iop 1501 study guide

# 2010 Universityof South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by theUniversity of South AfricaMuckleneuk, Pretoria

IOP1501/1/2011^2013

98638394

3B2

BEC3A Style

CONTENTS

ORIENTATION: THE IMPORTANCE OF MODULE IOP1501 (ix)

Understanding the dynamic open systems framework (x)The purpose of this module (xiii)The place of this module in your undergraduate studies (xiv)Module outcomes (xiv)Framework/Content of the module (xv)

LAYOUT OF THE STUDYGUIDE (xvi)

Your study material (xvi)Recommended learning process (xviii)Suggestions for studying (xxi)Added value: how you will benefit from studying this module (xxii)Mutual expectations (xxiii)Conclusion (xxiv)

PART 1: Introduction: Schools ofthought in Psychology, andIndustrial and OrganisationalPsychology

1

STUDY TOPIC 1: Theoretical perspectives inpsychology

2

STUDY UNIT 1: Theoretical perspectives in psychology(based on chapter 1 of Bergh and Theron,2009)

3

Introduction and aim 3

Learning outcomes 3

Key concepts 4

1.1 Overview: schools of thought and their implications 41.2 Summary and reflection 9

Self-evaluation 15

IOP1501/1/2011^2013 (iii)

STUDY TOPIC 2: Fields of study and practiceareas in industrial andorganisational psychology

18

STUDY UNIT 2: Fields of study and practice areas in industrialand organisational psychology(based on chapter 2 of Bergh and Theron, 2009)

19


Learning outcomes 19

Key concepts 20

2.1 Overview 202.2 Industrial and organisational psychology: an applied field of

psychology21

2.3 The nature and identity of industrial and organisationalpsychology

21

2.4 History and background 242.5 Professional training and practice issues 262.6 Future challenges for industrial and organisational psychology 262.7 Summary and reflection 27

Self-evaluation 27

PART 2: Individual behaviouralprocesses 31

STUDY TOPIC 3: The biological basis of behaviour 32

STUDY UNIT 3: The biological basis of behaviour(based on chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron, 2009)

33



Key concepts 34

3.1 Overview: genetics 353.2 The nervous system 383.3 The endocrine system 453.4 The muscular system 463.5 Summary and reflection 48

Self-evaluation 49

STUDY TOPIC 4: Human development acrossthe life span 51

STUDY UNIT 4: Human development across the life span(based on chapter 4 of Bergh and Theron, 2009)

52

(iv)

Contents



Key concepts 53

4.1 Overview: the characteristics of human development 544.2 Domains and determinants of human development 554.3 Critical development periods 564.4 Career transitions and tasks 604.5 Future trends in people's career development 624.6 Summary and reflection 63

Self-evaluation 63

STUDY TOPIC 5: Learning 65

STUDY UNIT 5: Learning(based on chapter 5 of Bergh and Theron,2009)

66



Key concepts 67

5.1 Overview: what is learning? 675.2 The learning process 685.3 The adult learner 775.4 Learning in the work context 795.5 Summary and reflection 80

Self-evaluation 81

STUDY TOPIC 6 Perception 83

STUDY UNIT 6: Perception(based on chapter 6 of Bergh and Theron,2009)

84



Key concepts 85

6.1 Overview: basic concepts and different types of perception 856.2 Factors influencing perception 886.3 Extrasensory perception 896.4 Interpersonal perception 906.5 Summary and reflection 93

Self-evaluation 93

IOP1501/1 (v)

Contents

STUDY TOPIC 7: Cognition 96

STUDY UNIT 7: Cognition(based on chapter 7 of Bergh and Theron,2009)

97



Key concepts 98

7.1 Overview: the concept of cognition 987.2 What is productive thinking? 987.3 Language 997.4 Memory and forgetfulness 1017.5 Intelligence, learning potential and emotional intelligence 1027.6 Summary and reflection 103

Self-evaluation 103

STUDY TOPIC 8: Motivation and emotion 106

STUDY UNIT 8: Motivation and emotion(based on chapter 8 of Bergh and Theron,2009)

107



Key concepts 108

8.1 Overview:What is motivation? 1098.2 Extrinsic activators of motivation 1098.3 Intrinsic activators of motivation 1118.3.1 Self-actualisation 1118.3.2 Functional autonomy 1138.3.3 Expectancy theory 1148.3.4 Achievement 1168.3.5 Self-efficacy 1168.3.6 Attribution 1178.3.7 Equity 1188.3.8 Goal-setting 1188.4 Emotion 1198.5 Emotional intelligence 1208.6 Summary and reflection 120

Self-evaluation 121

(vi)

Contents

PART 3: Social behaviour andprocesses 123

STUDY TOPIC 9: Attitudes and values 124

STUDY UNIT 9: Attitudes and values(based on chapter 9 of Bergh and Theron,2009)

125



Key concepts 126

9.1 Overview: nature and functions of attitudes 1269.2 Attitudinal change 1299.3 Work-related attitudes 1319.4 Nature of values 1339.5 Values as part of personality 1339.6 Cultural values and diversity in an organisational context 1349.7 Summary and reflection 136

Self-evaluation 137

STUDY TOPIC 10: Prosocial behaviours,aggression and conflict 139

STUDY UNIT 10: Prosocial behaviours, aggression and conflict(based on chapter 10 of Bergh and Theron,2009)

140



Key concepts 141

10.1 Overview: definitions of attraction and affiliation 14210.2 Explanations for interpersonal attraction 14310.3 Situational determinants of attraction 14610.4 Overview: what are aggression and workplace aggression? 14710.5 What are workplace violence, bullying and harassment? 14810.6 Causes of workplace aggression 14910.7 Conflict 15010.8 Summary and reflection 151

Self-evaluation 152

IOP1501/1 (vii)

Contents

STUDY TOPIC 11: Group behaviour and othersocial processes inorganisations 154

STUDY UNIT 11: Group behaviour and other social processes inorganisations(based on chapter 11 of Bergh and Theron,2009)

155



Key concepts 156

11.1 Overview: definition of groups 15611.2 Types of groups 15811.3 The five-stage model of group development 16011.4 Group structure 16111.5 Group processes 16411.6 Group decisionmaking techniques 16511.7 Facilitation of learning in groups 16611.8 Organisational culture, socialisation and change 16611.9 Summary and reflection 167

Self-evaluation 168

APPENDIX1: EVALUATE YOUR LEARNING EXPERIENCE 170

(viii)

Contents

ORIENTATION: THE IMPORTANCE OFMODULE IOP1501

Welcome to the department and to this module, which, together with the moduleIOP1601, forms part of the first-year course in Industrial and Organisational Psychology.We trust that you will find this module interesting and that through it you will gain asound understanding of the scope of industrial and organisational psychology.Our aim isto acquaint you with the general psychological processes that influence individuals in allsituations, including the work context.

Psychology is the study of human behaviour and processes, and includes aspects such asperception, cognition, learning, emotion, human development and the biological dimen-sions of behaviour. Psychology is a young science, as psychology as a discipline has onlybeen in existence since the late 1800s, when theorists such as WilliamWundt,WilliamJames and Sigmund Freud separated it from others such as biology, philosophy andmedicine. Seen from another perspective, however, psychology has been in existencesince human beings first inhabited the earth and wanted to know more about oneanother.

In contemporary society, scientific psychology and its methods are used to assess andunderstand people and their behaviour.Understanding behaviour and related mentalprocesses enables us to understand our work behaviour as well, for example, byanalysing peoples' behaviour during interviews or their responses to questionnaires.

Many other behavioural and underlying psychological processes, including physiologicalreactions, can be observed and measured. In a sense, in psychology you and I are ourown study subjects, because we often find it necessary to analyse our own and otherpeople's behaviour, or try to understand why we act the way we do. In this regard,Sigmund Freud, considered by many to be the Einstein or father of psychology, statedthat what he really did in his theorising and observation of people was `̀mental detectivework''.

By studying the exciting and stimulating theories, concepts, research and applications inpsychology, you will discover their relevance to industrial and organisational psychology,and to the world of work. In the process you will also be able to improve and extendyour competencies (knowledge, skills and other attributes) and your understanding ofyourself and others in your living and work environments.We therefore believe that instudying this module you are embarking on a journey, and en route you will discover andreflect on your own and other peoples' behaviour.

Apart from acquiring greater personal insight into and understanding of other people'sbehaviour, you may also develop in an important area associated with psychology andpsychology learners and professionals, namely interpersonal understanding or empathy.These psychological competencies, empathy for others and self-knowledge, may be themost important knowledge you will acquire on your journey through life.We hope thatthis module will provide you with some of the resources you will need to help you to

IOP1501/1 (ix)

Industrial Psychology fields

Outputs

Environment

Inputs

Socialprocesses

IndividualprocessesPersonality

Organisationalprocesses

Work, taskprocesses

Feedback

!

!

!

~

3 "

~~

!

!

Schoolsof Thought and Methodology

lead a more productive and fulfilling life, possibly also while following a career in a

psychological discipline.

UNDERSTANDING THE DYNAMIC OPEN SYSTEMS

FRAMEWORK

The systems model below provides an orientation to this module.

FIGURE1.1

Model for studying psychological processes in the work context

Our basic knowledge of general psychological processes derives from the history of

psychology, the various theoretical concepts and their fields of application, of which

industrial and organisational (I-O) psychology is one. Psychological schools of thought,

scientific methods and the fields of application of I-O psychology are important facets of

the study of individuals in the work context. These facets are explained in part 1 of the

study guide.

Schools of thought refer to various theoretical frameworks for human behaviour that

have evolved over the years. These approaches or theories represent attempts by

leading behavioural scientists to understand, explain and predict human behaviour.They

offer students of psychology, and I-O psychology, models and theories that can be used

to explain human behaviour in the work context. These approaches represent the main

(x)

Orientation

paradigms (sets of assumptions or ways of thinking) in psychology; however, in the

course of your studies you may read about other approaches, such as postmodern and

cross-cultural psychology. Postmodern psychology, for example, which is often influenced

by political and other interest groups such as the feminist or gay community, emphasises

among other things the role of social construction in psychology through which propo-

nents assert that many existing representations of people are discriminatory because

they are constructed from biased frames of reference. These approaches also use alter-

native methodologies of scientific inquiry (research) and assessment of human behaviour,

such as narrative or discourse analysis, to explain human behaviour in a social context.

Many authorities, however, assert that these `̀new'' or `̀alternative''approaches are not

new at all, and have a place in the traditional psychological schools of thought.

Fields such as research methodology, personnel psychology, psychological assessment,

organisational psychology, occupational psychology, ergonomics, consumer psychology,

labour relations and employee and organisational wellbeing are specialist fields in I-O

psychology, and will be studied in the second- and third-year courses. The basic

psychological processes that you study in the first year are fundamental to the theory,

concepts and applications in these specialist areas.

Using a systems model, we can explain psychological processes in the work context in

terms of inputs, a transformation process and outputs.

. The inputs in this system are everybody and everything in a work organisation con-

tributing to the achievement of organisational goals. These inputs include individual

processes (including all aspects of personality or individual differences), work or task

processes, social processes and organisational processes.

The topics relating to psychological processes in part 2 of this module the biological

basis of behaviour, human development, learning, perception, cognitive processes,

motivation and emotion relate mainly to individual processes.You need to understand

these individual processes in order to grasp and explain basic human behaviour in the

work context. Personality, another important theme in individual processes, is covered in

module IOP1601 or the next module.

If you were to pause for a moment and think about the processes and behaviour you

are using in what you are doing now, or each working day, or when doing a specific

task, you would probably list more or less all the aspects that you will cover in this

module.

The study of work or task processes requires knowledge of the biological basis of

behaviour. This includes genetics, the nervous system and the muscular system, as well

as ergonomic or work design aspects of the work situation. Thus, you need to under-

stand how the biological basis of behaviour influences and determines the ergonomics of

work design.

The study of social processes in the system includes themes such as attitudes and values,

prosocial behaviours, aggression and conflict, and group behaviour. It equips you with

the knowledge that you need to understand individuals' behaviour in relationships and

groups, as well as the behaviour of a group (such as an organisation) as a whole.

Although leadership (chapter 12 of Bergh & Theron, 2009) also reflects social processes,

it does not form part of this module.You will study leadership in your second year of

study in the context of organisational psychology.

IOP1501/1 (xi)

Orientation

Group behaviour and social processes in organisations (chapter 11 of Bergh and Theron)include social processes that influence people's behaviour in organisations.You shouldkeep these processes in mind, because, along with individual, work, task and socialprocesses, they influence productivity, work performance, psychological adjustment andefficiency in the work context. The issue concerning leadership is not included in thismodule but will be studied in the second year as part of organisational psychology

The transformation process in an organisation may be visualised as the interactionbetween the individual, work or task, and social and organisational processes. It occurswhen individuals start to perform certain work tasks and collaborate in groups orteams, and when these groups or teams are brought together in organisational struc-tures.

Outputs are the consequences of the interaction of processes in a work organisation.They include productivity, performance, adjustment and individual and organisationalefficiency. These outputs may in turn form inputs that influence the work organisationand its environments as dynamic entities, and thus contribute to transformation.

The environment also contributes to the functioning of the work organisation and theindividuals operating in it. Environmental factors may include people's personal environ-ment (eg their home environment); sociocultural environment (eg work values and reli-gious or political convictions); and physical environment (eg safety, security, transportand climatic factors).

Consider the following case study, which illustrates how the open systems frameworkfunctions within the work context.

CASE STUDY: SABC BEAMING INTO AFRICA ANOPEN SYSTEM?

SABCBEAMING INTOAFRICA ANOPENSYSTEM?

After a painful period of uncertainty, retrenchments and restructuring, the SABC is well on theroad to becoming a successful national public broadcaster in a harsh economic climate. Thereinvigorated SA Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) has emerged from its period of transformationready to stand on its own financial feet in a deregulated broadcasting environment rife withcompetition from other local broadcasters.

The transformation, assisted by international consulting group McKinseys, was a painful processinvolving large-scale retrenchments, restructuring, an overhaul of the programming line-up and theadoption of sound business principles.

The SABC had little choice but to embrace transformation to survive as regards its financialresults, operations, controls and future plans. Government has made it clear in itscommunications that the corporation must stand on its own feet financially. At the same timeit must fulfil its costly public broadcast mandate while readying itself for the new era ofcompetition. The SABC embarked on its transformation in February 1996 with the re-launch of itsthree terrestrial television channels to meet the various language needs of its customers,scheduling programmes more efficiently and putting the emphasis on ``quality'' in the marketing ofits various programmes.

A new logo was adopted, symbolising the SABC's vision to become an excellent broadcaster withAfrica its target. ``This logo embodies the pillars on which our vision rests to establish ourselves asthe pulse of Africa's creative spirit through superbly produced, top-quality programming that

Orientation

(xii)

meets the needs and wants of our audiences,'' says its charismatic chief executive. The new logo,bedecked in rainbow colours, symbolises a break with the SABC's political past and its historicalneglect of African issues. ``The broadcasting industry in South Africa is set to experience a shake-up,'' says the chief executive. ``The SABC is moving in the right direction and will be ready to meetthe challenge head-on and provide advertisers with innovative media opportunities, high-qualityservice, competitive pricing structures and a dynamic team of people to meet the demands ofadvertisers.'' The aim of these initiatives is not only to rebuild pride among employees andcustomers alike but also to provide team leaders in the company with accountability, responsibility,and opportunities to release their full potential.

Recognising that it could no longer turn to government for financial bail-out despite the onerousprovisions of its public broadcast mandate, the SABC is now embarking on a process ofcommercialisation, a move aimed at restoring its pride so as to ensure its financial viability andfulfil its aim of becoming the broadcaster of choice on the African continent.

(Adapted from an article by Ciaran Ryan in the BusinessTimes, 19 March 2006.)

The discussion that follows gives you an idea of how work-related situations can beunderstood within the open systems framework.

1. The following examples taken from the case study illustrate inputs into the organi-sational system:

. individual processes: pride, motivation of employees, self-actualisa-tion

. social processes: leadership, team leaders, communication, manage-ment style

. organisational processes: change in organisational culture

. processes relating to the execution of tasks: recording of perfor-mance, mention of operations, controls and future plans

2. The following examples taken from the case study illustrate environmental factors

that influence the system:

. a harsh economic climate, internal local competition and the media

A discussion of how these environmental subsystems influence the organisation may beuseful. For example, if the media were to portray a negative image of the organisation, itcould lose its customer base and viewers might refuse to pay theirTV licences. Decisionsmade by the organisation's board of directors during their annual general meetings couldalso affect the organisation.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

The primary purpose of this module is to provide you with the knowledge, skills, appliedcompetences, values and attitudes needed in the field of psychological processes, whichinfluence human behaviour in general, as well as in the work context. In our discussionswe will highlight the influence of the various schools of thought and scientific thinking andexamine related concepts in psychology particularly the various biological, developmen-tal and individual psychological processes that influence human behaviour, and the socialprocesses that characterise the social nature of human and organisational behaviour.Themodule will also empower you to become lifelong learners in the world of work and

Orientation

IOP1501/1 (xiii)

provide a mechanism for continued personal growth, enhancing interpersonal workrelationships and employee and organisational effectiveness.

THE PLACE OF THIS MODULE IN YOUR UNDERGRADUATESTUDIES

The modules making up the undergraduate courses offered by the College of Economicand Management Sciences provide learners with the knowledge and skills they need towork and assume certain roles in the community.Those of you who wish to specialise inI-O psychology in addition to obtaining other business qualifications will need to take anumber of modules that provide you with sufficient knowledge of psychology and theskills required to understand, evaluate and influence human behaviour in the workcontext. In this module, IOP1501, you will acquire knowledge and application skills relatingto the main approaches in psychological thought and methodology which characterisepsychology as a science. However, the main emphasis is on the basic biological, devel-opmental, psychological and social processes that influence the behaviour of individualsand groups in the work context and in other life roles. In the other module, IOP1601 youwill learn about the role of personality, which is the primary determinant of differencesbetween individuals and groups in their work behaviours and in other life roles. Many ofthe psychological concepts and assumptions that you learn in these modules also formthe building blocks for your further and more advanced studies in I-O psychology.

MODULE OUTCOMES

You will have mastered the broad learning outcomes for this module if you are able to do the followingafter studying the various study topics and themes:

. understand the general nature of the fields of study and application in psychology and I-Opsychology

. explain the different approaches taken by the various schools of thought associated with psychologyin the work context

. clarify the way in which concepts concerned with the biological basis of behaviour and humandevelopment improve interpersonal work relationships, and employee and organisational effectiveness

. identify and apply the various attributes of learning, perception, cognitive processes, motivation andemotion

. indicate and apply factors and methods that pertain to attitudes, values, prosocial behaviours,aggression and conflict, for the purpose of applying such knowledge to improve interpersonal workrelationships and employee and organisational effectiveness.

As you will see, these broad learning outcomes are specified and reflected in the content, learningoutcomes and assessment activities in the prescribed book and this study guide, and in the questionsand tasks contained in the assignments and the examinations.

We believe that these learning outcomes should also be reflected in the way in which you apply andevaluate your knowledge and skills in your work and your other life roles and environments, as well as inyour attitudes and values as a responsible adult learner.

Orientation

(xiv)

FRAMEWORK/CONTENTS OF THE MODULE

The following diagram summarises the contents of this module.

MODULE DIAGRAM

ORIENTATION:THE IMPORTANCE OF MODULE IOP1501 [IOP101M]

Part 1:

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN PSYCHOLOGY, AND

INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Study topic 1: Theoretical perspectives in study unit 1, chapter 1 of Bergh and Theronpsychology

Study topic 2: Fields of study and practice areas in study unit 2, chapter 2 of Bergh and Theronindustrial and organisational psychology

Part 2:

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES

Study topic 3: The biological basis of behaviour study unit 3, chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron

Study topic 4: Human development across the life span study unit 4, chapter 4 of Bergh and Theron

Study topic 5: Learning study unit 5, chapter 5 of Bergh and Theron

Study topic 6: Perception study unit 6, chapter 6 of Bergh and Theron

Study topic 7: Cognition study unit 7, chapter 7 of Bergh and Theron

Study topic 8: Motivation and emotion study unit 8, chapter 8 of Bergh and Theron

Part 3:

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND PROCESSES

Study topic 9: Attitudes and values study unit 9, chapter 9 of Bergh and Theron

Study topic 10: Prosocial behaviours, aggression and study unit 10, chapter 10 of Bergh and Theronconflict

Study topic 11: Group behaviour and other social study unit 11, chapter 11 of Bergh and Theronprocesses in organisations

NOTE: The two-way arrows between the boxes indicate that the content often overlapsand may be used in various combinations to explain human behaviour.

Orientation

IOP1501/1 (xv)

LAYOUT OF THE STUDYGUIDE

The study guide is divided into three main parts, which correspond to groups of chap-

ters in the prescribed book.

These three parts are:

. Part 1: Schools of thought in psychology, and industrial and organisational

psychology

The science and academic discipline of psychology grew from theoretical philosophical

reflection and developed into various theoretical approaches to human behaviour, or

schools of thought, each with its own assumptions. Although these approaches form the

historical basis of the subject, they remain significant in that they direct the development

of psychology as a dynamic applied science.The aim of science is to integrate theory with

methods for explaining and predicting phenomena. This is accomplished through meth-

odology, which systematises theoretical knowledge scientifically by means of descrip-

tions, analyses, comparisons and classifications. In this part of the study guide you will

study the schools of thought, the various fields of I-O psychology and the methodology

of the subject. These aspects are covered in chapters 1 and 2 of Bergh and Theron

(2009), your prescribed book.

