R., Dzowela, B. H., Maghembe, J. A., Otsyina, R. O. 1998. Zambezi Basin

Agroforestry Project for Sustainable Rural Develoment and Agroforestry Research

Networks for Africa: proceedings of the 11th regional project planning workshop, 1-5 July

1987, Chipata, Zambia.

The objectives of the workshop were to: bring together partners in agroforestry from the Southern

Africa region to review past and ongoing research, dissemination and training activities, discuss

the implementation of the national agroforestry programmes as they relate to regional priorities,

identify new research, dissemination and training opportunities in agroforestry, and develop new

strategies and mechanisms for efficient implementation of agroforestry research and development

in Southern Africa. The proceedings start with an executive summary, introduction, and details of

the background and workshop objectives and structure. The major part consists of research

highlights, which are short presentations on soil fertility, dissemination and on-farm trials, the

domestication of indigenous fruit trees of the miombo woodlands in Southern Africa, and the

collection of Sclerocarya birrea in Southern Africa. Brief details are also given of training highlights

from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Tanzania and Zambia, working-group discussions on soil fertility, fodder

and germplasm, and of plans for germplasm acquisition, production, distribution and conservation,

and fodder research, soil fertility research, on-farm trials and dissemination.

Other useful references:

Anon, 1989. Tree nurseries: an illustrated technical guide and training manual. United Nations

Development Programme. Geneva.

. 24

Campbell, BM & Du Toit, RF. 1988. Relationship between wood resources and the use of species

for construction and fuel in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Monographs in Systemic

Botany of the Missouri. Botanic Gardens 25:331-341.

Chidumayo, E.N. 1997. Miombo ecology and management: an introduction. IT Publications and

Stockholm Environmental Institute. SRP. Exeter.

Ernst, W. 1988. Seed and seedling ecology of Brachystegia spiciformis, a predominant tree

component in miombo woodlands in south central Africa. Forest Ecology and Management

25:195-210.

Kalaghe, A.G. &Msanga, H.P. 1991. Proceedings of a workshop on priority species for tree

planting and afforestation in Tanzania. DANIDA/Tanzania National Tree Seed Programme.

Morogoro.

Msanga, H.P. & Poulsen, K. 1995. Preliminary tree seed handling manual for Tanzania. National

Tree Seed Programme. Morogoro.

Msanga, H.P. 1999. Laboratory manual for routine seed testing. National Tree Seed Programme.

Morogoro.

Oronu, L.O.R. 1999. Seed collection calendar for some useful tree species in Tanzania. National

Tree Seed Programme. Morogoro.

Tuite, P & Gardiner, JJ. 1994. The persistence of miombo tree and shrub species in land under

continuous cultivation in Tanzania. International Tree Crops Journal 8:13-26.

Internet sites

SABONET:South African Botanical Diversity Network,

http://www.sabonet.org/activities/miombo.html

Miombo Network

http://www.miombo.gecp.virginia.edu

Miombo Forum

http://www.uem.mz/faculdades/agronomia/miombo/cal4papr.html