. Part 2: Individual behavioural processes

Individual processes include hereditary, psychological and environmental factors, which

influence people, directly or indirectly, in the work situation.Knowledge of these

processes helps to explain the behaviour of people both as individuals and as workers.

Biological factors offer quantitative and qualitative parameters of individual development.

Development is the continuous process that reflects people's biological and psychological

functioning. In this part of the study guide you will study topics such as the various

biological bases of behaviour, human development and learning, and how these crys-

tallise in behaviour in the form of perception, cognition and motivation. These topics are

covered in chapters 3 to 8 of Bergh and Theron (2009).

. Part 3: Social behaviour and processes

The study of social behaviour has to do with the physical appearance of individuals and

groups, and their thoughts, feelings, attitudes, values, perceptions and conduct which

influence others. Effective cooperation depends largely on the group's social processes

and interpersonal skills. Among the social processes that you will be studying here are

aggression, conflict and group behaviour. Social processes are covered in chapters 9 to

12 of Bergh and Theron (2009), of which chapter 12 is not prescribed for this module.

However, you may find chapter 12 interesting to read; chapter 12, for example, deals

with leadership and entrepreneurial behaviour in organisations, which primarily integrate

work behaviour and processes in a social context.

YOUR STUDY MATERIAL

On registering as a Unisa student, you should have received the following study material:

Orientation

(xvi)

Tutorial letters

. Tutorial Letter IOPALLA 301 for a particular year contains general information about

studying at Unisa. This information is not repeated in other tutorial letters.

. Tutorial Letter 101 contains important information about your lecturers, study mate-

rial and assignments, feedback on certain assignments, and possibly information about

group visits and examinations.

. Tutorial Letter 201 (and possibly further tutorial letters) mainly provides feedback on

assignments not dealt with inTutorial Letter 101, as well as other important informa-

tion, for example about group visits, final information about the examination and

what to study for the examination.

Study guide

This is the only study guide for IOP1501.The study guide is not a replica of the prescribed

book. Instead, it uses a selection of the study material and various types of learning

activity to make your learning experience more personal, and the learning content more

understandable and applicable. Please note that it was not possible to incorporate all the

prescribed material into the learning activities in the study guide; however, this does not

mean that the material that has been omitted is any less important.

The prescribed book

The prescribed book for this module is

Bergh, ZC & Theron, AL (eds). (2009). Psychology in the work context. (4th ed).Cape

Town: Oxford University Press.

You must use this revised edition, as the content and other features differ from

previous editions. This book may be purchased from the relevant commercial book-

stores.

Chapters 1 to 11 of this book (Bergh & Theron, 2009) are prescribed for this module,

IOP1501, and chapters 13 to 22 are prescribed for the second module, IOP1601.The book

offers you the following with regard to your learning experience:

. Extensive and updated coverage of important psychological theories, concepts, re-

search and applications is supplied.

. The outcomes-based nature of the book is evident through the many work-related

and other types of scenario or case study, examples, illustrations, learning activities,

questions, highlights and ethical issues, which are all used to facilitate your under-

standing and application of concepts.

. Some of these learning aids allow you to become personally involved in the study

material, for example through completing questionnaires and interpreting psycholo-

gical phenomena.

. In some instances certain methods used in psychology are illustrated, which allows

you to see and experience applications in psychology.

. Where relevant, the learning content is situated in a South African and African con-

text.

. The assessment activities that follow each chapter, consisting of questions and tasks,

give you the opportunity to evaluate your achievement of the learning outcomes.

. Various types of information boxes (eg ethical readers and other content boxes)

further explain and emphasise content.

Orientation

IOP1501/1 (xvii)

. A complete index and English and Afrikaans glossaries have been supplied to assistyou in finding meanings of concepts in the prescribed book.

RECOMMENDED LEARNING PROCESS

This module is presented as an NQF level 5 course worth 12 credits and requiring 120notional hours. This means that you should be able to cover all the learning content inmore or less 120 active study hours, which allows you to plan and schedule your studiesmost effectively. The level descriptors for this level indicate what you should be able todo.

Typically, a learning programme leading to the awarding of a qualification or unit stan-dard at this level aims to develop learners who demonstrate the following:

scope of knowledge knowledge of the main areas of one or more fields, disci-plines or practices, including an understanding of the keyterms, concepts, facts, principles, rules and theories of thatfield, discipline or practice

knowledge literacy an awareness of how knowledge (or a knowledge system)develops and evolves within the area of study or operation

method and

procedure

the ability to select and apply standard methods, proce-dures, and/or techniques within the field, discipline orpractice, and to plan and manage an implementationprocess within a supported environment

problemsolving the ability to identify, evaluate and solve defined, routineand new problems within a familiar context, and to applysolutions based on relevant evidence and procedures and/orother forms of explanation appropriate to the field, disci-pline or practice

ethics and profes-

sional practice

the ability to take account of and act in accordance withprescribed organisational and professional ethical codes ofconduct, values and practices and to seek guidance onethical and professional issues where necessary

accessing, processing

and managing

information

the ability to gather information from a range of sources,including oral, written and/or symbolic texts, to selectinformation appropriate to the task, and to apply basicprocesses of analysis, synthesis and evaluation to that infor-mation

producing and

communicating

information

the ability to communicate information reliably, accuratelyand coherently, using conventions appropriate to thecontext, either in writing, verbally or in practical demon-stration, including an understanding of and respect forconventions relating to intellectual property, copyright andplagiarism

Orientation

(xviii)

context and systems the ability to operate in a range of familiar and newcontexts, demonstrating an understanding of different kindsof systems, their constituent parts and the relationshipsbetween these parts, and how actions in one area influenceother areas within the same system

management of

learning

the ability to assess one's own and others' performance andto take appropriate action where necessary; the ability totake responsibility for one's own learning within a struc-tured learning process and to promote the learning ofothers

accountability the ability to answer for one's own actions, to work effec-tively with and respect others, and, in a defined context, totake supervisory responsibility for others and for theresponsible use of resources where appropriate

The skills and tasks mentioned below relate to the NQF level descriptors and are similarto what we expect from you in the learning outcomes and activities, as well as in thequestions and tasks included in the assignments and examination questions for thismodule.

Because Unisa subscribes to an outcomes-based tuition model, our students areconsidered adult learners who do not simply learn theory or obtain knowledge passively,but are able to apply and critically evaluate knowledge. In the learning process, forexample while completing learning activities or assignments, and studying for theexamination and applying knowledge and skills, learners also apply and develop certaincompetencies which are valuable in life in general, as well as in the work context.Wewould like our learners to have or develop a responsible learning attitude, allowingthem, for example, to study with discipline when completing learning activities and touse as many learning opportunities and learning methods as possible.

To help you understand, apply and critically evaluate study material better, and hence toassist you in attaining your learning outcomes, each study unit presents you with alearning experience that follows the format set out below:

. Learning outcomes indicate what you have to know and how you should apply thisknowledge. These learning outcomes are also based on those contained in the pres-cribed chapters of Bergh and Theron (2009). In the learning outcomes, the learningactivities and the assessment questions we use action words or verbs to tell you whatyou should be able to do once you have finished working through the study material.Here is a list of such action words, although the skills required may be formulated inother words.

Analyse Break the material up or recognise the parts and givethese parts; discuss them in detail using specific criteria.

Compare Indicate similarities and/or differences between two ormore phenomena, approaches, patterns or processes.

Contrast Indicate the differences between two approaches,phenomena or patterns.

Criticise Describe or identify the advantages and disadvantages,

Orientation

IOP1501/1 (xix)

good and bad characteristics or possibilities and limita-

tions, and provide the necessary support for your point

of view.

Define Give or recognise descriptions of the meaning of a term

(or concept), using other terms.

Describe Give the characteristics of something.Recognise explana-

tions for a concept or process.

Discuss Describe, interpret, argue, debate and come to a

conclusion where appropriate.

Distinguish Give the differences that are characteristic of two or

more things or phenomena and show what makes them

different from each other.

Evaluate Give an opinion about a phenomenon which is

supported by facts and arguments and determine the

value of the phenomenon using certain standards or

criteria.

Explain Make something clearer by using or recognising illustra-

tions, descriptions, examples and/or comparisons.

Give Write down or list names, facts, items and so on.Do not

discuss.

Identify Look for and give the main characteristics.

Illustrate Recognise and give examples.

Indicate Recognise and state concepts and other features using a

logical framework.

Interpret Try to verify an explanation by reasoning about it, and

come to a conclusion.

List Identify names, places, characteristics, items or facts in a

specific order.

Name Provide names, places, characteristics, items or facts.

Summarise Recognise and state the key or central aspects of a given

topic.

Remember, at first-year level you are assessed mainly by means of multiple-choice

questions, which also require most of the abovementioned skills.

To assist you in achieving the learning outcomes and learning the skills they encapsulate,

your study material (prescribed book, study guide and assignments), contains the

following learning aids:

. An introductory outline of the study material, often with examples, to give you an

indication of what to expect.You will also find many such examples in Bergh and

Theron.

. Learning activities to complete in order to actively confirm and apply the concepts

and assumptions discussed in the prescribed book.You will find similar learning acti-

vities in some chapters of the prescribed book.

Orientation

(xx)

. Feedback discussions after each activity with which you can compare your own fin-dings and learning experiences.

. Questions to help you determine whether you have reached certain outcomes orhave acquired certain skills relating to the key questions.

. Self-evaluation exercises in the form of multiple-choice questions to test your lear-ning experiences and insight into the study material, and to accustom you to this typeof question, which will also be set in the examination. These and other types ofquestion supplement the assessment activities at the end of each of the chapters inBergh and Theron.

. Answers to self-evaluation exercises/multiple-choice questions at the end of thestudy guide. Also note that the questions in your prescribed book, the study guideand in assignments (as they will be in the examinations) are of a theoretical and anapplied nature.

. Icons to indicate the following:

Learning outcomes ö what you should know and be able to do

Activity to do ö a task to carry out in order to develop understanding

Self-assessment tasks and questions ö questions and tasks to demonstrate your know-ledge, understanding and application of the acquired knowledge

Feedback ö feedback on your responses to the activities and self-assessment questions

Learning about learning: A self-evaluation questionnaire appears in the Appendix 1 tohelp you reflect on what and how you have learnt.We would like you to return it to usto help us improve our tuition processes.

SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDYING

In order to achieve the learning outcomes, that is, to acquire knowledge, but also to beable to apply it, and to evaluate your knowledge and applications and to use and developyour work and other skills, you will have to utilise various and creative learning methodsand opportunities.You will have to read with concentration, and make an effort to thinkabout the concepts and ideas and their meanings and how these could be related.Try totest yourself by summarising, setting theoretical and applied questions, and thinkingcritically about what you are learning. Also, think about the implications of knowledgefor people and environments; look for examples and applications in your environments,in people, the media or in your work, discuss issues with other people, or try to applythe knowledge for yourself or in your work or other environments.

NOTE: The first-year modules may be your first acquaintance with psychologicalconcepts and terms. As in any field of study, you will have to become familiarwith psychological terminology and its meanings. If necessary, make your own

Orientation

IOP1501/1 (xxi)

`̀dictionary'' of concepts in the prescribed book and where to find them(however, remember to use the subject index of the prescribed book), or use agood psychology dictionary.Your summary can be in the form of a table, withone column containing the concept, the next column a word or phrase to indi-cate the meaning, and a third column the page number/s in the book indicatingwhere to find the concepts (see our hypothetical example).

Concept Meaning Page number in prescribed book

Schools of thought Different theoreticaland methodologicalpropositions (para-digms) for studyingthe human being

Chapter 1, p 5

Try to memorise the concepts you identify, and be careful to limit your glossaries toabout one to two pages per chapter, otherwise your lists will be too long.

Remember the following with regard to your studies:

. Refer frequently toTutorial Letter 101, which contains instructions and information onassignments and other aspects of your studies.

. To study effectively, you should use the prescribed book in conjunction with this stu-dy guide, because the study guide will assist you in many ways to understand andapply the learning content better. In the study guide you will also be referred to spe-cific sections to study.

. Complete the suggested activities in the study guide. Remember that these activitiesare related to the learning outcomes, assignments and questions, and in the processto the acquisition or development of certain competencies.

ADDED VALUE: HOW YOU WILL BENEFIT FROM STUDYINGTHIS MODULE

Your learning experience of the study material presented in this study guide and yourprescribed book should offer you the following benefits:

. We strongly believe that your learning experience will stimulate your interest in I-Opsychology as a professional career field.

. You will probably be a more active learner because the activities that you carry outinvolve you in the learning experience, which will simplify the content of the prescri-bed book. Please remember that most of the brief questionnaires and techniquesthat you will use to evaluate yourself are intended simply to illustrate the concepts,assumptions and processes.They are not designed to assess your personality or yourknowledge in depth.

. Some of the learning activities ö and you should try to do all of them ö demon-strate the application and methods of psychology in the work context and teach youhow to use psychological concepts.

. Although the study guide does not deal with all the themes and concepts in theprescribed book, it does emphasise the principal ones. However, concepts not dealtwith in the study guide are no less important.

Orientation

(xxii)

. During your learning experiences you should develop, acquire or sharpen certaincross-field competencieswhich will be useful to you in your work and in many otherwalks of life. Here are a few examples:

ö learning skills ö obtaining and exploring knowledge by using various learningmethods

ö self-responsibility ö demonstrating self-management by obtaining and exploringthe information needed to complete tasks

ö research ö obtaining, analysing, organising, evaluating and reporting informationö problemsolving skills ö considering information and selecting correct data or

alternatives to solve problems, and developing creative and critical thinking abili-ties

ö team behaviours ö working effectively with othersö communication skills ö using various forms of communication and demonstra-

ting interpersonal sensitivityö technological or environmental literacy ö using science and technology effecti-

vely and critically; promoting the health of others and the environmentö developing a broader picture ö developing a macro vision; recognising interre-

lationships and the fact that problems do not exist in isolationö citizenshipö taking responsibility by participating in the life of local, national and

global societiesö cultural and aesthetic understanding ö being sensitive to differences in and

between groupsö employment-seeking skills ö exploring educational and occupational opportuni-

tiesö entrepreneurship ö developing creativity and new ideas and opportunities

MUTUAL EXPECTATIONS

You can expect the following from Unisa:

. up-to-date and relevant learning material comparable with the best available locallyand internationally.

. learning material relevant to the needs of commerce and industry, written on thebasis of regular consultation with important stakeholders outside Unisa.

. the opportunity to develop competencies at a designated level (National Qualifica-tions Framework (NQF) level 5). These level descriptors are taken into account inthe learning material and assessment design.

We understand that studying through Unisa may be more challenging than studying at aresidential university.Therefore, where possible, we provide learner support, which maytake the form of lectures or workshops, and we encourage personal contact in the formof appointments and telephone calls and via the electronic media, such as e-mail.

We will let you know what to expect during assessments, and you will be given feedbackon assignments within one month if you submit them on time.

As a learner studying through the Department of Industrial and Organisational

Psychology, you are expected to do the following:

. Obtain all your learning materials as quickly as possible.

. Read all tutorial letters diligently so that you know what is expected of you and sothat you benefit from feedback on the learning content.

Orientation

IOP1501/1 (xxiii)

. Start studying the prescribed material as soon as you have registered, and study ac-cording to a regular schedule.

. Complete the learning activities in the study guide to gain a better understanding ofthe learning content.

. Submit compulsory assignments to reach the university on or before the due date,and complete other assignments for your own preparation.

. Make sure that you are aware of the status of your registration, study fees, exami-nation admission and examination dates.

CONCLUSION

We wish you an enjoyable and successful year of study with us, and we hope that youwill enjoy being a partner with us in this learning endeavour. Please remember thatstudying through Unisa need not be difficult or lonely if you make use of all the learningopportunities offered to you.

YOUR LECTURERS

Ms Vasie Naidoo (Course leader)Prof Rudi Oosthuizen (Subject manager)

Orientation

(xxiv)

PART 1PART 1

Schools of thought in Psychology,and industrial and organisationalpsychologyIndustrial and organisational psychology, or I-O psychology, is an applied field ofpsychology that has become a training field and area of professional practice in its ownright. Training in I-O psychology can lead to various occupational categories that requireand utilise knowledge of psychology as a foundation. I-O psychology developed frompsychology as an applied field in its study and applications of human behaviour in theworkplace. Through its various subfields and practice areas I-O psychology appliespsychological knowledge in understanding employee behaviour and work environmentsto facilitate the best possible quality of work life and work performance.

As a science and academic discipline, psychology has evolved from general philosophicalenquiry or research into a variety of theoretical approaches, each incorporatingassumptions or premises concerning the content of psychological enquiry. Theseapproaches constitute the historical foundations of psychology, but have significant valuebeyond their historical influence in that they give direction to the generation of psychol-ogy as a dynamic, evolving science per se, as well as an applied science incorporating thework context.

One of the objectives of any science is to establish methods for explaining and predictingphenomena. This is accomplished by research methodology through which theoreticalknowledge is scientifically systematised by means of description, analysis, comparison andclassification. In psychology and its applied fields and areas of practice, however, manyother methods are utilised in people-related applications to facilitate optimal humanfunctioning in various contexts.

IOP1501/1 1

STUDY TOPIC 1STUDY TOPIC 1

Theoretical perspectives in psychology

2

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVESIN PSYCHOLOGY

(BASED ON CHAPTER 1 OF BERGH AND THERON (2009))

INTRODUCTION AND AIM

When reading about various domains, events or experiences relating to human beha-

viour, or listening to the views of experts and lay people on the subject, you will prob-

ably encounter a wide range of opinions.Questions people ask include: Why do people

have such different lifestyles? Why do governments follow different ideologies when

governing their peoples and their resources? Why did my three previous employers

employ people and implement business management styles that differ so vastly from

those I observe in my current company? We attribute this largely to the broad cognitive

constructs or ways of thinking that are applied in different contexts.

The fact that the science of psychology and related fields of study developed via various

schools of thought may answer many such questions. The main psychological schools of

thought are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism,Gestalt psychology, the psycho-

analytic school, humanism or phenomenology and cognitive psychology, and more

recently various applications of postmodernism have also influenced psychology. As an

applied field of psychology, the theory and practices of I-O psychology were and are

part of these developments, although I-O psychology has also developed some new

work-related theories and methods of its own.

The aim in this study topic is to make you aware of the important schools of thought in

psychology, which still influence current psychological thinking and practices in general

and work psychology.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this study unit, you should be able to:

. identify the main assumptions and methods of seven different schools of thought in psychology

. recognise explanations of the central theme in cognitive psychology

. explain what metapsychology is

. recognise applications of the schools of thought in I-O psychology

. state the main theme of postmodernism with regard to psychology

. explain what positive psychology entails

STUDYUNIT

1

IOP1501/1 3

Studyunit1: contents

Introduction and aim

Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

1.1 Overview: schools ofthought and their implications

1.2 Summaryandreflection

Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS

Important concepts relating to this topic are listed in the box below.

mechanism, natural science, consciousness, introspection, adaptation to the environment,observable behaviour, individual differences, control, prediction, conditioning, stimulus-organism-response, tabula rasa, wholeness of experience, unconscious, phi-phenomenon, free association,eidetic reduction, systems theory, Hawthorne studies, holistic

As we suggested in the orientation, it would be a good idea for you to compile your own glossary ofterms in the form of a table consisting of three columns, with space for each term, its meaning/s andthe number of the page in Bergh and Theron on which the information is to be found. Continue to add tothis list as you progress through the prescribed book, as you may find references to some concepts onmore than one page in your prescribed book. Remember to include these terms, definitions and conceptsin your everyday conversations and answers to activities, as you must be familiar with them and theirapplications.

1.1 OVERVIEW: SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTAND THEIR

IMPLICATIONS

The field of psychology has a number of subdisciplines and practice areas aimed at the

study of the different levels and contexts of human thought and behaviour, which include

the theories, assumptions and concepts as proposed by the various paradigms or

schools of thought in psychology. These approaches, which represent broad ways of

thinking in psychology, each with a set of assumptions, no longer exist in their original

form, but have merged into an integrated or metapsychological way of thinking in

psychology. However, certain of the original influences and assumptions are still part of

the theory and practice in current psychological thinking and its applied fields.

This study unit deals with the various psychological schools of thought or perspectives

and how they influence I-O psychology and its fields of application. The nine fundamen-

tal theoretical paradigms in psychology are discussed with regard to the contribution

Study unit 1

4

they have made to the development of psychology, even though they are quite diverse

and even contradict one another in some respects.

In light of the strengths of and sometimes contradictions between the various paradigms,

the field of psychology, and even I-O psychology, is very broad and should be

approached with an open mind.

Psychology is not an absolute science like physics. It involves human behaviour and

human interactions and it is not always predictable to exact levels of certainty.Unlike

some other exact sciences, psychology comprises numerous approaches and theories

that seek to explain human behaviour or provide different perspectives for examining

human behaviour in terms of culture and biology.There is no one particular approach to

psychology that may be viewed as correct or more valuable than the others. In

contemporary or current psychology, specific theoretical frameworks are often applic-

able; however, a more holistic approach is becoming increasingly popular, and this may

be among the most balanced of the paradigms available for psychology today. It is often

said that all aspects of human functioning, or the total context, must be considered.

ACTIVITY 1.1

From reading what we have just said above, you probably noticed that we used a number of synonyms toexplain the nature of the various schools of thought. List these synonyms in the space below.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

There are many synonyms or related concepts that can be used to explain the idea of a school ofthought or aspects of it. The important thing to remember is that a school of thought is a broad orencompassing paradigm or way of thinking that may include many related concepts and theories. Someof the synonyms used in the above discussion are:

. paradigm

. perspective

. approach

. discipline

. subdiscipline

. theory

. theoretical framework

We will now focus on the various schools of thought with regard to the fields of I-O psychology. We will


IOP1501/1 5

also refer to the historical development of what we today know as I-O psychology, which will help you tounderstand the various schools of thought.

ACTIVITY 1.2

Study section 1.2 (1.2.1 to 1.2.8) in Bergh and Theron (2009), which deals with the various schools ofthought, then complete the following activity, which will help you to identify and understand the basicframework of each. However, if this exercise is to be of any benefit to you and to provide you with asummary or mind map for revision purposes, you will need to take a disciplined approach; dedicateabout 15 minutes to this activity, and fill in the blank spaces on your own.

Name of school Prominent theor-ist/s

Main focus/ideas Research methods

1. Structuralism

2. Functionalism

3. Behaviourism

4. Gestalt

5. Psychoanalysis

6. Humanism/Phenomenology

7. Cognitive

8. Metapsychology

9. Postmodernism

10. Positive psychol-ogy

FEEDBACK

You will find all the information you needed to complete the table in section 1.2 of Bergh and Theron(2009). We have also provided a completed table in appendix A at the end of this study unit. Did younotice that each school of thought comprises a set of assumptions or central idea, certain theories ortheoretical concepts, and preferences for scientific inquiry or assessment and research?

Study unit 1

6

Different people in the past and different people today hold a wide variety of views as towhat psychology is, or what it covers.

In order to fully understand the reasoning behind the various schools of thought, wesuggest that you approach each one in its individual context. Bear in mind that theassumptions and propositions associated with each school of thought are to be regardedas true and valid within their context, no matter how unrealistic they may seem to us asreaders.

In order to stress the issue of contextual meaning within each school of thought, let'scompare schools of thought and political parties.

Political parties and schools of thought have the following in common:

. Founders

It is possible to identify the most prominent persons who have contributed to theestablishment of a political party or school of thought. (We associate psychoanalysis with

Freud.)

. Reason for formation

It is often possible to identify the main motivation for the establishment of the entity. Insome instances it is to propose a solution to a problem, or alternatively the entity mayhave been formed as a result of a paradigm shift or change in the ideology of the entity.(Functionalism was established as a reaction to structuralism.)

. Ideology, manifesto, assumptions

Both a political party and a school of thought have an ideology or a manifesto orassumptions. The interesting point is that the manifesto adopted by a party serves as aroad map or guidelines which represent a set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths orsymbols of a social movement, institution, class, or large group that explains how societyshould work, and offers a political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. (Thinkabout the basic assumptions of each school of thought and how these contribute to their

explanation of concepts (behaviour or personality or learning).)

. Affiliation

Some of these groups follow a certain specified ideology or mode of thinking veryclosely (think about the uniqueness of and novel ideas behind the behaviourist and humanist

perspectives), while others may take broad inspiration from a combination of relatedideologies by combining the best ideas from different groups. (Think of cognitive psychol-

ogy as a combination of Gestalt and humanist perspectives, and metapsychology as a

combination of the best of a number of perspectives.)

. Evolution

As times change and reality becomes more complex, some groups may continuouslyreview their initial assumption and put forward a modified version of their ideologies.(Consider how the development of computer science has influenced the cognitive perspective,


IOP1501/1 7

which has incorporated the advances in information technology and compared the mind to a

computer, which is an information-processing machine.)

. Other similarities

Can you think of other similarities between political parties and schools of thought?What about the subject of dominance or prominence, or even any possible criticismlevelled against them?

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

Nowadays, in psychology, academics and practitioners do not adhere to a single schoolof thought, but rather use assumptions where they are relevant. An eclectic approach isoften adopted, with concepts from different schools being combined in broad meta-approaches. I-O psychology is a relevant, independent field with regard to theory andmethods, but it originated from and still is a practical application of psychology.

ACTIVITY 1.3

This activity supplements activity 1.1, and contains brief summaries of the main principles of the variousschools of thought. Your task is to link the summaries in column A with the corresponding schools ofthought in column B.

Column AColumn A Column BColumn B

1. The area of interest is how a person understands,diagnoses and solves a problem concerning himself/herself using the mental processes that mediatebetween stimulus and response.

a. Gestalt psychology

2. Human beings are merely reactive beings, and whatthey are and become is determined by causesoutside themselves.

b. Structuralism

3. The emphasis is on the uses and functions of themind rather than the elements of experience.

c. Humanism/Phenomenology

4. People tend to organise their ideas and thoughtsinto patterns.

d. Psychoanalysis

Study unit 1

8


5. Generally, people are unaware of the many factorsthat cause their behaviour and emotions.

e. Metapsychology

6. The object of psychology is to analyse consciousness,breaking it down into its basic elements andinvestigating how these elements are related.

f. Cognitive psychology

7. New meanings can be attained by understanding howindividuals construct their personal beliefs and whatmeanings they attach to them.

g. Functionalism

8. Emphasis is on the importance of human conscious-ness, self-awareness, and the capacity to makechoices, as people create their own way of respondingto the world as they go through life.

h. Postmodernism

9. Human beings are studied not only in relation totheir physical environment, but also in relation totheir transcendental environment, which includestheology and philosophy.

i. Behaviourism

FEEDBACK

The discussion in section 1.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and the exercises in this study unit shouldhave provided you with ample information for filling in the missing words.

For this exercise you needed some knowledge of the basic assumptions of each school of thought. If yougave yourself enough time to do this activity, you should have managed it quite well.

The answers to activity 1.3 are as follows: (1) f; (2) i; (3) g; (4) a; (5) d; (6) b; (7) h; (8) c; (9) e.

1.2 SUMMARYAND REFLECTION

In this study unit we focused on the various psychological schools of thought, andexamined examples or applications of each. The main paradigms or schools of thoughtare structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, psychoanalysis,Gestalt psychology,humanistic or phenomenological psychology, cognitive psychology, metapsychology andpostmodernism. Although psychology in general has a scientific basis, from its theoryand applications it is apparent that it is not an exact science. Since the time of Wundtand Freud, psychology has grown enormously, but there is an ongoing and increasingquest for more refined knowledge and methods in order to achieve a better under-standing of the human psyche and behaviour.


IOP1501/1 9

The various psychological schools of thought no longer exist in their original form,because both psychology and I-O psychology have grown into metapsychologicalsciences which, as you know by now, combine a number of different approaches.

As you may have gathered, understanding the development of psychology as a disciplineis vital to a grasp of its role in contemporary life. It is therefore very important to beinformed about the various schools of thought at an introductory level.You will experi-ence the influence of these psychological paradigms throughout your studies in I-Opsychology, and in practice you will be able to make informed choices as to which para-digms to adopt as a specific or general frame of reference.

SELF-EVALUATION

These assessment activities and those at the end of chapter 1 of Bergh and Theron (2009) will helpyou to evaluate your learning experience. Make sure that you know why you chose a particular answer.

For each of the terms/statements below, give a description or explanation and identify the school ofthought to which it belongs.

Terms/statementTerms/statement Description/explanationDescription/explanation School of thoughtSchool of thought

1. Deconstructionism

2. Free association

3. Introspection

4. Characterised by dialecticsand contextualism

5. Qualities of flexibility andchange

6. Standardisation of thecomponents of job taskwould lead to productivity

7. Evolution theory

8. Emphasis on observablebehaviour

9. Phi-phenomenon

10. Eidetic reduction

11. Middle-class women as thesubjects of research

Study unit 1

10


12. Focus is on the person as awhole

13. Incorporation of conscious-ness as an explanatoryconcept

14. The role of the unconsciousin mental disorders

15. Wholeness of experience

16. General systems theory

17. Tabula rasa

18. The human being as aninformation processor

19. Studies with identical twins

20. Stimulus-organism-response

FEEDBACK

This activity was intended to help you understand and internalise some significant concepts andstatements associated with the various schools of thought.


1. Deconstructionism One of the main trends inpostmodern thinking.

Postmodernism

2. Free association Spontaneous, logicallyunrestrained and undirectedassociation of ideas,emotions and feelings.

Psychoanalysis

3. Introspection Self-observation of one'simmediate experience of astimulus to ascertain thefeelings or thoughts thatthe stimulus evokes.

Structuralism


IOP1501/1 11


4. Characterised by dialecticsand contextualism

This school of thoughtengages in dialogue regard-ing different concepts andmethods in differentcontexts of human life andexperience.

Metapsychology

5. Qualities of flexibility andchange

These are some of thequalities that characterisepostmodernism.

Postmodernism

6. Standardisation of thecomponents of job taskwould lead to productivity

Taylorism proposes thatthis act should be accom-panied by the use of moneyas a stimulus for efficiencythat would lead to betterperformance.

Behaviourism

7. Evolution theory This theory holds thatvariation within speciesoccurs randomly and thatthe survival or extinction ofeach organism is determinedby that organism's ability toadapt to its environment.

Functionalism

8. Emphasis is on observablebehaviour

This was the main point ofdeparture for Watson'sbelief in what provides thebasis for the subjectmatter of psychology.

Behaviourism

9. Phi-phenomenon The phi-phenomenon isexperienced when an obser-ver perceives that two lightssituated close together andflashing alternately appearto be one light moving backand forth between bothlocations.

Gestalt

10. Eidetic reduction This concept refers todecreasing the visual imagesthat occur when one thinksof a particular experience inthe past.

Humanism or phenomenology

Study unit 1

12


11. Middle-class women as thesubjects of research

Freud worked with middle-class women in his researchstudies.

Psychoanalysis

12. Focus is on the person as awhole.

In order to understand whatholds meaning for individualsat a given time, not onlybehavioural acts, but alsothoughts, feelings andperceptions, ie personalexperience, have to beunderstood.


13. Incorporation of conscious-ness as an explanatoryconcept.

This act reflects the opti-mistic view of human striv-ing in humanism and, in thestudy of motivation, takesthe role of the will intoconsideration.


14. The role of the unconsciousin mental disorders

This is the area on whichthis particular school ofthought focuses.

Psychoanalysis

15. Wholeness of experience The mind combines elementsinto patterns or configura-tions which have a meaningthat is not present in theelements themselves.

Gestalt

16. General systems theory This theory focuses onpatterns of interactionsthat are circular andconstitute living rather thanstatic systems.

Cognitive psychology

17. Tabula rasa John Locke held that theorganism is a blank slate ortabula rasa.

Behaviourism

18. The human being as aninformation processor

The mind is seen as beingsimilar to a computer, as itcan actively process andintegrate inputs.

Cognitive psychology


IOP1501/1 13


19. Studies with identical twins Francis Galton fosteredinterest in genetic twinstudies, child development,mental deviation, and therelationship between hered-ity and the environment.

Functionalism

20. Stimulus-organism-response Studying an animal's or ahuman being's behaviourobjectively allows it to bedescribed in terms ofstimuli and responses.

Behaviourism

Appendix A: Completed table for activity 1.2

Name of schoolName of school Founding theorist/sFounding theorist/s Main focusMain focus Research methodsResearch methods

1. Structuralism WundtTitchener

. Consciousness

. Structure of the psyche

. Direct experience

Introspection

2. Functionalism JamesDarwinGalton

. Functioning of the psyche

. Adaptation to environ-ment

. Individual differences

Tests and question-naires

3. Behaviourism WatsonTolmanGuthrieHullSkinner

. Observable behaviour

. Control and prediction ofbehaviour

. Stimulus-response rela-tionship

Study of observablebehaviour by influencingand controlling stimulus-response relationships

4. Gestalt WertheimerKoffkaKohler

. Wholeness of experience

. Organisation of stimulusfield

. Meaning of the whole

ExperimentationInterpretation of thewhole of the individual'sexperience

5. Psychoanalysis Freud . Psychic content. Unconscious. Childhood experiences

Clinical observationFree association

6. Humanism/Phenomenology

HusserlFrankl

. Wholeness of experience

. Free will

. Meaning of life

Reduction of experi-ence to essentials, rele-vant here-and-nowexperiences

Study unit 1

14

Name of schoolName of school Founding theorist/sFounding theorist/s Main focusMain focus Research methodsResearch methods

7. Cognitivepsychology

Although no namesare specificallymentioned here,various researchershave worked in thisfield see chapter 20.

. How people `̀know''

. Information processing

. Input-output processes

Analysis of informationprocessing

8. Metapsychology Integrative approach . Places human behaviourand experience in aholistic perspective

Since this is an integra-tive approach, it candraw on the methodsassociated with any ofthe seven schools

9. Postmodernism Interdisciplinaryapproach

Searches for new knowl-edge by using scientificmethods

Scientific observationand experimentation

SELF-EVALUATION

To evaluate your learning experience with regard to this study theme, complete the assessmentactivities at the end of chapter 1 of Bergh and Theron (2009). To give yourself further practice, alsoanswer the multiple-choice questions below.

(1) I am interested primarily in the reasoning that people apply to reach conclusions in their decision-making processes. What type of psychologist am I?

(a) cognitive(b) behaviourist(c) humanist(d) psychoanalysis

(2) Which type of psychologist is MOST likely to investigate the principles of learning?

(a) functionalist(b) behaviourist(c) humanist(d) gestalt

(3) I subscribe to a psychological school of thought whose central notion could be stated as follows:``Human nature is essentially a blank slate. We are born into the world with no knowledge, andwithout having any disposition to do good or evil. What we become depends entirely upon the effectof the environment. If we control a child's environment we can make him or her become what wewish.'' Which of the following statements best reflects the school of thought I subscribe to?

(a) People perceive and think about wholes rather than simply about combinations of separateelements.

(b) The ultimate focus should be on the importance of the unconscious mind, not consciousness.


IOP1501/1 15

(c) The study of mental processes should be rejected in favour of the study of the influence of

environmental factors on behaviour.

(d) The best way to learn about the brain and its functions is to break the mind down into its

most basic elements.

Question 4±7

Identify the school of thought associated with each of the following statements:

(4) The main focus in psychology should be on breaking down mental processes into their most basic

components.

(5) Rather than breaking down the elements of the mind, the focus should be on how the mind enables

the individual to adapt to his or her environment.

(6) In order to understand how people behave you have to understand how they think, remember, and

make decisions in their day-to-day lives.

(7) You can't see the mind, so how can you study it? All that we can see is observable behaviour, and

that is what psychology should study.

(a) cognitive

(b) functionalism

(c) structuralism

(d) behaviourism

(8) Which of the following statements best describes the psychoanalytical intervention method of free

association?

(a) Visual images should be systematically reduced in order to assist the individual to ``see'' the

real issue at stake for what it really is.

(b) Some factors may come between the direct relationship of the stimulus and the response.

(c) The organisation or combination of sensory elements comprising a structure may gives rise to

a new perception which is perceived as representing a new meaningful entity.

(d) The person says anything that comes to mind. You notice that some processes come to the

consciousness much more easily than others, depending on how deeply imbedded in the

consciousness they are.

(9) Which of the following theories suggests that rather than searching for new knowledge by scientific

observation and experimentation, psychology should focus on the experience of people in their social

and cultural context?

(a) social constructivism

(b) postmodernism

(c) positive psychology

(d) deconstructionism

(10)According to positive psychology, ... can be regarded as its key concept and ... as the central

aspect of this key concept.

(a) human strength, full life

(b) virtuous character, happiness

Study unit 1

16

(c) mental wellness, hope(d) optimal experience, flow

The correct answers to the questions for self-evaluation are:

1 (a); 2 (b); 3 (c); 4 (c); 5 (b); 6 (a); 7 (d); 8 (d); 9 (a); 10 (d)

Please check your own answers.


IOP1501/1 17


Fields of study and practice areas in

industrial and organisational psychology

18

FIELDS OF STUDY ANDPRACTICE AREAS IN

INDUSTRIAL ANDORGANISATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY(BASED ON CHAPTER 2 OF BERGH AND THERON (2009))


If you read job advertisements or hear people talking about jobs, you will encounter job

titles such as industrial psychologist, psychometrist, human resource (HR) practitioner,

personnel or HR manager, organisational development (OD) consultant, training

manager, and tasks, situations and departments involving people and their interests inthe work context.You may wonder what the various psychologists do and what types of

job and career possibilities might open up to you if you engage in this field of study. In this

topic we hope to provide the answers to all your questions.

Our aim in this study unit is to introduce you to the multidisciplinary nature of psychol-

ogy and industrial psychology and their various areas of study and application.You will beexposed to information about psychology and I-O psychology that will give you an

introduction not only to the work of specialist psychologists, but also to the other areas

in which psychology can be applied, such as managing and developing employees and

related organisational processes. This introduction to psychology and its related disci-

plines and applied areas, as well as the other study topics, will also lay the groundworkfor your further studies in I-O psychology.We believe that this topic may start you on a

fascinating journey during which you discover more about I-O psychology as a science, a

field of study and a career. Through the prescribed book by Bergh and Theron (2009),

this study guide, the tutorial letters and assignments, group discussion classes and of

course personal contact with you, we hope to encourage you to develop your interestin I-O psychology.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. recognise the various subfields of psychology and I-O psychology

. provide an overview of the history of I-O psychology

. identify the fields of application or practice areas of I-O psychology

STUDYUNIT

2

IOP1501/1 19

. relate the psychological schools of thought to fields of study in I-O psychology

. discuss important historical contributions to I-O psychology

. identify training and career opportunities in I-O psychology

Studyunit 2: contents


Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

2.1 Overview

2.2 Industrialpsychology: an applied field of psychology

2.3 Thenature and identityof industrial and organisationalpsychology

2.4 Historyandbackground

2.5 Professional trainingandpractice issues

2.6 Future challenges for industrial and organisationalpsychology


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


industrial and organisational psychology; psychology: clinical, counselling, educational, research,neurological, health, community, consulting, career, organisational, personnel, consumer; humanresource management; employment relations; ergonomics; psychological assessment; employee andorganisational wellbeing

As we suggested in the orientation, it would be a good idea for you to compile your own glossary ofterms in the form of a table consisting of three columns, with space for each term, its meaning/s andthe number of the page in Bergh and Theron (2009) on which the information is to be found. Continue toadd to this list as you progress through the prescribed book, as you may find references to someconcepts on more than one page in your prescribed book. Remember to include these terms, definitionsand concepts in your everyday conversations and answers to activities, as you must be familiar withthem and their applications.

2.1 OVERVIEW

Psychology is an extremely broad field. Psychologists deal with an astoundingly diverserange of issues, and work in a wide range of settings. In this study unit we explore the

Study unit 2

20

various subfields of psychology, keeping in mind that within each subfield, psychologistscan engage in many different activities. Many conduct research, teach and/or applypsychological principles in organisations and in private practice in order to solve the real-life problems of individuals and society in work, family, education and health contexts.

2.2 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY: AN APPLIED FIELD OFPSYCHOLOGY

Industrial psychology, or, as it is currently usually referred to, industrial and organisationalpsychology (abbreviated to I-O psychology), is concerned with studying and developingemployee behaviour scientifically in conjunction with the structuring of organisations andwork to improve the productivity and quality of life of people at work.Most of us spenda very large proportion of our lives at work, and so it is to everyone's advantage ifpsychologists study the effect of work on other areas of life and examine the work-non-work conflicts.

2.3 THE NATURE AND IDENTITY OF INDUSTRIAL ANDORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

I-O psychology is certainly a very practical field, but many I-O psychologists also seekanswers to relatively basic research questions. In other words, I-O psychologists want toproduce solutions to problems in the workplace, but they usually also want to develop afuller understanding of life at work in order to produce a solid scientific knowledge base.I-O scientists and practitioners like being in an environment in which there are problemsthat need to be solved, but they also like to discover and collect scientific facts aboutwork and organisational settings that they can apply to problems yet to be faced. Thereis a great need for this kind of activity because the world of work is such a fast-movingtarget of study that many issues are hard to anticipate.

Traditionally, I-O psychologists have focused on understanding individual behaviour andwork experience in organisational settings in other words, the worker himself or herselfhas received the most attention, and this, of course, still continues today. Today morethan ever, however, I-O psychologists explicitly acknowledge the importance of consid-ering the work system as a whole. For example, they conduct research at individual,group and organisational levels. They also formally investigate the influence of environ-mental factors such as labour markets, economic conditions and governmental regula-tions on work. In fact, operating within a systems approach to understand people atwork has allowed I-O psychologists to contribute to cutting-edge issues in the design ofwork. In this regard I-O psychologists have contributed to the design and developmentof team-based organisations and have developed strategies for designing organisationalstructures for work that are flexible enough to allow organisations to survive and thrivein turbulent times.

ACTIVITY 2.1

Study sections 2.2 to 2.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009), which deal with the subfields of psychology, andthen complete the following activity. This will take 15 minutes of your time, and will help you to identify

Fields of study and practice areas in industrial and organisational psychology

IOP1501/1 21

and understand the content and define the boundaries of the various subfields of psychology. Notethat in order for this exercise to be of any benefit to you, you will need to be disciplined and first try andfill in the blank spaces on your own.

The table below contains descriptions of various subfields of psychology in Column A, with the names ofthe subfields in Column B.

Your task is to complete the table by filling in the blank spaces.


1. a. Neurological psychology

2. b. Forensic psychology

3. Specialists in this area are involved in studying andfacilitating occupational development across the lifespan, with the emphasis on adult career development.

c.

4. The specialists in this field may act as therapistsfor people experiencing normal psychological crises (eggrief) or for individuals suffering from chronicpsychiatric disorders.

d.

5. e. Consulting psychology

6. f. Educational psychology

7. g. Community psychology

8. Psychologists working in this field may engage indesigning and conducting programmes to help indivi-duals stop smoking, lose weight, manage stress andunhealthy habits, or stay physically fit.

h.

9. This type of psychologist helps clients resolve arange of social and emotional issues that are relatedto general wellbeing, such as bereavement, relation-ships, work, recreation, health and crisis management.

i.

FEEDBACK

The discussion in sections 2.1 to 2.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009) should have provided you with ampleinformation to fill in the missing words easily. You will find the completed table in appendix A.

I-O psychology is an independent, professional field of study which originated as a practical applicationof psychology. The next activity will help you to identify and define the fields of I-O psychology.

Study unit 2

22

ACTIVITY 2.2

Study section 2.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009). Take a few minutes to give an appropriate definition ofeach field.

FieldField DefinitionDefinition

1. Research methodology

2. Personnel psychology

3. Organisational psychology

4. Occupational psychology

5. Ergonomics

6. Consumer psychology

7. Labour relations

8. Occupational mental health

FEEDBACK

The descriptions of the various fields can be found in section 2.4 of Bergh and Theron (2009). These arethe subfields and practice areas of I-O psychology that you will be studying if you intend specialising inthe subject.

ACTIVITY 2.3

(1) Write down the subfield/s or practice areas in psychology and I-O psychology that interest you.

(2) Write down the reasons why you are interested in these subfields or areas and why you mightconsider them for further studies and a career.

(3) Think further briefly write down your personal attributes and other factors that you think wouldsupport your choices in (1) and (2) above.


IOP1501/1 23

FEEDBACK

The three tasks above relate to the central ideas in the seven psychological unifying themes, asdiscussed in Bergh and Theron (2009). Studying section 2.4 of the Bergh and Theron (2009) wouldhave enabled you to make informed choices. These three tasks illustrate both reflection on yourknowledge of psychological fields of study and practice, and on self-knowledge, that is, whether you areable to make a fit between yourself and the world of work that I-O psychology may offer you.

2.4 HISTORYAND BACKGROUND

I-O psychology is a relatively recent subfield of psychology. In fact, it did not become afully applied field until about the late 1920s. Before this time many authors andresearchers had started to study the improvement of conditions in workplaces. Differ-ential psychology, or the study of individual differences (see module 2), became popularduring World War I and as a result efforts to improve the workplace for employeeswere introduced.Differential psychology focused on how people differ, but was not verysuccessful in helping individual workers to do their jobs better.

The second important influence was that exerted by experimental psychology. Thisbranch of psychology emphasised control in psychological research, requiring, forexample, that everyone was to be treated similarly, and accordingly laws of similaritiesbetween people were formulated.

A third influence was the scientific management approach, based on the assumption thatthere is only `̀one best way'' to perform a job. This assumption was based on moneybeing the primary motivator, but ignored the idea of job satisfaction for other reasons.

The last force or influence that helped I-O psychology become better known was thehuman relations movement. The emphasis in this particular movement was on keepingpeople happy through motivational strategies along with job efforts to improve jobsatisfaction. This led to the Hawthorne Studies, which were the true start of I-Opsychology, in that they emphasised, among other things, the human factor in theworkplace and in work performance. The results of these studies showed that, inworkplaces, the influence of social factors on productive systems must be considered;for example, including workers in the decisionmaking process may reduce resistance tochange, and individual work behaviour may result from a complex set of factors.

ACTIVITY 2.4

Take 20 minutes to do the following tasks.

Study unit 2

24

(1) List the most important contributions to the establishment of I-O psychology as a science and anapplied area.

(2) List at least five important contributions made by I-O psychology in the South African context.

FEEDBACK

Study section 2.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009), which will give you an idea of how you should havecompleted the two tasks in activity 2.4.

In order to complete the above activity, you needed to evaluate the importance of historical events inpsychology by reading section 2.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009). You could have discussed the firstpsychological laboratories established by James (1875) and Wundt (1879), emphasising consciousexperience and the impact of cultural and intellectual influences, Freud's view of the unconscious inhuman behaviour (1909) and so on.

ACTIVITY 2.5

(1) Discuss the history of and background to I-Q psychology with reference to the contributions madeby the following:

. Gustav Fechner

. Hugo Munsterberg

. Taylorism

. the Hawthorne experiments

. World Wars I and II

. development in South Africa

. the contribution of institutions, people, associations and events

(2) Discuss some of the challenges and influences I-Q psychology is facing in the new millennium.

FEEDBACK

The discussion in sections 2.5 to 2.7 in Bergh and Theron (2009) provides sufficient information for youto answer the questions above adequately.


IOP1501/1 25

2.5 PROFESSIONAL TRAINING AND PRACTICE ISSUES

Broadly stated, I-O psychologists are researchers, consultants and lecturers, and veryoften a combination of all three. I-O psychologists adopt various titles depending upontheir places of employment, specialisations and interests. They also often work in morethan one organisational setting. For example, many academics do consulting work fororganisations outside their employing institution. A number of I-O psychologistsemployed in research organisations or private industry choose to teach in colleges anduniversities on a part-time basis.

There is an interesting discussion of the diversified nature of psychology in Bergh andTheron (2009), who consider research areas and applied and professional areas, andorganise this information according to certain unifying themes with regard to the field ofstudy and study content. All these areas appear in South Arica in academic syllabi, inprofessional and business training and in psychological practices, and many careeropportunities exist in each of these areas of application. Professional psychological train-ing and practice is governed by the Professional Board for Psychology, a section of theHealth Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). Professional psychological regis-tration can be obtained after studying psychology or industrial psychology at honoursand masters level, the completion of applicable internships, and the passing of the board'snational entrance examinations.

ACTIVITY 2.6

(1) Explain how psychology develops into a profession or applied science and list the various studyfields and applied or professional areas in psychology.

(2) Briefly describe the focus of the professional practice areas in psychology and indicate, on thebasis of to your knowledge and information supplied in Bergh and Theron (2009), possible jobs orcareers in each.

FEEDBACK

The development of psychology as a profession and applied science is explained under the heading``Professional training and practice issues'' in Bergh and Theron (2009). You will also find a discussionof the various research areas or subfields in psychology in your prescribed book.

2.6 FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR INDUSTRIAL AND

ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

In this section we examine the challenges facing the field of I-O psychology, both locallyand internationally. A number of concerns are mentioned which highlight the need fororganisations to understand the result of employing people with different personalities

Study unit 2

26

and needs in a single job type or department. This understanding will benefit the orga-

nisation by improving employee retention and minimising stress and turnover while at

the same time making employees more adaptable, productive and future-fit.

I-O psychologists are in the best position to help organisations achieve this outcome

through the involvement of all the parties (employee, employer and the I-O psycholo-

gist). Accordingly, I-O psychologists and human resource practitioners should be able to

utilise the insights obtained for the enhancement of career decisionmaking practices in

the South African work context.


In this study unit you learnt that I-O psychology is the study of people's behaviour in the

workplace. I-O psychologists apply psychological theory, research and methods to assist

workers and organisations by using the interaction of employee attributes and work

processes to predict work behaviour, psychological wellbeing and productivity. The

different subfields and applied areas of psychology and industrial psychology offer inter-

esting areas for study and careers.

SELF-EVALUATION


(1) The publication that expresses a fundamental understanding important for all students ofpsychology and for practising psychologists is called a/an ...

(a) social reader.(b) business reader.(c) professional reader.(d) ethical reader.(e) daily reader.

(2) I-O psychology can be classified as a scientific discipline because

(a) it utilises, develops and teaches foundational knowledge, that is, psychological theory abouthuman behaviour in the work context.

(b) its foundational knowledge enjoys good support through work-related research to furtherknowledge of human behaviour using effective research methodology and other assessmentprocedures.

(c) it utilises many soon-to-be-proven methods to achieve the best fit between employee and theworkplace in order to solve work-related problems and to optimise employee and organisationalperformance.

(d) a and b(e) a, b and c

(3) Psychologists specialising in organisational psychology can be employed in corporate business,


IOP1501/1 27

government, private practice and universities in various types of job. Which of the following aresome of their activities?

(a) assessing/researching employee or work-related attitudes(b) involvement in organisational change and transformation(c) suggesting and being involved in designing and implementing various types of programmes(d) a and b(e) a, b and c

(4) Psychologists may also be involved in employment, selection, promotion, remuneration, grievance,retrenchment, dismissal and disciplinary procedures in organisations. What is the name of the fieldencompassed by these procedures?

(a) research methodology(b) personnel psychology(c) employment relations(d) employee and organisational wellbeing

(5) The field of I-O psychology concerned with studying, assessing and researching psychologicalaspects of consumer or customer behaviour is called

(a) consumer psychology.(b) organisational psychology.(c) ergonomics.(d) personnel psychology.

(6) The field of industrial and organisational psychology concerned with understanding humanperformance in the interaction between employees and their technical work environment or thehuman machine systems is called

(a) consumer psychology.(b) organisational psychology.(c) ergonomics.(d) personnel psychology.

(7) Which of the following types of test influenced cognitive measurement throughout the world for along time?

(a) the Binet-Simon test(b) the Spearman test(c) the Thurstone test of mental abilities(d) a and b

(8) The suggestion that a workplace should be seen as a social system and not just a productivesystem, and that including workers in the decisionmaking process can reduce resistance to change,was made by ...

(a) Elton Mayo.(b) Taylor.(c) the Hawthorne Studies.(d) Munsterberg.

Study unit 2

28


1 (d); 2 (d); 5 (e); 4 (c); 5 (a); 6 (c); 7( a); 8 (c)


APPENDIX A: COMPLETED TABLE FOR ACTIVITY 2.1


1. These psychologists study both very basic processes (eg howbrain cells function) and more observable phenomena (egbehavioural change as a function of drug use or the biologi-cal/genetic roots of psychiatric disorders).

a. Neurological psychologists

2. These psychologists are concerned with the applied andclinical facets of the law, such as determining a defendant'scompetence to stand trial or whether an accident victim hassuffered physical or neurological damage.

b. Forensic psychologists

3. Specialists in this area are involved in studying and facilitatingoccupational development across the life span, with theemphasis on adult career development.

c.Career psychology

4. The specialists in this field may act as therapists for peopleexperiencing normal psychological crises (eg grief) or forindividuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders.

d.Clinical psychology

5. Consultants in this field engage in services which cover mostaspects of work life (eg assessment, training and develop-ment, employee and organisational health, and organisationalchange).

e.Consulting psychology

6. These psychologists attempt to understand the basic aspectsof learning and then develop materials and strategies forenhancing the learning process.

f. Educational psychologists

7. Psychologists in this field seek to understand everydaybehaviour in natural surroundings and factors that contributeto normal and abnormal behaviour in the settings such as thehome, the community and the workplace.

g.Community psychology

8. Psychologists working in this field may engage in designingand conducting programmes to help individuals stop smok-ing, lose weight, manage stress and unhealthy habits, or stayphysically fit.

h. Health psychology

9. This type of psychologist helps clients resolve a range ofsocial and emotional issues that are related to general well-being, such as bereavement, relationships, work, recreation,health and crisis management.

i. Counselling psychologists


IOP1501/1 29

PART 2PART 2

Individual behavioural processesThe chapters in this section are all concerned with individual processes in employees thatprovide inputs into the work system. Although employees display similar behaviour,there are important individual differences between them that must be considered inmany work processes. Individual processes include biologically and psychologically inher-ited attributes, as well as acquired or learnt attributes that affect individuals in the worksituation.Knowledge of these processes contributes to understanding individuals ashuman beings and as contributors to economic life. Biological factors provide the quan-titative and qualitative perimeters within which individuals develop. Development andlearning in various environments form the ultimate, continuous process through whichindividuals' biological and psychological functioning is expressed, influencing their perso-nal growth and goals, and their understanding of information in the environment.Thesepsychological and behavioural processes include learning, sensation, perception andcognition, motivation and emotion (and personality), and are all integrated in workbehaviour and the ways in which employees adjust in their workplaces.

IOP1501/1 31


The biological basis of behaviour

32

THE BIOLOGICAL BASISOF BEHAVIOUR



The aim of this chapter of the prescribed book is to introduce you to the genetic and

other biological aspects that influence human behaviour in general and work perfor-

mance in particular.

If you observe close family members you will notice obvious physical similarities, which

you now know are the result of the genetic characteristics inherited from one or both

parents. However, you will also notice obvious physical differences between family

members, which may also result from genetic characteristics in parents. Differences in

behaviour and in psychological make-up are often associated with learning or acquired

patterns of behaviour arising from various environmental factors.

In sport or the work context, too, you will have noticed that people work and achieve

differently as a result of physical attributes. If you think about it, there are few tasks at

work or in other spheres that do not require physical skills or attributes of some sort.

Physical or biological attributes play an important role even with regard to our senses

for example, people differ with regard to their perceptual level of awareness of cold,

heat, stress, noise, pain and so forth, which will influence how people cope and adapt in

their environments.To acquaint you with the biological basis of human behaviour we will

briefly discuss the role of genetics, with special reference to the processes of mitosis and

meiosis, twin studies, sex determination, genotype and phenotype, and multiple deter-

mination.We will then discuss the structure (anatomy), function (physiology) and

dysfunction (pathology) of the human nervous system.We will end by discussing the

endocrine and muscular systems.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. describe the structure and function of the neuron in simple terms

. distinguish between mitosis and meiosis, genotype and phenotype

. discuss identical twins, sex and multiple determination in simple terms

. explain the structure and function of the nervous system in simple terms

. describe the abilities of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

. provide a detailed description of the functions of the endocrine system

STUDYUNIT

3

IOP1501/1 33

. explain the logic behind the divisions of the peripheral nervous system and the autonomic nervoussystem, and explain how they work together to regulate the glands and smooth muscles of the body

. discuss the role of the components and functions of the muscular system



Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

3.1 Overview: genetics

3.2 Thenervous system

3.3 The endocrine system

3.4 Themuscular system


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


genetics, cells, mitosis, meiosis, human behaviour, heredity, nervous system, central nervoussystem, neuron, brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system, somatic system, autonomic system,muscles, endocrine system, fatigue, ergonomics, job design, work station design


Before you begin this study unit, scan the content of chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron(2009) to obtain an overview.

Study unit 3

34

ACTIVITY 3.1

Take 10 minutes to list the subthemes you identified while scanning chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron(2009).

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

The main themes dealt with in chapter 3 of Bergh and Theron (2009) are: neuron anatomy, impulseconduction, receptor function and general cellular mechanisms of action that are necessary for acomplete and scientific understanding of biological function as it relates to behaviour. Also discussedare the structure and functioning of the nervous system, including the left and right hemispheres of thebrain, the endocrine system, and the components and functions of the muscular system.

Did you include all these? If so, well done you may proceed with the rest of the study unit. However, ifyou left out any of the topics identified above, we recommend that you go back and refamiliariseyourself with the introduction, as this will help you build a solid foundation on which to add the rest ofthe theory.

Note:Note: Also remember to use the applicable assessment activities, issues for discussion and casestudies, as well as summary and conclusionies in this chapter which will heip facilitate yourunderstanding of the contents.

3.1 OVERVIEW: GENETICS

In this chapter, basic issues in quantitative genetic theory and methods are discussed. Ingeneral, genetics has to do with all physiological or biological hereditary attributes. Sincethese are ultimately human attributes too, they influence human behaviour. If you tookbiology as a school subject, some of the information we will be covering may be familiarto you. However, we are assuming that this is your first encounter with this topic.

You may be wondering what this section has to do with the working world and the taskof an I-O psychologist, so to show you the practical value of this section, we have setyou an activity.


IOP1501/1 35

ACTIVITY 3.2

Take a few minutes to critically discuss the claim in the following statement. State whether you agreeor disagree with it and why. You will need to provide supporting evidence.

Mitosis serves two important purposes: it keeps the number of chromosomes from doubling witheach successive generation, and it provides genetic diversity in offspring. In this it differs frommeiosis, which is the process of cell division that sustains growth and maintains the organismthroughout its lifetime.

FEEDBACK

The discussion on genetics, in particular section 3.2 (3.2.1 to 3.2.5) in the prescribed book, contains theinformation you need to complete this activity.

Hint: Pay careful attention to the relevant concepts and the processes they represent.

ACTIVITY 3.3

(1) Study section 3.2, which deals with genetics, in Bergh and Theron (2009).

(2) Make a list of the headings and subheadings, that is, all the biological domains, in the prescribedchapter. Next to each, write down how that aspect or attribute relates to the world of work, andhence to the tasks of an I-O psychologist.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Here are our examples. Yours will probably differ, but from our feedback you should be able to gatherwhether or not your own are relevant.

. cells, the foundation of development

. twins

. sex determination

. dominance and recessiveness

Study unit 3

36

. genotype and phenotype

. multiple determination

. sex-linked genes

In answer to question 2, we will discuss each of these aspects of genetics and indicate its relevance toI-O psychology.

. Cells, the foundations of developmentCells, the foundations of development

Each cell has a specific function which contributes to the smooth functioning of the organism as awhole. Mitosis, DNA and meiosis relate to the internal functioning of cells Ð the basic components ofthe body Ð and to the way in which some human attributes are already fixed biologically at cell level.Mitosis is the process of sustained growth that maintains the organism throughout its life span.Physiological maintenance is necessary for optimal human functioning in the work environment. DNA(genes) regulates the unique pattern of individual attributes that people inherit from their parents.Meiosis is the process of cell division which ensures that at conception half the chromosomes comefrom the father and the other half from the mother. In this way distinctive human attributes arepassed on to the next generation. These biological or physiological attributes eventually contribute tothe individual's structure and physiological functioning, and hence to attributes which will manifestthemselves indirectly in the work environment. Think of the effect of physiological attributes such asyour height, mass, skin colour and hair colour on other people's behaviour in both a social and the workenvironment.

. TwinsTwins

The relevance of twin studies is that they allow us to investigate both similarities and differencesbetween people. Monozygotic (identical) twins have the same physical composition and appearance,which could influence behaviour. Yet identical twins do differ, which underscores the uniqueness ofindividuals despite remarkable similarities, especially with regard to personality and behaviour. Non-identical (dizygotic) twins are alike in some respects (eg development) but do not look the same. Thinkof the effect of appearance, along with other attributes, on interpersonal relations in the worksituation.

. Sex determinationSex determination

This subject is relevant in the context of employment equity with regard to gender. In most hierarchicalorganisations managerial positions are still occupied predominantly by males. Consider the influence ofgender and gender roles in the work context.

. Dominance and recessivenessDominance and recessiveness

Here we focus on physical appearance. Think of the colour of people's eyes, hair and skin and how thisinfluences other people's perceptions. This in its turn relates to the effect of physical appearance onattitudes and interpersonal relationships, also in the work context.

. Genotype and phenotypeGenotype and phenotype

Genotype refers to genetic constitution, while phenotype indicates manifest characteristics. Eventhough a person's genetic constitution may include the potential for numeric aptitude, for instance, heor she may have no interest in numbers and figure work. Such a person (despite having the geneticpotential for it) would never take mathematical subjects at school and so would not develop the skillsnecessary for work requiring numeric ability. Quite a lot of work is being done to assess people's


IOP1501/1 37

potential rather than concentrating only on existing acquired skills. In a way such an approach involvesconsidering genotype as well as phenotype.

. Multiple determinationMultiple determination

Here the emphasis is on the complexity of any field of study that deals with human beings. In the humansciences, which include I-O psychology, there are rarely simple solutions or answers. People's behaviourand interactions in the work environment are determined by a combination of personality and cognitiveand other factors, and cannot be explained purely on the basis of isolated characteristics.

. Sex-linked genesSex-linked genes

See the comments under sex determination. Also consider how gender determines things like the choiceof a career.

This exercise may have been difficult in the sense that it required quite a leap fromphysical attributes to their manifestation in behaviour in the work context. The aim wasto show you that even very minor differences at the biological (physical) level have aninfluence on individuals and on their interaction with others. Since our focus is primarilyon the work context, our examples refer to that context.

In the next section we look at the functioning of the nervous system.Wherever possiblewe will give examples to relate the information to the world of work.

3.2 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Perhaps the most rewarding aspect of exploring the fascinating field of the mind andhuman behaviour is the self-knowledge and personal understanding you will gain thatwill help you to lead a more productive and self-fulfilling life. Knowledge about yourselfand an understanding of your motivations, emotions, thoughts and behaviours may wellbe the most important knowledge you acquire in your life.

The brain is an essential part of the nervous system, which is a complex, highly coordi-nated network of tissues that communicate via electrochemical signals.Virtually every-thing we do, from keeping our heart beating to deducing the reasoning behind the holein the ozone layer, requires the use of our brain.Within our brain lie our deepestsecrets, our earliest memories, our most amazing capabilities, and the keys to themystery of consciousness itself.

Study the section entitled `̀The nervous system'' in Bergh and Theron (2009).

The discussion you will encounter in this section contains the names of numerous differ-ent structures and theoretical processes.You will need to familiarise yourself with these,and the only way to master this information is to study it over and over again until thecontent makes sense and you remember and understand the structure of the nervoussystem.

The nervous system is essentially a two-way biological information highway, and isresponsible for connecting and controlling all the biological processes and movement inthe body. It can also receive information and interpret it via electrical signals which are

Study unit 3

38

used in the nervous system. Although the human nervous system comprises various

parts and functions at different levels, it operates as a whole. It is imperative that you

make a conscious effort to learn the terminology and terms associated with the central

nervous system, as this information is the foundation on which your knowledge of I-O

psychology is based. Here is an activity to assist you in this regard.

ACTIVITY 3.4

The human nervous system permits communication that controls our behaviours and bodily functions.There are two major systems: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Thehuman nervous system (HNS) consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which is essentially theprocessing area, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which detects and sends the electricalimpulses used in the nervous system.

The CNS consists of many nerve cells, known as neurons.

. Prepare a summary in either point or table form in which you reflect the structures making up theHNS in the order in which they are discussed in your prescribed book. After you have studied asection, complete that section in your table.

FEEDBACK

We will give you feedback once we have completed our discussion of the HNS, that is, after thediscussion of the PNS. Remember to keep adding to your table or list of points as you study thevarious parts of the CNS.

The neuron

Neurons or nerve cells are the primary units of the nervous system.There are billions of

these self-sufficient, specialised cells in the nervous system; they receive, integrate, and

carry information throughout the body, and are responsible for the activity of the

nervous system.They are specialised so as to carry `̀messages'' by means of an electro-

chemical process, and they form a communication network that coordinates all the

systems of the body and enables them to function. They are able to respond to stimuli

(such as touch, sound, light, and so on), conduct impulses, and communicate with one

another and with other types of cell, such as muscle cells.

ACTIVITY 3.5

Study section 3.3.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009). Supply the term represented by each of the numberson the diagram, and in the case of each term, explain the function or involvement of the structure itdesignates in impulse conduction. This will clarify the meaning, position and function of the various


IOP1501/1 39

structures of the neuron. Against this background we will then investigate the various functions of theneuron.

Make sure that you do not simply copy directly from the prescribed book, but can identify thestructures on your own, as in this way you will really understand the location of the structures andtheir respective functions.

FIGURE 3.1

The structure of a neuron

FEEDBACK

Although we do not expect you to draw any of the diagrams provided, you need to be able to explain howprocesses take place. For example, we will not ask you to draw and label the neuron, but you need to beable to name the structures involved in impulse conduction and explain the significance of each.However, if you draw and label these structures for yourself, this may help you understand theseneurological structures and processes better.

This was a fairly easy exercise. The answers are as follows:

NumberNumber TermTerm FunctionsFunctions

1. Dendrite One of the branching extensions of a neuron that receivemessages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

2. Nucleus This is an oval, membrane-bound structure found in the somaor cell body of the neuron.

Study unit 3

40

NumberNumber TermTerm FunctionsFunctions

3. The soma or cellbody

Contains the nucleus, which receives impulses from connectingneurons.

4. Myelin sheath A layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the axon, whichacts as an accelerator of neural impulses.

5. Axon hillock The site of summation for incoming information. (Thisstructure does not form part of your curriculum.)

6. Axon The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibres,through which chemical messages are released to otherneurons, muscles or glands.

7. Node of Ranvier A gap between each cell on the myelin sheath along the axon.

8. Axon terminal A small knob at the end of an axon that releases chemicalscalled neurotransmitters.

ACTIVITY 3.6

(1) Explain how action potential occurs.

(2) What is the significance of neurotransmitters and receptors in the process of impulse conduction?

FEEDBACK

(1) Once the stimulation of the neuron reaches a certain threshold, a section of the neural membraneopens and allows the positively charged ions to rush in and the negative ions to rush out. Thistakes only a very short time, but it is enough to create a domino effect which is instrumental in thesuccessful conduction of the impulse.

(2) A very detailed discussion is included in the section entitled ``Neurotransmitters'' in section 3.3,The nervous system, in your prescribed book.

When the synaptic cleft is too large to be jumped, the gap can be crossed using neurotransmittersneurotransmitterslocated in sacs within the axon terminal (the end of the axon). The sac with the appropriateneurotransmitters is forced through the membrane into the cleft, releasing the neurotransmittersinto the cleft. The neurotransmitters then make their way to receptor sites on the post-synapticneuron, where they stimulate the neuron and the action potential begins again.


IOP1501/1 41

Receptors situated on the post-synaptic neuron are specific, and thus will allow only certainneurotransmitters in. The system works rather like a lock and key you must have the right key(neurotransmitter) for the right lock (receptor site).

Summation

Classification of neurons

Study these in detail in the section entitled `̀Classification of neurons'' in section 3.3, Thenervous system, in your prescribed book.

Most neurons communicate within the CNS (brain and spinal cord), although some doreceive signals from outside the CNS. There are three major types of neurons: theinformation travels from the sensory neurons to the interneurons, and then finally to themotor neurons.

The central nervous system (CNS)

The CNS is effectively the centre of the nervous system, and consists of the brain andspinal cord. It is responsible for receiving and interpreting signals from the peripheralnervous system and also sends out signals to it, either consciously or unconsciously.

The brain

As already mentioned, the brain consists of billions and billions of neurons or nerve cells.The neurons link the various parts of the nervous system.You will need to name theseparts in order to complete your table of list of points for activity 3.4.

Study section 3.3.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain an understanding of the differ-

ent parts of the brain and their functions.

The spinal cord

The spinal cord is situated in the spinal column, which is made up of 31 vertebrae.Although the spinal column is somewhat flexible, some of the vertebrae in the lowerparts of the spinal column become fused.

ACTIVITY 3.7

(1) Study sections 3.3.2 to 3.3.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain an understanding of thedifferent parts of the brain and their functions.

(2) Take 10 minutes to complete this task. The table below contains a list of terms numbered from 1 to15 in the left-hand column. In the opposite column A to O is a list of descriptions, which you need tomatch with the terms in the left-hand column. Each description and each term must be used onlyonce.

Study unit 3

42

NumberNumber TermTerm DescriptionDescription

1 Spinal cord A This part of the brain controls functions such as planning andperseveration, and motor behaviour.

2 Cerebral cortex B Conducts information from the central nervous system to themuscles and glands.

3 Frontal, parie-tal, occipitaland temporalcortical areas

C Specialised for linguistic functions, logical thought and analyticand mathematical tasks.

4 Hypothalamus D Contains nerve cells that control vital functions such asrespiration, and blood pressure.

5 Cerebellum E Fulfils a coordinating function to bring the entire body into astate of alertness and readiness.

6 Left hemi-sphere

F This is the outer layer of the brain, which makes up 80% of thetotal capacity of the human brain. It assigns meaning tobehaviour by means of higher brain processes which interpretdata and permit more subtle responses than purely reflexactions.

7 Frontal cortex G Controls visual perception and appears to have a memoryfunction as well.

8 Medulla oblon-gata

H Electrical stimulation of various parts of this system triggersemotional responses.

9 Temporalcortex

I Through this structure, sensory impulses from the body reachthe brain.

10 Reflex J Four areas of association in the brain, each with its ownspecialised function.

11 Reticular acti-vation system

K Primarily responsible for coordinating muscle activity, muscletone and balance.

12 Limbic system L All sensory input (except the sense of smell) passes through iton the way to areas of the cerebral cortex.

13 Motor neurons M An almost instantaneous stereotyped response following agiven stimulus.

14 Thalamus N A primary brain area which controls unconscious activities ofvarious organs such as the heart, lungs, digestive tract andexcretory system.


IOP1501/1 43

NumberNumber TermTerm DescriptionDescription

15 Spinal cord O Connects many of the nerves that constitute the peripheralnervous system to the brain. It regulates reflex behaviour whichis not controlled by higher brain processes such as volition andreasoning.

FEEDBACK

We trust that this exercise has helped to familiarise you with the terms and concepts in this section ofthe work. The correct answers are: 1±I, 2±F, 3±J, 4±N, 5±K, 6±C, 7±A, 8±D, 9±G, 10±M, 11±E, 12±H, 13±B,14±L, 15±O.

When you study the structures of the central nervous system, try to

. identify each structure by name

. state how the structure functions in an ideal state

. state how the structure is affected when it is damaged (where applicable)

The peripheral nervous system

The PNS is divided into two major parts: the somatic nervous system and the auto-

nomic nervous system.

The somatic nervous system is connected to voluntary muscles in the body, which,under the control of the CNS, cause changes in body temperature.

The autonomic nervous system consists of sensory neurons and motor neurons that runbetween the central nervous system.The autonomic nervous system is subdivided intothe sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Imagine that you are working after hours at the office, and that all your colleagues havegone home, leaving you alone. Suddenly you hear an unfamiliar noise. In these circum-stances, you are more likely to experience autonomic arousal.Your heart beats rapidly,your breathing rate increases and adrenalin is released as the sympathetic nervoussystem activates the glands and prepares the body's ability to fight or flee from theperceived danger.

This bodily reaction all happens without our conscious awareness or control. Responsesare automatic and involuntary, controlled by the autonomic nervous system, whichregulates the activities of the organs and glands to meet varying demands placed uponthe body.

If you were to hear the same noise again and a voice saying,`̀Hi, it's me, Phumzile!'', youwould realise that it was just a colleague. At this point the parasympathetic branch of theautonomic nervous system sends signals for you to relax and `̀calms'' the internal organs.

This tendency of the body to adjust to stress and to return to a `̀normal'' state is referred

Study unit 3

44

to as homeostasis. It is actually an inner balancing mechanism which assists us to balancebetween the `̀turned on'' excited states triggered by the stimulation from the sympa-thetic system and the calming functions of the parasympathetic system, which relaxesthe body so we can build up and conserve body energy.

FEEDBACK

We will now summarise the structure of the nervous system, as you were asked to do in activity 3.4. Isyour table similar to ours? It should be, as the names of all the structures you needed to compile yoursummary were presented in bold and italics. Although you will not be required to reproduce thissummary in the examination, compiling it has been a worthwhile exercise that will have helped you toform a picture of which structure is associated with which, and thus made it easy to understand thelogic of the functions.

TABLE 3.1: The structure of the nervous systemTABLE 3.1: The structure of the nervous system

The human nervous system (HSNS)

Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The brain The spinal cord Somatic NS Autonomic NSSympathetic

NS

ParasympatheticNS

. Cerebral cortex (con-sists of frontal, parie-ta l , occ ip ita l andtemporal lobes)

. cerebral hemispheres

. thalamus

. hypothalamus

. limbic system

. RAS

. medulla oblongata

. cerebellum

31 verte-brae31 verte-brae Controls mus-cles and sendssomatosensoryinput to thebrain

Mediates phy-sical arousalfor responsesto emergencyor urgent beha-viour

Mediates a slow-ing down or ``re-turn to normal''mode of func-tioning

In the next section we discuss the endocrine system and how it is involved in the coordination andcontrol of bodily functions.

3.3 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

In this section pay careful attention to the structure of the endocrine system and how itsecretes hormones that govern and affect bodily processes. Make sure that you under-stand why the pituitary gland is regarded as the master gland.


IOP1501/1 45

Although we rarely think about them, the glands making up the endocrine system andthe hormones they produce and release into the bloodstream influence almost everycell, organ, and function in our bodies. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulat-ing mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well as sexualfunction and reproductive processes.

In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, suchas cell growth. Faster processes such as breathing and body movement are monitoredby the nervous system. However, even though the nervous system and endocrinesystem are separate systems, they often work together to help the body functionproperly.

ACTIVITY 3.8

Is there any significant difference between the functioning of the nervous system and the endocrinesystem?

FEEDBACK

This section is discussed in detail in section 3.4 of Bergh and Theron (2009). The nervous systemsends electrical messages (impulses) to control and coordinate the body. The endocrine system has asimilar job, but uses chemicals to communicate. These chemicals, which the endocrine systemsynthesises and secretes, are known as hormones. Hormones act as specific messengers and arecarried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body, which interpret these messages and act onthem.

3.4 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

In everyday situations, including the work situation, various bodily parts perform certainstatic and dynamic muscle activities. So, for instance, standing requires continuouscontraction of a whole group of muscles in the legs, hips, back and neck so as to keepthe various parts of the body in the desired position.

ACTIVITY 3.9

(1) To see how the human muscular system functions, study section 3.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009).

(2) Take 10 minutes to think about a specific job with which you are familiar. List the physicalrequirements for a person who performs the basic tasks of that job. Note how much muscleactivity is involved. Also, make notes of specific physical requirements for people performing thisjob.

Study unit 3

46

FEEDBACK

Since each of you will have chosen a different job we cannot give specific feedback, but here is anexample that will give you an idea of what was expected in this activity. Read our feedback and seewhether your example described the muscle activity adequately.

We took the job of electrician as an example. This job requires people to move around premises andconstruction sites, so they have to be mobile. Installing wiring requires certain physical movements. Onconstruction sites electricians may have to walk along beams, so good balance seems to be indicated.Since an electrician's work activities involve a lot of overall body movement, most of the muscle groupsare used.

The section dealing with work station design applies the material in the preceding sections directly tothe work environment. Simply defined, ergonomics means the science of work. Ergonomics is that partof I-O psychology that deals specifically with the design of the work environment in accordance withpeople's physiological attributes and functioning. It is a matter of designing the immediate workenvironment to suit their physiological characteristics so as to ensure optimal functioning in their jobs.Ergonomics is the attempt to improve work, and that is also where making things comfortable andefficient comes into play. Although ergonomics is commonly thought of in terms of products, it can beequally useful in the design of services or processes.

Study section 3.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009), which recommends adaptations to work stations andto the work performed in the workplace. The next time you hear the term ``ergonomics'', you will knowwhat it means to you.

Consider the two lists in section 3.5.6 of your prescribed book, which recommend adaptations to workstations and to the work performed there respectively. You will be using these lists ofrecommendations in the next activity.

ACTIVITY 3.10

Choose a specific job and examine the ergonomic recommendations in section 3.5.6 in chapter 3 of theprescribed book.

(1) Take 5 minutes to describe how the work environment may be adapted to facilitate the tasks ofpeople doing this work and to optimise their functioning.

(2) Now describe how these people's job activities may be adapted to allow optimal functioning.

(3) Take 10 more minutes to consider your own work environment. How could you adapt either the workenvironment or the job activities to improve your functioning? Think about this and try out a fewchanges to see whether they work. Learn to look at different environments in this way and tointroduce the necessary adaptations to optimise functioning.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................


IOP1501/1 47

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Let us take a secretarial job as an example. Look at our proposed adaptations of the work environmentand the job activities and compare them with your answer.

(1) Adaptation of secretaries' work environment:

. The desks at which the secretaries work should be of a comfortable height.

. Chairs should be comfortable and at the right height for the desks.

. There should be sufficient space to permit the secretaries to perform their tasks.

. Computers and telephones should be within easy reach.

. Other furnishings (shelves, cupboards, cabinets) should be positioned appropriately in the workspace to permit effective functioning.

(2) Adaptation of secretaries' job activities:

. Unnecessary strain should be avoided. They should be able to sit and type comfortably withoutplacing strain on any part of their bodies.

. Physical requirements should be within reasonable limits. Thus they should not be required tohandle excessively heavy objects.

. Natural bodily movements should be possible. Look at the positioning of the telephone within thework space: is it within easy reach? The same applies to other equipment that is in regular use.

. Pay attention to posture and energy requirements. Allow for alternating bodily position andavoid immobility.

We trust that this part of the activity prompted some useful ideas for changes that will improvefunctioning in your own home and work environment.


This study topic introduced you to the importance of behavioural genetics in humanbeings, with special emphasis on employees. In other words, you have gained an intro-ductory understanding of how the mainly genetically determined physical, biological,neurological and physiological domains of human behaviour influence human behaviourin general and work performance specifically. Biological determination represents theprimary origin or source of individual differences between people, which is easilydemonstrated in the diverse biologically based achievements of individuals. Although weoften take our physical abilities for granted, most job tasks require some form of physicalor biological ability, and often determine how we will manifest our cognitive, social andemotional behaviour. In this regard, the I-O psychologist needs introductory informationabout brain functioning, the nervous system, the endocrine system and the muscularsystem in order to understand the physical aspects of human behaviour. Ignoring these

Study unit 3

48

aspects may prevent the I-O psychologist from grasping the effects of work-overloadand stress and the effect of unhealthy working conditions.Therefore, if possible, accountshould be taken of relevant physical abilities when employees are selected and placed,and job and workplace designs should emphasise the fit between the physical attributesof employees and job requirements more than is often the case.

SELF-EVALUATION


(1) When tissue is damaged by injuries such as abrasions or cuts, healing is effected through ...

(a) medication.(b) mitosis.(c) meiosis.(d) cell formation.

(2) In meiosis, daughter cells have ... chromosomes as/than the mother cell.

(a) half as many(b) twice as many(c) just as many(d) more

(3) The neuron is the basic unit whose function is to ...

(a) actively maintain sustained effort by guidance and support.(b) plan and set goals that activate relevant responses without carrying out responses itself.(c) integrate internal processes by means of its unique function of conducting electrochemical

impulses.(d) prevent the loss of electrical messages by providing insulation.

(4) The different chemicals that are used as neurotransmitters by various neurons ...

(a) produce action potentials that travel at different velocities.(b) control different aspects of behaviour.(c) produce action potentials of different sizes (amplitudes).(d) all produce the same effects.

(5) ... are responsible for consciousness and the experiencing of vision, hearing, smell, taste,temperature, pressure and touch.

(a) Sensory neurons(b) Motor neurons(c) Association neurons(d) Receptor neurons

(6) Which of the following is known as the executive portion of the brain, as its functions correspondwith those of the chief executive officer of a company?


IOP1501/1 49

(a) the occipital lobe(b) the parietal lobe(c) the frontal lobe(d) the temporal lobe

(7) People assign meaning to behaviour by invoking higher mental processes. This is a function of ...

(a) the cerebral cortex.(b) the thalamus.(c) human nature.(d) the temporal lobe.

(8) The primary function of the cerebellum is to ...

(a) control vital functions such as respiration and blood pressure.(b) coordinate functions of sleep and wakefulness.(c) coordinate muscle activity, muscle tone and balance.(d) control the unconscious activities of bodily organs.

(9) Which one of the following determines numerous behavioural aspects through the direct release ofits own hormones as well as through its effects on other glands?

(a) master gland(b) parathyroid(c) voluntary muscles(d) pineal gland

(10)A typist who complains of painful wrists probably suffers from overuse of certain bodily elements,also known as ...

(a) muscular strain.(b) muscle power.(c) carpal tunnel syndrome.(d) muscle tone.


1 (b); 2 (a); 3 (d); 4 (b); 5 (d); 6 (c); 7 (a); 8 (c); 9 (a); 10 (c)


Study unit 3

50


Human development across the life span

IOP1501/1 51

HUMAN DEVELOPMENTACROSS THE LIFE SPAN



You will notice that in life in general, and in the work context in particular, people arerequired to fulfil certain tasks and roles which are often associated with age and changesin a person's physical, intellectual, emotional, social and moral capabilities. It will becomeclear, if you observe closely, how children and even adults will not be successful inassuming certain roles or responsibilities if they are not old enough, or have not maturedsufficiently to do so.You may be aware of people who appear to be `̀early developers''and able to do more than is expected of them at certain stages, and others who seem tobe slow developers, manifesting obvious deficiencies in developmental tasks. In the workcontext too, certain tasks and positions are often associated with certain career stages,and an employee will be able to fulfil certain job expectations or be promoted only oncecertain work-related competencies have developed. I-O psychologists must be knowl-edgeable about human development and the factors that influence development inorder to assess career development needs and assist in the career development ofemployees.

The human individual does not develop in a vacuum. Although development is shaped byindividual characteristics such as genetic predisposition and temperament (as wediscussed in previous study units), it is also formed by a series of interactions with socialenvironments, including family, peer group, community, and cultural environments. As anindividual grows and changes, he or she also shapes aspects of the social environment,which in turn continue to mould the individual. Each of these interrelated factors influ-ences the development of various personal attributes, including identity and self concept,motivation, and moral development.

All the above relate to developmental psychology, also known as human development,which is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in humanbeings over the course of their life span. It concerns changes in people's physical, intel-lectual, social, psychological and moral domains of behaviour, which also include changesrelated to work and career development.Originally concerned with infants and children,the field has expanded to include adolescence and adult development, ageing, and theentire life span.

The aim of this study topic is to introduce you to issues concerning human developmentin general, and career development across the life span, especially with regard to theadult life stages.We will examine social and personality development, paying attention tothe dynamics of the interactions between individuals and their social contexts.We willuse this material in a way that will give you experience in applying developmentaltheories to everyday life, and help you build your skills as a critical participant in devel-opmental research.

STUDYUNIT

4

52

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. define the field of human development

. identify the characteristics of human development

. list the domains of human development in various career and life stages

. explain how genetics and learning factors determine human development

. describe how critical periods influence human development

. discuss development issues during adolescence and adulthood

. discuss development theories with regard to attachment, personality, cognitive and moraldevelopment

. reflect on the importance of development domains for working and career development

. analyse career transitions, stages and tasks as part of human development

. explain how the theories of career transition can be applied in real life



Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

4.1 Overview: the characteristics of human development

4.2 Domains and determinants of human development

4.3 Critical developmentperiods

4.4 Career transitions and tasks

4.5 Future trends inpeople's careerdevelopment


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


development, maturation, growth, ageing, maturity, evolution, differentiation, complexity, predict-ability, cognitive, physical, psychosocial, moral, genetic, learning, environment, critical periods,attachments, ego-identity, career transitions, tasks, occupational identity, life stages,developmental tasks


IOP1501/1 53


4.1 OVERVIEW: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANDEVELOPMENT

When discussing any type of development, most theorists break it down into specificstages. Typically, these stages are progressive in other words, a person must passthrough one stage before he or she can get to the next. Think about how you learnt torun; first you had to learn to crawl, then you learnt to walk, and finally you developedthe skills needed to run.Without the first two stages, running would be impossible.Development in many other physical, cognitive, emotional, social and moral domains ofhuman functioning shows a similar progression.

Human development refers to the stages and phases that all people pass through in thenormal process of growth and ageing. These developmental stages exert an influence atvarious levels and manifest themselves in various ways in the work environment.

This study unit will examine a broad range of topics, including the general nature andcharacteristics of human development and various developmental concepts. It will alsoexpose you to the topics of cognitive development, career orientation and tasks.

Study sections 4.1 and 4.1.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and make sure that you candistinguish between

. maturation,

. ageing, and

. the other concepts which explain aspects of human development.

Why do you think we need to learn about human development in I-O psychology?Consider this question, and study section 4.1 to 4.1.1 in chapter 4 of the prescribed bookfor other reasons.

Four characteristics are identified in the discussion of human development in section 4.2(4.2.1 to 4.2.4) in Bergh and Theron (2009). Study this section and then do the followingactivity.

ACTIVITY 4.1

(1) Write down the names of the four overlapping main life and career stages identified in section 4.2.1of Bergh and Theron (2009). Remember that each stage evolves from the previous one(s) and is

Study unit 4

54

linked with the succeeding one(s). Now, for each of the four stages, write down what career youchose or would choose at that stage. When you were a child, for instance, you might have dreamtabout being a firefighter or a nurse, but over the years you may have come to prefer otheroccupations. You may also foresee further changes in your preferences in later years.

(2) Use the material in sections 4.2.1 to 4.2.4 of the prescribed book to clarify your career choicesduring the various stages in the first part of the activity.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

In this activity the important thing was to note how your career choice has changed over time. A youngchild may focus only on things that sound adventurous and entail physical activity. A young adult, onthe other hand, may be more concerned about social aspects and choose a career that allowssufficient time for social and other leisure-time activities. In middle adulthood, aspects such asfinancial security may feature more prominently, while in late adulthood people may consider changingto a more peaceful career. At each stage, physical, motor, emotional, social and psychologicaldevelopment will influence one's choice.

4.2 DOMAINS AND DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT

In this section we focus on the domains of human development and what determines it.Here, too, the accent is on the work environment, so that we can interpret the theoryin the context of I-O psychology.

Study sections 4.3 and 4.4 of the prescribed book, then complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.2

People's personal career choices are influenced by three domains of development, namely the physical,cognitive and psychosocial domains. These domains also have implications for the fit between personand occupation.

(1) Reread sections 4.3 and 4.4 in the prescribed book. Now choose two divergent occupationaldirections and list the physical/biological, cognitive and psychosocial requirements if a person is tosucceed in those occupations.


IOP1501/1 55

(2) Indicate, with reference to the aspects discussed in section 4.4, whether each of the requirementsthat you mentioned in (1) are governed by heredity, the environment and/or learning, or theinteraction between the person and the environment. Note that the ongoing debate on the issue ofenvironment versus heredity remains unresolved.

(3) In section 4.4.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) there is a reference to the influence of historical andlife events, cultural aspects and opportunities on people's personalities and coping. Consider theSouth African situation: how do you think our recent history will have influenced personality andcoping? Also consider the current situation and how the changes we are experiencing are likely toaffect the future. You could apply this to your personal circumstances or those of your family andfriends so as to illustrate the effects of historical and life events, cultural aspects andopportunities on a variety of people.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

This exercise should have shown you that a career choice or the fit between person and occupation isnot straightforward. The differences and similarities between the two occupations that you chose willhave indicated that a suitable career choice requires one to take a number of characteristics intoaccount. It is difficult to offer specific feedback, as there is a whole range of attributes which affectpeople's effective functioning in a given domain. Others may come to mind as you read on. Keepreturning to your original lists and adding to them. It will help you in subsequent sections to think of therequirements for specific occupations that must be satisfied by the people who do that work.

We now turn to critical periods of human development.

4.3 CRITICAL DEVELOPMENT PERIODS

Section 4.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009) deals with critical periods of development.

Notice how critical or sensitive periods are contrasted with optimal periods. How dothese two concepts differ? We use these concepts as a basis throughout our discussion ofthe stages of human development, as they affect the individual's behaviour in subsequentstages as well.

Also explain what is meant by the concept of psychological evolution.

Study section 4.5, and then complete the following activity:

Study unit 4

56

ACTIVITY 4.3

Imagine that you are an I-O psychologist employed by an organisation. Your tasks include looking afterthe emotional and psychological wellbeing of workers. You have become aware of some tension amongemployees of the organisation, and you decide to deal with the problem proactively by attending to thestaff's self-development. The self-development course that you envisage is aimed at aspects ofchildhood developmental stages and at life span development.

As the first step in compiling the self-development course, identify what you consider to be importantaspects of development that may affect subsequent behaviour in the work context. State each aspect,with an example of behaviour in the work environment that would indicate inadequate development withregard to that aspect.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

This activity should have made you think hard. Below we will provide a few examples to show you what wehad in mind. There are no incorrect answers, but our examples should tell you whether you were on theright track. We start with the earliest stage of development (the first five or six years) and thenconsider Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development. We will not discuss all these stages, butyou can think of examples for each of them.

First five or six years of developmentFirst five or six years of development

Most theories of human development assert that, generally, infants develop motor abilities in the sameorder and at approximately the same age. In this sense, most agree that these abilities are geneticallypreprogrammed within all infants. The environment does play a role in the development, with an enrichedenvironment often reducing the learning time and an impoverished one doing the opposite.

Deficient formation of thought patterns during this stage of development can definitely affectcognitive functioning, which will impair effectiveness in the work environment. As for emotionaldevelopment, certain types of dependency behaviour (eg towards authority figures) will also bemanifested at work. Consider, for instance, the ambivalent dependency behaviour characterised bymixed feelings of acceptance and rejection. Can you think of somebody in your work situation whodisplays these ambivalent feelings?


IOP1501/1 57

ACTIVITY 4.4

According to Bowlby and Ainsworth's theory, what would you say is the significance of the primarycaregiver in shaping the child's personality and character?

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Bowlby and Ainsworth's attachment theory explains infant behaviour with regard to importantattachment or caregiver figures during separation and reunion times. It is believed that attachmentbehaviours formed in infancy will help shape the attachment relationships people have as adults.

Study section 4.5.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) for more detail on this topic.

ACTIVITY 4.5

Take 10 minutes to summarise the nature of psychosexual development and indicate how, according toFreud, unsuccessful progression through each stage will result in a child becoming fixated on thatparticular erogenous zone and either overindulging or underindulging once he or she becomes an adult.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Freud's stages of psychosexual developmentFreud's stages of psychosexual development

Freud's theory, like other stage theories, suggests that if the developmental stages are completed in apredetermined sequence, the outcome can be successful completion and a healthy personality; if not,the outcome can be failed completion, leading to an unhealthy personality. This theory is probably the

Study unit 4

58

most controversial, as Freud believed that we develop through stages based upon a particularerogenous zone.

The details in section 4.5.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) should have helped you to complete the aboveactivity.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial developmentErikson's stages of psychosocial development

Like Piaget, Erikson maintained that children develop according to a predetermined series ofdevelopmental stages. Instead of focusing on cognitive development, however, he was interested in howchildren socialise and how this affects their sense of self. Erikson's theory of psychosocial developmentcontains eight distinct stages, each with two possible outcomes, and each building on the successfulcompletion of earlier stages. According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in ahealthy personality and successful interactions with others. Failure to successfully complete a stagecan result in the reduced ability to complete further stages, and therefore a more unhealthypersonality and sense of self.

ACTIVITY 4.6

Study section 4.5.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009), dealing with Erikson's theory of psychosocialdevelopment across eight stages, and complete the following activity. Take 15 minutes to briefly writedown the core characteristic of each stage and give details of what both successful and unsuccessfulcompletion of each stage entails.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

From your study of section 4.5.2 you should have obtained the details required to meet therequirements of this activity. In order to gain even more insight into Erikson's stages of psychosocialdevelopment, we will now discuss how behaviour can manifest during each of the eight stages. We willdiscuss the first five stages, and we hope that this will enable you to discuss the remaining threestages adequately. It is to your advantage to actively participate and answer the questions posed.This discussion is in line with the structure of the examination questions.

. Trust versus mistrust (first year)Trust versus mistrust (first year)

An example here could be a worker's general attitude towards management. Do you think a feeling ofmistrust dating back to childhood could emerge as a similar attitude towards authority figures and/ormanagement in the work context? You may know someone like that. If the attitude is fairly pervasive,you may be able to understand the person better now.


IOP1501/1 59

. Autonomy versus shame and doubtAutonomy versus shame and doubt

If employees in this stage are encouraged and supported to become increasingly independent, theybecome more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. According to Erikson'stheory, at this stage, what would the resultant behaviour/s be if employees are constantly criticised,overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves?

. Initiative versus guiltInitiative versus guilt

A child who fails to develop initiative because of excessive criticism grows up to be an adult whorepresses potential and even develops psychosomatic ailments to avoid responsibility. Do you perhapsknow somebody who invariably gets a headache or a stomach ache whenever pressure and expectationsget too high? Or who regularly takes sick leave the moment there is a rush at work? Try and think ofexamples of such cases in your own environment.

. Industry versus inferiorityIndustry versus inferiority

Can you imagine what the role of parents, teachers and training facilitators is in this stage? What roledo you think actions such as encouragement and the provision of rewards could play? How can atraining facilitator use the conditions in this stage to tap the learners' capacity to learn, creating andeliciting numerous new skills and increasing knowledge, and in that way developing a sense of industry?

What about conditions in which people are discouraged, and live in a restricted environment? Whatwould the possible resultant behaviour, as suggested by Erikson, be for this stage? What do you thinkthe outcome of a stressful induction programme for new employees might be?

. Identity versus ego or role confusionIdentity versus ego or role confusion

Let's take the example of Mr X, a manager, who sees himself as the person who has to make sure thatevery worker meets his or her responsibility, whereas others see him as the kind of manager whointervenes too directly. Can you see that the role confusion between Mr X's perception of his role andtasks and those of the workers could give rise to problems? Do you think Mr X might benefit fromfurther training?

Now do the same with the following three stages on your own.

. intimacy versus isolation

. generativity versus stagnation

. ego-identity versus despair

Keep the different stages in mind when you observe people's behaviour in the work environment. In thenext section we deal with career transitions and tasks, with reference to the identifiable stages.

4.4 CAREER TRANSITIONS AND TASKS

The study of human development is vital to understanding human behaviour with regardto occupational or career development and to developing work-related competencies.Increasingly, individuals have to forge their own career paths through a series of organi-sations.Work is perceived as part of our total life experience, but one that increasinglyaffects the wellbeing of our families and communities. The study of occupational devel-opment highlights vital connections across the lifework boundary. A career crisis can

Study unit 4

60

have serious ramifications for family members and personal life transitions can disruptwork performance.Career guidance programmes need to take account of these inter-actions. In a period of rapid change the challenge is to spread transition awareness andmanagement skills to employers and the general population.

The life span developmental perspective on careers emphasises continuity, that is, theprogressive dynamic processes of maturation and adaptation.

ACTIVITY 4.7

Distinguish between life stages (as discussed in section 4.6 (4.6.1 to 4.6.4) in Bergh & Theron,(2009)) and developmental tasks.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Life stages are the predominant states in the unfolding process of career development anddevelopmental tasks to capture the predictable, socially imposed adaptive challenges within eachstage.

Unlike the stages in Piaget's developmental theory, for example, the sequence of career life stages andtasks is not fixed and inevitable. Although the career life stages and tasks are linear and predictable,they do not occur in invariant order. The ages at which and sequence in which people encounter thetasks of each life stage may vary, depending on individual biosocial development and life situations. Forexample, some people will cope successfully with exploratory tasks and enter the establishment stagein their early 20s; some will continue to explore indefinitely; and others will, in their 30s, return toexploratory tasks in order to enter a different type of work. According to developmental theory, one setof behaviours will be dominant during a particular life stage for example, exploratory behaviour willgenerally override other behaviours during adolescence.

Success in adapting to each developmental task results in effective functioning as a student, worker orretiree, and lays the groundwork for mastering the next tasks along the developmental continuum,according to the assumptions of table 4.2.

Section 4.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009) deals with various stages of people's careers, with specialreference to the views of Super and Havighurst. Complete the following activity and the practicalexercise below.


IOP1501/1 61

ACTIVITY 4.8

Start by studying section 4.6 in your prescribed book carefully. Once you have done this, focus on table

4.2, which forms the basis of this activity.

Draw up a table similar to table 4.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009), but leave enough space for additional

notes of your own. Next to each stage write the name of someone you know (a relative, friend or

colleague) who fits that category, and a brief reason for placing that person in that category. Later on,

when you need to know the various stages, to refresh your memory, you simply need to think of those

relatives, friends or colleagues.

FEEDBACK

We trust that you found the exercise interesting, and that the use of familiar faces in this framework

will help you to remember the stages. We also hope that it will alert you to the manifestations of these

stages in your own work environment.

This study unit contains a great deal of information; however, you still need to go through the work in

the prescribed book a few times and to summarise it. As you become more familiar with the material

you will find it easier to spot direct applications to the work context.

4.5 FUTURE TRENDS IN PEOPLE'S CAREER DEVELOPMENT

This section of the chapter deals with the realities of the world of work in the new

millennium, as the boundaries between work and non-work are becoming increasingly

blurred. The world has moved away from the one-life and one-career perspective,

according to which one series of career stages (entry into the world of work, establish-

ing oneself in one's job, mastering and maintaining one's job, retiring from the workplace)

took up the whole of a person's work life.

Pay careful attention to the realities facing the new generation of employees as well as

the career development agents.

Also note how factors such as time scarcity (caused by the competing demands of work,

operational demands, family and study) and increasing cost shorten occupational life

cycles. Further, in the modern era job descriptions overlap to an increasing degree and

careers are less secure. Success in employment now requires that individuals be proac-

tive and flexible. This means that individuals must now be prepared to further their

education and develop new skills in new domains with regard to their career aspirations.

Study unit 4

62


In this topic we provided a broad perspective on human development, including its

general nature and characteristics, domains or areas of development and influencing

factors, critical periods in human development, as well as a summary of various career

transition stages. Psychologists and human resource workers must have a good grasp of

human development in general, as it will influence career development and work

performance. The way development tasks and work-related attitudes, values and

competencies were acquired is important for the type of work ethic, work commitment

and work engagement employees will offer to employers. Effective career development

is also important for the employee's subjective experiences of work, which will transfer

into positive wellbeing, job satisfaction and effective work performance.

SELF-EVALUATION


(1) Human development is determined primarily by ...

(a) heredity.(b) the environment.(c) learning.(d) All of the above.

(2) Which of the following theorists maintains/maintain that children go through specific stages (whichare completed in a fixed order) as their intellect and ability to see relationships matures.

(a) Freud(b) Erikson(c) Bowlby and Ainsworth(d) Piaget

(3) Piaget's formal operational stage of cognitive development manifests as ...

(a) learning by doing.(b) improved concrete thinking.(c) development of concepts of numbers, relationships and reversibility.(d) use of abstract thought.

(4) According to Bronfenbrenner's model ...

(a) environmental factors such as nutrition, toxic substances, medication and pollutantsinfluence human health and development.

(b) development is a dynamic process in which the individual and the environment influence eachother's development.

(c) psychosocial factors are the main elements of a person's development.(d) unusual experiences have a lasting impact on a person's development.


IOP1501/1 63

(5) If people display behaviour characterised by a tendency to overindulge in behaviours such assmoking, drinking alcohol, eating, or nailbiting, in which one of Freud's developmental stages couldthey be said to be fixated?

(a) phallic(b) genital(c) oral(d) anal

(6) Which of the following is not one of the four types of independence described by Hoffman?

(a) emotional(b) practical(c) attitudinal(d) conflictual

(7) Which of the following concepts was identified by Havighurst as having the potential to lead tohappiness when successful and to possible disapproval by society if unsuccessful?

(a) career stages(b) self-efficacy(c) developmental tasks(d) psychosexual stages

(8) When certain experiences in a person's developmental stages are arrested and do not developfurther, evoke anxiety or remain unresolved, they are known in Freudian theory as ...

(a) fixations(b) neuroses(c) regression(d) aggression

(9) The theorist who postulated that ego-identity is acquired through resolving conflict in progressivelife phases is ...

(a) Freud(b) Bowlby(c) Erikson(d) Super

(10) In working life, young adulthood is characterised by ...

(a) identity formation.(b) maintenance of social role.(c) a stage of rebellion and search for self-identity.(d) access to, and establishment in, a workplace.


1 (d); 2 (d); 3 (d); 4 (b); 5 (c); 6 (b); 7 (c); 8 (a); 9 (c); 10 (d)


Study unit 4

64


Learning

IOP1501/1 65

LEARNING(BASED ON CHAPTER 5 OF BERGH AND THERON (2009))


Imagine that you are the training and development manager of a South African organi-sation.Your tasks include identifying the training and development needs of your orga-nisation, compiling and presenting new programmes, updating and adapting existingones, and evaluating these programmes.You will have to use many learning principles toadapt your training content, material and techniques to suit the diverse needs of adiverse workforce.

This chapter on learning will introduce you to the principles of learning and how thoseprinciples can be used to modify human behaviour. The course emphasises the applica-tion of learning theories and principles to solve behavioural problems as they exist inoneself, one's family, schools, the workplace, and in larger social, economic and politicalgroups. The activities in this study unit will present you with typical training and devel-opment tasks performed by people in training posts. Thus the content will acquaint youwith the practical application of learning theory in the work context. To accomplish this,you need to understand the various learning theories and principles and be able to usethem effectively to compile training and development programmes.

Thus, the aim of this chapter is to expose you to a wide range of theories, concepts andmethodologies of learning with a view to applying your knowledge in the work andother contexts.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. indicate what you understand by the concept of learning

. demonstrate your understanding of the terminology relating to classical and operant conditioning,cognitive learning and social learning

. distinguish between classical and operant conditioning

. apply the principles of classical and instrumental conditioning in the compilation of trainingactivities

. use social learning theory, which combines behaviourist theory and cognitive theory, in training

. understand the nature and effectiveness of various reinforcement schedules and recommend waysthey can be applied in training

. assess the value of punishment as a corrective measure in training

. explain the concept ``adult learner'' and recommend training activities suitable for this group oflearners

STUDYUNIT

5

66

. explain various learning principles and use them to develop training activities

. distinguish between different training techniques

. assess whether transfer or learning has taken place

. evaluate training activities



Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

5.1 Overview: what is learning?

5.2 The learningprocess

5.3 The adult learner

5.4 Learning intheworkcontext


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


classical conditioning, extinction, discrimination, generalisation, higher-order conditioning, sponta-neous recovery, operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement, punishment, cognitive learning,social learning, the adult learner, learning organisation


5.1 OVERVIEW: WHAT IS LEARNING?

From the day we are born, we begin a process of learning that lasts throughout life. Avast amount of time and effort is spent on the business of learning, and any teacher orstudent will agree that learning is not always a simple matter. The concept `̀learning'' is

Learning

IOP1501/1 67

significant because it may suggest that people are driving their own development

through relevant experience beyond work-related skills and knowledge and processes.

`̀Learning'' conveys the idea of change and personal development (and thereby organisa-

tional development) with regard to beliefs, values, wisdom, compassion, emotional

maturity, ethics and integrity and, most important of all, helping others to identify, aspire

to, achieve and fulfil their own unique individual personal potential.

From studying sections 5.1 and 5.2 you will notice that the process of learning is primarily

a personal responsibility and act.We place our own personal stamp on how we learn,

what we learn and when we learn, and we all learn according to our own unique

learning style. The act of learning is paradoxical in nature; it is often such a simple act

that we do not question its presence when we go about our daily activities. Learning and

development are natural and progressive events in our existence as learning organisms.

Yet, when we encounter difficulties in learning something, we no longer take the learn-

ing process for granted. It is only then that our metacognition, or awareness of how we

learn, becomes heightened. The existence of numerous concepts, definitions, theories

and methodologies of learning confirm the complexity of this process, and can also

provide us with valuable competencies to use in the training field.

5.2 THE LEARNING PROCESS

In order to fully comprehend the details of this section, you will need to study section

5.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009).

The two main approaches to learning refer to conditioning, that is, either classical or

instrumental conditioning. Make sure that you take time to understand these two

concepts, because they form the basis of the entire discussion in this study unit.

You will notice that you have already encountered some of the content in your study of

behaviourism, one of the primary schools of thought in psychology. To double check

whether you still remember the assumptions and core idea of this perspective, complete

the following activity.

ACTIVITY 5.1

Take five minutes to write down at least three assumptions or beliefs that characterise thebehaviourist point of view with regard to learning.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Study unit 5

68

FEEDBACK

Here are three of the many possible assumptions you could have identified.

. Observable behaviour rather than unconscious or internal thought processes are the focus of study.In particular, learning is manifested by a change in behaviour.

. The environment shapes one's behaviour; what one learns is determined by the rewards andinfluences in the environment, not necessarily by the individual learner.

. Responses (or behaviours) are strengthened or weakened by the consequences of behaviour.

Components of classical and operant conditioning

Classical and operant conditioning are not new kinds of learning invented by Pavlov andThorndike.Conditioning has always existed, but we know more about it becausepsychologists have studied and described its forms more carefully. No doubt, since thebeginning of time, educators, animal trainers, parents, bosses and lovers have learnt toperfect the art of using reinforcement, punishment and changes in the environment quiteeffectively to manipulate and manage behaviour.

Classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov was the first to describe classical conditioning, the type of learning in whicha subject comes to respond to a neutral stimulus as he, she or it would to anotherstimulus by learning to associate the two stimuli (the so-called stimulus-response or S-Rprinciple). Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes todisplay a conditioned response (CR) to a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS), which hasbeen paired with a biologically significant unconditioned stimulus (US) that evokes anunconditioned response (UR).

ACTIVITY 5.2

The following terms belong to the terminology associated with classical conditioning. Study the sectionon classical conditioning in Bergh and Theron (2009) and use each term correctly in the context ofPavlov's dog experiment to demonstrate your understanding of the terminology.

neutral stimulus (NS) unconditioned stimulus (US)unconditioned reflex (response) (UR) conditioned stimulus (CS)conditioned reflex (response) (CR) discriminationgeneralisation higher-order conditioningextinction spontaneous recovery

Learning

IOP1501/1 69

FEEDBACK

Components and processes of classical conditioningComponents and processes of classical conditioning (Pavlov's experiment)(Pavlov's experiment)

Stimulus Process Result

Food (US) mere sight of The dog salivateswhen it sees a drum-stick (UR)

Having noticed this behaviour, Pavlov wanted to see whether external stimuli could affect thisprocess.

Bell (NS) mere sound no salivation

Pavlov began by ringing a bell (first-order conditioning) at the same time that he fed the dog.

Bell (CS) paired with food (overtime) ``conditioning''Food (US)

The dog salivated onseeing food and hear-ing the sound of thebell.

After a while, the dog that initially salivated only when food was presented began to salivatewhen the bell was rung, even without food being present.

Bell (CS) mere sound of bell The dog eventuallysalivated on hearingthe sound of the bellon its own (CR).

Study unit 5

70

When a random object was introduced and paired with the ringing bell, the dog continued tosalivate (higher-order conditioning).

Bell (CS)

random object

Light bulb (NS)

After the sameassociation processas used above (bell +light) was followed,

the dog salivatedwhen it heard the belland in the presence ofthe random object(switching on thelight).

When the bell was removed, and the new random object was introduced, the dog continued tosalivate. This indicates that the stimulus can be changed and that salivation will still occur.

Light bulb (CS) Mere sight The previously neutralstimulus has beenmodified to a condi-tioned stimulus. Thedog will start salivat-ing when the light isswitched on (CR).

Stimulusdiscrimination

The tendency for a response to be elicited by one stimulus and notanother (initially, the dog salivated at the sight of food (US) not theringing of the bell (NS)).

Stimulusgeneralisation

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similarto the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses. For example, acar alarm may elicit the same response as that of the bell.

Extinction The tendency for the response to the conditioned stimulus (bell or lightswitch) to fade away once the conditioned stimulus is no longer pairedwith the US (food).

Spontaneous recovery The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditionedresponse.

Learning

IOP1501/1 71

Did you notice that all the terms listed above have been explained? See whether you can follow the sameprocedure with the example in Zake's case study at the end of chapter 5 of Bergh and Theron (2009).

Pavlov's experiments dramatically demonstrated the way in which the environment controls behaviour.We are highly responsive to cues in our environment: we see our favourite beverage and cannot avoiddrinking it; our behaviour towards our family members is different from our behaviour towards ourbosses; we find that we are able to concentrate and study most effectively in a particular place; we feeluneasy when we are idle, and so we get back to work. In fact, classical conditioning is involved in almosteverything we do. (Even though brushing your teeth is not the emotional high point of your day, have youever noticed how you feel if, for some reason, you forget to brush your teeth, or are prevented fromdoing so? Although there are other things you could do to freshen your mouth, you still miss yourtoothbrush!) As human beings, we are creatures of habit, and events make more sense when they are inline with what is known to us.

Operant conditioning

BF Skinner extended Thorndike's laws of learning and developed a vocabulary to assistus in understanding how we learn through operant conditioning.Operant conditioning isa type of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences.Learning or conditioning in operant conditioning involves higher mental processes, as itdepends on the predictive power of the conditioned stimulus rather than mere associa-tion of stimuli.

Study the section 5.3.2 entitled `̀Operant conditioning'' in Bergh and Theron (2009).

According to Skinner, people learn how to operate, manipulate or even control theirenvironment to bring about a particular desired response and how to avoid punishmentor negative consequences (the so-called stimulus-organism-response or S-O-R princi-ple). He also argued that people learn from experience that positive or negativeresponses are contingent (dependent) upon their behaviour.

The term `̀operant conditioning'' is used to describe one type of associative learning inwhich there is a contingency (dependence) between the response and the presentationof the reinforcer.Operant or instrumental conditioning differs from Pavlovian or `̀classicalconditioning'', where producing a response has no effect on US presentations.

Whereas classical conditioning forms an association between two stimuli, operantconditioning forms an association between a behaviour and a consequence. (It is alsocalled stimulus-response (SR) conditioning because it forms an association between thesubject's response (behaviour) and the stimulus that follows (consequence)).

In this context, `̀an event started'' or `̀an item presented'' is described as positive, since itis something that is added to the animal's environment.

Similarly,`̀an event ended'' or `̀an item taken away'' is described as negative, since it issomething that is subtracted from the animal's environment.

Anything that increases a behaviour (makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger,or makes it more likely to occur) is termed a reinforcer.Often, an animal (or person) willperceive `̀starting something good'' or `̀ending something bad''as something worth

Study unit 5

72

pursuing, and will repeat the behaviours that seem to result in these consequences.These consequences will increase the behaviours that lead to them, so they are reinfor-cers. These are consequences the person will work to attain, so they strengthen thebehaviour.

Anything that decreases a behaviour (makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, ormakes it less likely to occur) is termed a punisher.Often, an animal (or person) willperceive `̀ending something good'' or `̀starting something bad''as something worthavoiding, and will not repeat the behaviours that seem to cause these consequences.These consequences will decrease the behaviours that lead to them, so they arepunishers.

Note: These definitions are based on their actual effect on the behaviour in question.This means that the stimuli must reduce or strengthen the behaviour to be considered aconsequence and be defined as a punisher or reinforcer.

ACTIVITY 5.3

Study the section on operant conditioning in Bergh and Theron (2009) and also the section above inthis study unit, then take 5 minutes to complete the following activity.

ReinforcementReinforcement(behaviour increases)

PunishmentPunishment(behaviour decreases)

(a) ?(something added)

(b) ?Something added increasesbehaviour

(c) ?Something added decreasesbehaviour

(c) ?(something removed)

(e) ?Something removed increasesbehaviour

(f) ?Something removed decreasesbehaviour

Complete the above table by choosing the correct term from the list given below:

(1) positive

(2) positive reinforcement

(3) positive punishment

(4) negative

(5) negative reinforcement

(6) negative punishment

Learning

IOP1501/1 73

FEEDBACK

This was a fairly easy exercise. The discussion in Bergh and Theron (2009) and the informationcontained in this study unit should have provided you with enough information for completing the table.

Note: The answers are as follows (a) 1; (b) 2; (c) 3; (d) 4; (e) 5; (f) 6.

Differences and similarities between classical and operantconditioning

At this stage you should be able to state the differences and similarities between classicaland operant conditioning.

ACTIVITY 5.4

Make a list of as many differences and similarities between classical and instrumental conditioning asyou can think of.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

What did you include in your list? Our thoughts are summarised in the comparison below.

Study unit 5

74

Classical conditioningClassical conditioning Operant conditioningOperant conditioning

(1) Learning through association (1) Learning through reinforcement

(2) Concerned with a reflex or automaticresponse

(2) Concerned with voluntary behaviour which isnaturally produced

(3) Reinforcement is presented before the CR(think of the presentation of food inPavlov's experiment)

(3) Reinforcement occurs after the CR

(4) Reinforcement is not related to anythingthe organism might do

(4) The organism is instrumental in obtainingreinforcement

Both involve generalisation, extinction and discrimination

Schedules of reinforcement

Awhole range of rules can govern the contingency between responses and reinforce-ment.These rules are referred to as schedules of reinforcement.Most of these schedulesof reinforcement can be divided into schedules in which the contingency depends on thenumber of responses and those in which the contingency depends on their timing.

Stimuli are presented in the environment according to schedules that fall into two basiccategories: continuous and intermittent or partial.

Schedules that depend on the number of responses made are called ratio schedules. Ifthe contingency between responses and reinforcement depends on time, the schedule iscalled an interval schedule.

Study section 5.3.2.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain a thorough understanding ofthese schedules.You will find many applications of these schedules in how people workor achieve, for example, shift work, and how they are rewarded.

Effectiveness of punishment

As indicated, reinforcement can be used to shape and encourage the repetition ofdesirable behaviour. Punishment, on the other hand, is normally used to shape anddiscourage the repetition of undesirable behaviour.

Study section 5.3.2.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain a thorough understanding ofthe concept of punishment and how it is administered in ways that make it more or lesseffective

Learning

IOP1501/1 75

COGNITIVE LEARNING

Cognitive theorists emphasise the individual's mental processes. In other words, they are

concerned with cognition ö the act or process of knowing. The cognitive approach to

learning views learners as active processors of information (a metaphor borrowed from

the computer world) and assigns critical roles to the knowledge and perspective

students bring to their learning.What learners do to enrich information, in the view of

cognitive psychology, determines the level of understanding they ultimately achieve. In

this regard, because we can think and adapt our own environments and reactions,

people can change the association between stimuli and responses ö in fact, we are not

always slaves to our environments.

ACTIVITY 5.5

Take 10 minutes to list the differences between the cognitive and operant approaches to learning.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Study section 5.3.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain a thorough understanding of the concept ofcognitive learning. Also, pay careful attention to the nature of cognitive theories. The distinctionbetween operant and cognitive approaches is clearly discussed in this section of your prescribed book.

SOCIAL LEARNING

According to the social learning theory, people learn from each other through processes

such as identification, imitation and modelling. Humans associate certain types of beha-

viour with specific outcomes by directly or vicariously (indirectly, perhaps onTVor from

books) observing others; therefore, they do not necessarily have to experience the

situation themselves or be rewarded for the new behaviour. In terms of this theory,

reinforcement does not strengthen learning; it is simply a payoff that motivates us to

perform the behaviour that leads to the reward.

Observational learning involves higher-order thinking, not just thoughtless imitation.The

person becomes a controlling factor; we make decisions that direct our lives; our mind

is an active `̀agent'' involved in learning and changing ourselves and our environment.

Study unit 5

76

ACTIVITY 5.6

Take 10 minutes to write a summary of your understanding of the social learning theory. Your

discussion should include, specify and elaborate on the following topics:

. the social learning theory, or observational learning, as it is also known

. attention processes

. retentional processes

. behavioural reproduction processes

. motivational processes

. learning as reorganisation and reconstruction of experience

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Study section 5.3.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to gain a thorough understanding of the concept of

social learning. The various topics which you had to discuss are also dealt with in detail in this section

of your prescribed book.

5.3 THE ADULT LEARNER

There are a number of important assumptions embedded in andragogic learning prin-

ciples. These include taking into account learners' self-concepts, experience and motiva-

tion when compiling training and development programmes.

ACTIVITY 5.7

(1) Read section 5.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and then answer the following question:

How would you, as a training and development manager, accommodate learners' self-concepts,

experience and motivation in the following situations?

Learning

IOP1501/1 77

Situation 1

In an interpersonal development programme for sales staff, participants discuss the problemsthey experience with aggressive customers, and ask you how they should deal with thesesituations. Although you suspect that they are quite capable of finding their own ways of copingwith interpersonal conflict, they appear to be dependent and tend to deny their own experience andskills as adult learners. How would you deal with their lack of self-confidence?

Situation 2

In a programme to develop organising skills, managers are encouraged to be more creative whenorganising people and tasks. They offer resistance, however, and maintain that there is only one``right'' way of organising. How would you go about exposing them to new experiences andinformation?

Situation 3

Employees in your organisation appear uninterested in diversity workshops, which are offered on avoluntary basis. They cannot be bothered to attend because they feel that the workshop contentwould be of no direct use to them in their work. How would you persuade them of the value of theprogramme?

FEEDBACK

How did you respond? Compare your ideas with ours.

Situation 1

It is important to confront adult learners about their dependence on their trainer (which you feel iskeeping them in their comfort zone) by making them responsible for their own learning. One methodwould be to use experiential learning, a strategy used mainly to teach interpersonal skills. Thus, thesales staff in this situation could be given a chance to experiment with different interpersonal stylesand strategies, for example by role playing different situations. One participant could play the role ofthe aggressive customer, while a second participant tries to handle the situation in diverse ways tofind out which one works best. Other participants could act as observers and give feedback on howeffective the strategy is. This enables these participants to evaluate their behaviour more objectively. Ifthey respond by becoming aggressive themselves, for example, the interaction will be terminated andthe problem will remain unsolved. However, if they learn to listen to the customer calmly and attentively,without being defensive, they are likely to understand the customer's experience and frustration, andcome up with a satisfactory solution.

Situation 2

Facilitators or trainers need to realise that employees will sometimes resist new managerial methods,and may initially even react emotionally. Change causes anxiety, and they may even feel incompetent.Thus, when teaching adult learners new methods, trainers should not respond critically to their firstattempts, but should rather acknowledge participants' contributions, give positive feedback ratherthan negative criticism, and suggest alternatives. Participants should be given a chance to digest orprocess information, think about it and consider possible applications of this knowledge in their work

Study unit 5

78

situation. To this end, the learning process can alternate between processing, reflection and application

activities.

Situation 3

Since adult learners prefer to attend programmes that are directly applicable to their work, trainers

should make sure that they meet this need. Sometimes, however, there are organisational needs, such

as diversity training, which also have to be satisfied. Your responsibility is therefore not just to develop

programmes, but also to market them. Thus managers should be made to realise that lack of diversity

can impair interpersonal relations in their departments and ultimately harm the organisation as a

whole. The benefits of the programme should be pointed out, as well as skills that participants can learn

from the programme, which will help them to do their work more effectively.

5.4 LEARNING IN THE WORKCONTEXT

The training process in the work context comprises three distinct phases: need analysis

and specifying instructional objectives, a training and development phase, and an

evaluation phase. In each phase the trainer has to perform specific tasks.The first phase

requires a careful study of the organisation and its needs, analysis of learners' current

level of performance and what they should be able to do after completing the training,

and, finally, specification of instructional objectives on the basis of these analyses. In the

second phase trainers should consider relevant learning principles such as learners'

readiness, the practising of acquired skills, provision of opportunities to practise these

skills, feedback to participants and scheduling the training. Transfer of learning has to be

achieved by means of appropriate training techniques. Evaluation would entail setting

criteria to assess performance and deciding on a particular type of evaluation.

ACTIVITY 5.8

Study section 5.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then take 10 minutes to do the following activity.

You are a training and development manager and have delegated the task of compiling a marketing

training programme for the marketing department to one of your subordinates. In a consultation

session, this person asks you to identify the main tasks for each training phase so that she can make

sure that she carries them out. Your task is to draw up a list for her, showing the main tasks in each of

the three phases of training.

Phase 1Phase 1 Need analysis

Instructional objectives

Phase 2Phase 2 Training and development

Considerations

Phase 3Phase 3 Evaluation

Tasks

Learning

IOP1501/1 79

FEEDBACK

Phase 1Need analysis

Phase 2Training and development

Phase 3Evaluation

Instructional objectives Considerations Tasks

. Analysis of organisa-tion's needs: what kindof training and develop-ment could help tomake marketing moreeffective?

. Consider learners' readinessto learn, taking into accounttheir intellectual ability andtheir potential.

. Take care to select those whoneed the training most.

. Decide what criteria andmethods will be used toevaluate participants at theend of their training.

. Task analysis: tasksthat marketing staffshould be able toperform on completionof the programme (jobdescriptions).

. Consider how to inform parti-cipants about the programme.The way the programme ismarketed may motivateparticipants.

. Evaluate the success of theoverall training programme.

. Analysis: what skillsand knowledge dopotential participantspossess and what dothey have to learn?(Rating of prospectiveparticipants.)

. Decide how to give learners anopportunity to apply anddevelop their new knowledgeand skills on completion ofthe programme.

. Specification ofinstructional objectivesbased on theseanalyses.

. Consider how to distributelearning opportunities andschedule the training so thatlearning periods alternatewith opportunities for prac-tice and breaks.

. Identify appropriate trainingtechniques.


Chapter 5 of Bergh and Theron (2009) presents the concept of learning as a processwhich depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in behaviour potential.

Study unit 5

80

The main assumption behind all learning psychology is that the effects of the environ-

ment, conditioning, reinforcement and so on provide psychologists with the best infor-

mation from which to understand human behaviour.

The concepts of conditioning and cognitive and social learning have numerous implica-

tions for learning in both the classroom and the workplace. For example, when instruc-

tion involves teaching new skills, all three of these forms of learning can be instrumental

in attaining the desired behaviour.

Bergh and Theron suggest that adults have some learning characteristics that influence

curriculum choices. They have evolved from being dependent personalities into self-

directed human beings, and their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to

the developmental tasks of their social (and professional) roles. Their time perspective

changes from one of postponed application to immediacy of application, which shifts

their orientation from one of subject-centredness to one of performance-centredness.

The discussion on the training process acknowledges that adult learners who engage in

training programmes exhibit the typical traits of adult learners. For these learners,

opportunities exist for immediate application of administrative and other skills and for

making meaningful connections between such material and their real-life situations. As

I-O psychologists and training facilitators, we tried to take advantage of the opportunity

for immediate application by requiring you to make continuous connections between the

content of a training course and your daily experiences outside the classroom.

SELF-EVALUATION

To evaluate your learning experience with regard to this study theme, complete the assessment

activities at the end of chapter 5 of Bergh and Theron (2009). To give yourself further practice, also

answer the multiple-choice questions below.

(1) A man who is traumatised by an accident at work becomes anxious and panicky every time he

enters the vicinity of the scene of the accident. This example relates to ...

(a) instrumental conditioning.

(b) classical conditioning.

(c) identification.

(d) social learning theory.

(2)±(5) Select the missing word from alternatives (a) to (d) below:

A woman who was rigidly disciplined by her teachers during her school days displays fear of strict

supervision at work. Her fear indicates (2) ... between parallel situations. Her childhood experience

of discipline is the (3) ... Strict supervision is the (4) ... and her fear of supervision is the (5) ...

(a) association

(b) conditioned stimulus

(c) conditioned response

(d) unconditioned stimulus

Learning

IOP1501/1 81

(6) A reward schedule according to which workers are rewarded only after producing 20 items is knownas a ...

(a) fixed ratio schedule.(b) fixed interval schedule.(c) variable ratio schedule.(d) variable interval schedule.

(7) In general, reinforcers and punishers are more effective if they are delivered ...

(a) after some delay.(b) immediately after the behaviour.(c) before the desired behaviour.(d) no matter what the organism does.

(8)±(11) Select the answers from (a) to (d) below:

An employee watches his mentor's interpersonal behaviour because the mentor possesses effectiveinterpersonal skills: (8) ... In interpersonal situations he even considers how his mentor would haveacted and what his mentor would have said: (9) ... Eventually he starts behaving like his mentor,(10) ..., when he realises that it helps him to handle complex interpersonal situations moreeffectively: (11) ...

(a) motivation process(b) behaviour reproduction process(c) retention process(d) attention process


1 (a); 2 (a); 3 (d); 4 (b); 5 (c); 6 (a); 7 (b); 8 (d); 9 (c); 10 (b); 11 (a)


Study unit 5

82


Perception

IOP1501/1 83

PERCEPTION(BASED ON CHAPTER 6 OF BERGH AND THERON (2009))


Wherever you happen to be at the moment, quickly glance around your environment.What do you notice? What captures your attention? Do you think someone else in thesame position would have perceived it in the same way that you did? Can you see thatperception is a personal experience? Perception is the process through which we assignmeaning to the world.We never perceive objectively; there is always a subjectiveelement, as we add meaning drawn from our own experience to what we perceive.During perception our senses function both separately and jointly, and they are conti-nually receiving and interpreting stimuli from the environment. It is hard to imagine howsomebody else would perceive an identical situation, but it is possible to accept that thatperson would perceive things differently from you, even in exactly the same situation.Consider, for example, a group of workers gathered for a meeting. Even though theyshare the same situation and environment, afterwards they will probably give verydifferent accounts of how they experienced the situation and what they focused on.

The aim of this study unit is to introduce you to various concepts and theories related toperception and explain the important role perception plays in the field of psychologyand in work. By studying chapter 6 of Bergh and Theron (2009), you will gain a betteridea of how our senses work and how sensory information is organised and interpreted.The psychologist and the human resources expert must understand human perceptionbecause it applies not only to people's self-perceptions, but also to how employeesprocess information to execute tasks. It also applies to interpersonal perception, whichmay play an important role in work relationships.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. demonstrate an understanding of the basic concepts associated with perception

. compare concepts in psychophysics and indicate how these influence everyday life

. compare concepts in visual perception and indicate how these influence everyday life

. explain how perception influences the phenomena of size, shape, lightness and colour

. discuss the significance of the perceiver, the object and the subject in influencing perception

. recognise examples of extrasensory perception

. recognise various attribution errors made in interpersonal perception

. recognise Gestalt principles/laws with the aid of examples in the work context

STUDYUNIT

6

84

. distinguish between prejudice and discrimination

. explain how education can be used to reduce prejudice and discrimination among groups



Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

6.1 Overview: basic concepts and differenttypes of perception

6.2 Factorsinfluencingperception

6.3 Extrasensoryperception

6.4 Interpersonalperception


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


threshold, signal detection, subliminal perception, sensory adaptation, visual perception, selectiveattention, form perception, Gestalt laws, pattern recognition, depth perception, movement,perceptual constancy, extrasensory perception, illusion, person perception, impression formation,attribution, perceptual shortcuts, self-fulfilling prophecy, stereotypes, halo effect, contrast effect,projection, group dynamics effects, prejudice, discrimination

As we suggested in the orientation, it would be a good idea for you to compile your own glossary ofterms in the form of a table consisting of three columns, with space for each term, its meaning/s andthe number of the page in Bergh and Theron (2009) on which the information is to be found. Continue toadd to this list as you progress through the prescribed book, as you may find references to someconcepts on more than one page in your prescribed book.

6.1 OVERVIEW: BASIC CONCEPTS AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF

PERCEPTION

Let us start by looking at some basic concepts and different kinds of perception.

Study the introduction to chapter 6 of Bergh and Theron (2009) (section 6.1), and

section 6.2.Complete the activity below, which will clarify the meaning of the terms for

you. Against this background, we will explore the different types of perception.

Perception

IOP1501/1 85

ACTIVITY 6.1

(1) Whereas ... refers to the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound,and smell, ... is the way we interpret these sensations, and therefore make sense of everythingaround us.

(2) ... is a theory that deals with the relationship between physical stimuli and the way they areperceived. It relates mind to matter and describes the relationship between the world and the wayit is perceived.

(3) A ... is the point of intensity at which the weakest detectable stimulus for any given sense can bedetected. Stimuli with intensities below the ... (as (3) is sometimes called) are not detectable.

(4) Your friend asks you to put out your hand, and on it she places a paperclip. Gradually she adds onepaperclip after the other, and asks you to tell her when you notice any change in the overall weight.The minimum quantity by which the weight of the paperclips must be modified in order to acquire anoticeable variation is called ...

(5) Your ability to notice a stimulus is affected by the intensity of the stimulus (eg how loud a noiseis) and your physical and psychological state (eg how alert you are). For example, when you walk toyour car parked in an empty parking lot late at night all by yourself, you are probably much moreaware of noises because the situation is somewhat threatening (you are primed and listeningcarefully for any noise). In this case, you may hear some small noises that you might not otherwisehear if you were in a different situation that was not as threatening. According to the ..., yourability to detect signals or noises depends on both the intensity of the stimulus (noise) and yourphysical and psychological state.

(6) Jude's car went in for major repairs recently, and the dealer gave him a rental car to use until therepairs had been carried out. As soon as he got into the rental car he was overwhelmed by thesmell of cigarette smoke (even though he had asked for a nonsmoking car). After driving the car fortwo days, Jude gave his friend Paul a lift. Paul commented on the strong smell of cigarette smoke,and Jude suddenly realised that he could not detect the smell any longer because he was immersedin it. Jude had experienced a process of ...

(7) What conclusion does the prescribed textbook come to concerning the effectiveness of subliminalmessages? (Choose the correct statement/s from the list below.)

(a) Subliminal messages have a strong influence on behaviour.(b) Subliminal messages influence behaviour only when combined with a relaxing stimulus, such as

calming music.(c) Subliminal messages are sometimes recommended as a marketing strategy.(d) There is no reliable evidence that subliminal instructions have any influence on actual behaviour.(e) The use of subliminal messages in marketing may assist with the modification of antisocial

behaviour.

FEEDBACK

You may have been doubtful about the correct definition of some of the terms. Here are the correctanswers.

Study unit 6

86

(1) sensation; perception(2) psychophysics(3) threshold; limen(4) just-noticeable difference(5) signal detection theory(6) sensory adaptation(7) Alternatives (d) and (e) are correct.

Section 6.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) mentions selective perception or attention.Thismeans that we are able to focus on some aspects while ignoring other stimuli or rele-gating them to the background. For an example from the work environment of howselective focus of attention operates in practice, let us take the situation of a televisionnewsreader. Think of a studio where the newsreader is reading the news while varioustechnicians are busy with their tasks. The newsreader is wearing an earphone whichtransmits messages from the technicians. Imagine that while the newsreader is readingthe bulletin, an interesting news item comes through. The studio technicians transmit amessage via the earphone. This means that the newsreader has to focus on reading thebulletin at the same time as attending to the message transmitted via the earphone, andallow the activities of the lighting technicians and the camera person, for instance, tofade into the background.

Now let us look at different types of visual perception. Study sections 6.3.1 to 6.3.6 inBergh and Theron (2009), where they deal with the various types of visual perception:selective attention (6.3.1), form perception (6.3.2), depth and distance perception (6.3.3),perception of movement (6.3.4), perceptual constancy (6.3.5) and illusions (6.3.6).

We will apply this part of the theory to the fashion industry.One could take examplesfrom other work environments as well, but the fashion industry is particularly suitablefor illustrating different aspects and types of perception.

ACTIVITY 6.2

Study sections 6.3.1 to 6.3.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009). Take one point from each heading andsubheading and describe how you think it could be applied in the fashion world.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

We will discuss a few examples, which should enable you to evaluate your own. Feel free to considerapplications in other work environments if you wish.

Perception

IOP1501/1 87

Visual perception

. Selective attentionSelective attention

Here we look at how a person selectively attends to certain aspects of his/her environment, whilekeeping other aspects in the background.

. Form perceptionForm perception

The person perceives a visual world that contains objects that have distinct borders and shapesbecause the mind organises a visual picture into a pattern that has meaning.

. Depth and distance perceptionDepth and distance perception

Here we consider aspects of both monocular and binocular cues, which can be applied in the fashionindustry.

. Perception of movementPerception of movement

When models at a fashion show appear against a moving background, they appear to be moving. This isknown as induced movement.

. Perceptual constancyPerceptual constancy

In terms of our example, the best illustration here is colour constancy. A beautiful red evening gown willbe perceived as red in bright daylight, at dusk and by candlelight. This is colour constancy. Shapeconstancy also features in this example. Think of how you could explain the manifestation of shapeconstancy in the context of the fashion world.

. IllusionIllusion

An illusion refers to an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between a visual stimulus and its physicalreality. An illusion is the result of false interpretation of sensory information. There are many ways inwhich illusions are created in the fashion world; for instance a black suit or dress can make you lookthinner than one with a gaudy pattern, and vertical lines have a more slimming effect than horizontalones.

You may find it interesting to look for similar relevant instances of the various types of perception inother occupations or work contexts. Remember, vivid examples make it easier to remember information.Now we turn to external influences on perception.

6.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

This section deals with learning and other factors that influence perception. Interesting

evidence that perception is learnt comes from experiments in which people were given

spectacles that inverted the images they perceived, either reversing left and right or top

and bottom. After a period (of learning), these people could function perfectly normally

while wearing the spectacles, seeing normally through them. Intriguingly, when they

removed the spectacles, they had to go through a process of reversed learning to see

normally again.

Study unit 6

88

ACTIVITY 6.3

Use figure 6.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009) as your starting point. Now take an example from any workenvironment and describe how perception may be influenced by

. the perceiver

. the object

. the situation

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

If you had difficulty thinking of an example, take a situation where an employee is summoned by thesupervisor to explain why a product (a report, a manufactured article, etc) is substandard. Can you seethat, on both sides, perceptions will be influenced by the perceiver, the object and the situation? Withthis background you can analyse other situations to determine how the perceiver, the object and thesituation influence perception. Another example would be the differing reactions (perceptions) of thepedestrian who wants to cross the street quickly long after the figure on the traffic light has startedflashing red, and those of the driver of a motor vehicle who is waiting impatiently at the intersection forpeople to finish crossing so that he/she can drive on.

6.3 EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION

Extrasensory perception refers to a `̀sixth sense'', a way of knowing without using any ofthe five senses. Telepathy and psychokinesis are only two instances of this. Many peopleare sceptical about alleged findings in this regard, but there are still researchers whocontinue the search for scientific proof of this kind of perception.Can you think of waysin which extrasensory perception may be useful in the work environment? Some peoplewould be disbelieving or even disapproving if you were to come up with suggestions inthis regard, yet there are possible applications.Verification of the sixth sense is difficultbecause it is a very weak sense and seems unpredictable. Since this is a controversialarea of application, we will not dwell on it here, but merely mention it for your infor-mation.

Perception

IOP1501/1 89

6.4 INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION

While interacting with other people, we continually perceive them and the environment.The process of forming impressions of others is universal. Some of our impressions arebased on direct perception, while others are indirect, being based on subjective judg-ment. The latter kind of impression often leads to inaccurate perceptions because ofaspects such as prejudice.

ACTIVITY 6.4

Study section 6.6.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to match the examples in the right-hand column of thefollowing table with the appropriate term in the left-hand column. You will have to study all thedefinitions in the prescribed book to determine which example fits which term. Indicate your choice bywriting down the letter representing the appropriate example next to the number representing the term.

1 Stereotypes A. An employee finds that one supervisor is particularly friendly,and on these grounds concludes that this supervisor is moreaccessible, fairer and better than the other supervisors.

2 Contrast effect B. A manager in a banking group is very aggressive. She claimsthat she finds many of the employees of the bank aggressive.

3 In-group and out-group dynamics

C. Strict protocol is followed at state banquets, with eventsfollowing a prescribed format and sequence.

4 Effects of physicalappearance

D. During a conversation at an office party, somebody observesthat engineers and accountants have poor human relations.

5 Projection E. A middle-level manager makes this comment: ``Young people comefrom diverse backgrounds and have diverse talents that can beused. Older people all come from the same mould.''

6 Schema F. A panel of interviewers evaluates eight people on the same day.The first two candidates do not impress the interviewersfavourably. After these two the third candidate seemsoutstanding, although his qualifications for the post are actuallymediocre.

7 Selective perception G. A glamorous applicant is put at her ease and received morecordially than applicants who are physically less attractive.

8 Primacy effect H. During the annual merit rating, one supervisor is influenced moreby a worker's negative attributes than by any positiveattributes.

Study unit 6

90

9 Halo effect I. Someone who is being evaluated for a teaching post at a schoolis an ex-pupil of that school. Some ex-pupils among the staffand parents are quick to assess the person on the basis oftheir shared experience.

10 Negativity bias J. An applicant for a post at an organisation is interviewed by apanel. Within minutes one panel member has made up her mind,and subsequent information does not carry much weight in herdecision.

FEEDBACK

You may have been perplexed by this activity with its practical examples, but it is a useful exercise toshow you how the definitions of terms in the prescribed book apply to real life. The answers are asfollows: 1-D, 2-F, 3-E, 4-G, 5-B, 6-C, 7-I, 8-J, 9-A, 10-H.

In subsection 6.6.2, Bergh and Theron (2009) discuss various aspects of attributiontheory.

Attribution theory deals with how people make causal explanations, in other words,how they answer questions beginning with `̀why?'' The theory deals with the informationthey use in making causal inferences, and with what they do with this information inorder to answer causal questions. The theory developed within social psychology as ameans of dealing with questions of social perception. For instance, if a person is aggres-sively competitive in his/her behaviour, is he/she this kind of person, or is he/she reactingto situational pressures. If a person fails a test, does he/she have low ability, or is the testdifficult? In both examples, the questions concern the causes of observed behaviour andthe answers of interest are those given by the person on the street. Attribution theorydescribes the processes of explaining events and the behavioural and emotional conse-quences of those explanations.

With regard to types of attribution, we distinguish between distinctiveness of behaviour,consensus of behaviour and consistency of behaviour.

ACTIVITY 6.5

Study subsections under 6.6.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:

(1) Give a work-related example of distinctiveness of behaviour, consensus of behaviour, andconsistency of behaviour.

(2) Think of people whom you know, and the typical attributional errors they make.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Perception

IOP1501/1 91

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Since this activity, particularly the second part, is subjective and answers will vary from individual toindividual, we cannot give you direct feedback. However, if you have studied the relevant subsection inthe prescribed book carefully, you should have no difficulty finding examples.

Regarding the first part of the activity, it would be helpful if you keep a specific person in mind and thenanswer the questions in subsection 6.6.2 in the prescribed book with reference to that person.

The last subsection (6.6.3) is about prejudice and discrimination, both of which are very

topical in South Africa.

Stereotypes are not only harmful in their own right; they also do damage by fostering

prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice is an antipathy based on faulty and inflexible

generalisation. It may be either felt or expressed, and it may be directed at a group or

an individual belonging to that group. According to section 6.6.3 in Bergh and Theron

(2009), prejudice refers to a negative or hostile attitude toward another social group,

usually racially defined. It has three components, namely beliefs, emotions and beha-

vioural disposition. Prejudice can lead to discrimination, which is an unfavourable action,

behaviour, outcome or treatment. The distinction is simple: prejudice is a thought or

attitude; discrimination is the expression of that thought or attitude. However, prejudice

does not automatically lead to discrimination. Prejudice can exist without discrimination,

and discrimination can occur without prejudice.

ACTIVITY 6.6

Study section 6.6.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:

You are an I-O psychologist employed by an organisation. You are asked to

(1) investigate the origin of prejudice, which is prevalent in the organisation

(2) propose a programme, which you will compile and present, to reduce prejudice in the organisation

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Study unit 6

92

FEEDBACK

Use the information in the relevant subsection of the prescribed book to help you. Your discussionshould have covered the following three topics:

. the nature of prejudice

. the development of prejudice

. the three cs for the optimal programme for prejudice reduction


This study unit dealt, first of all, with different types of perception which are essential inunderstanding and processing information in work tasks. Deficiencies in perceptualprocesses can be detrimental to effective and safe work execution and must be consid-ered in assessing and developing employees. Many external factors influence perception,while extrasensory perception may well influence human behaviour in subtle ways.Perceptual processes also influence interpersonal perception, or the way we perceiveand interpret behaviour in interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal perception is parti-cularly important in the work environment, where we have to work with others inteams and groups.

Sensation and perception allow us to perceive reality in a unique way.Through sensationwe become aware of objects, events and people in the world outside ourselves;perception tells us what and where these stimuli are and what their implications are.Together, our sensations and perceptions link our brains to the world and allow us toform mental representations, constructs or schemas of reality.

Social scientists and human resources practitioners use perceptual psychology andpractices to influence perceptions about work tasks, as well as attitudes such as preju-dice and other negative perceptions amongst individuals and groups. Perceptualphenomena explain variations in people's everyday experiences and the relative accuracyof their perceptions.

SELF-EVALUATION


1. Which of the following concepts would be applicable if one were to regard the size of the smallestdifference in the amount of stimulation between stimuli that our senses can detect as being aconstant proportion of the size of the original stimulus value?

(a) threshold(b) Weber's law

Perception

IOP1501/1 93

(c) just-noticeable difference(d) sensory adaptation

2. In Shakespeare's classic of the same name, Macbeth interprets the witches' words as meaningthat he is to be king despite the fact that the ruling king, Duncan, is still alive. He perceives thewords subjectively according to his beliefs and reacts accordingly. Which shortcut does Macbethuse in forming his impression?

(a) perceptual interpretation(b) selective perception(c) perceptual adaptation(d) perceptual defence

3. Which of the following is the principle according to which people are naturally disposed to experiencethings in as good a Gestalt as possible?

(a) Weber's law(b) perceptual defence(c) attribution theory(d) law of Pragnaz

4. When you look down from your office in a high-rise building, you notice that the cars below in a busystreet may be divided into two groups, namely those travelling up the street and those travellingdown the street. Which of the Gestalt laws is evident in this categorisation?

(a) law of closure(b) law of similarity(c) law of proximity(d) law of common fate

5. A manager has observed over a period of time that one particular employee does not keep her filingup to date. The manager then sets out to explore and compare this employee's behaviour with thatof other people in the same situation. Which of the following factor/s are involved in the manager'sinvestigation in the above scenario?

(a) distinctiveness(b) consistency(c) consensus(d) distinctiveness/consensus

6. When determining distance using cues for size, texture, overlap, shading, height and clarity, which ofthe following concepts is applicable?

(a) retinal disparity(b) binocular cues(c) monocular cues(d) convergence

7. When the first employee to finish a test consistently earns a better rating, this is an example of ...

(a) the primacy effect.(b) stereotyping.

Study unit 6

94

(c) projection.(d) prejudice.

8. When consumers perceive features of a particular item as positive and extend this opinion to abroader brand, this best illustrates the characteristics of which concept?

(a) negativity bias(b) contrast effect(c) projection(d) halo effect

9. ``I did well in the test because I am clever'' is an example of ...

(a) an external attribution.(b) projection.(c) actor-observer bias.(d) self-serving bias.

10. The success of reducing prejudice and discrimination increases when which of the followingconditions is met?

(a) Majority and minority individuals interact.(b) Personal relationships are not formed.(c) Correct discussions prevail.(d) Open discussions prevail.


1 (b); 2 (b); 3 (d); 4 (c); 5 (c); 6 (c); 7 (a); 8 (a); 9 (d); 10 (a)


Perception

IOP1501/1 95


Cognition

96

COGNITION(BASED ON CHAPTER 7 OF BERGH AND THERON (2009))


Just pause for a moment and try to imagine doing anything without some form ofthinking. This is quite impossible, of course, because trying to imagine, or even doing,nothing requires cognitive ability. Think about one day in your life, or a single activity,such as driving your car, and list the cognitive requirements that are necessary toprocess and carry out the relevant tasks involved.Cognition is not just intelligence or anaptitude it is a collection of many abilities that enable us to have knowledge and to carryout our work. In fact, cognitive attributes are an important part of any job description,that is, what employees are expected to do in a particular job. Many employers routi-nely measure general cognitive ability and other aptitudes when assessing prospectiveworkers. Research has shown that general cognitive ability is a good predictor ofperformance in most work environments. Psychologists need to understand the role ofcognitive processes and behaviour in work design, work execution and psychologicalassessment, as well as in relation to other aspects such as perception, learning, rela-tionships, attitudes and employee wellbeing.

The aim of this chapter is therefore to give you an understanding of the importance ofcognitive constructs and processes in the development and functioning of human beha-viour.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. formulate a definition of cognition

. list the forms of productive thinking

. discuss language as a cognitive process

. identify the stages of memory

. illustrate how memory can be improved and explain why people forget

. differentiate between intelligence, learning potential and emotional intelligence



Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

7STUDYUNIT

IOP1501/1 97

7.1 Overview: the conceptof cognition

7.2 What is productive thinking?

7.3 Language

7.4 Memory and forgetfulness

7.5 Intelligence, learningpotential and emotional intelligence


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


cognition, productive thinking, concepts, prototypes, schemas, problemsolving, trial and error,means-end analysis, mental set, confirmation bias, oversight bias, hindsight effect, reasoning,creativity, language, sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, rehearsal,forgetfulness, intelligence, mental age, mental retardation, genius, learning potential, emotionalintelligence


7.1 OVERVIEW: THE CONCEPT OF COGNITION

Cognition is a more formal term for thinking, as it refers to the internal processing anduse of information about the world around us which enables us to cope with the

problems in either our living or work environment. This information is then stored andorganised to capture the essence of the knowledge acquired and experience obtained.

7.2 WHAT IS PRODUCTIVE THINKING?

Thinking is a complex and essential field in the study of human behaviour, because theability to think and reason is unique to humans. People have to think in just about all

situations, and we term thinking about new relationships and the organisation of existingknowledge `̀productive thinking''.

Note: when attempting the activities in this study unit, choose an organisation or workenvironment that you know well, and apply the questions asked in the activities

to the organisation or work environment you have chosen.

Study unit 7

98

ACTIVITY 7.1

Study sections 7.2.1 to 7.2.4 in the prescribed book. Now take 15 minutes to explain how each of the

facets and subfacets of productive thinking dealt with there can be useful or manifest themselves in

the work environment or organisation that you have chosen.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

As this activity required you to use your own insight as regards the way in which the facets and

subfacets of productive thinking relate to the organisation or work environment you chose, we can only

list the different forms of productive thinking that are applicable such as:

. concept formation and its relation to prototypes and schemas

. problemsolving, its strategies (trial and error, algorithm, means-end analysis, analogy) and its

barriers (functional fixedness, mental set)

. decisionmaking, encompassing the role of heuristics, decision frames and escalation of commitment

. issues concerning creativity (convergent vs. divergent thinking, stages in the creative process,

differences between creative and uncreative people, how we can foster creativity)

7.3 LANGUAGE

Most people would agree that what truly sets human beings apart from other animal

species is language our ability to use a very rich set of symbols and the rules for

combining them in order to communicate the appropriate information.

ACTIVITY 7.2

Study the section on language (7.3) in the prescribed book and answer the following questions. This

should not take more than 10 minutes.

Cognition

IOP1501/1 99

(1) List and discuss two aspects relating to the psychological study of language, which is known aspsycholinguistics.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) In fostering effective communication in the work environment or organisation you have chosen, whataspects of meaningful conversation would you adopt?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(3) How does culture in the work environment or organisation you have chosen influence language andthe thinking patterns of individuals? Give examples to support your answer.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

Compare your answers with ours below.

(1) The two important aspects of psycholinguistics are syntax and semantics: refer to section 7.3 inBergh and Theron (2009) for a more in-depth explanation of each.

(2) In this question, depending on how the issue of communication is viewed (open vs. closed) in thework environment or organisation you have chosen, some or all aspects of meaningful conversationmay be adopted: these include quantity, quality, manner and relation.

(3) Your answer will depend on the kind of cultural diversity that is prevalent in the work environment ororganisation you have chosen. However, here are some possibilities:

(a) the relationships between the different cultural groupings and how they view certain words,objects or concepts

(b) their thinking patterns when English is the medium of communication(c) how this kind of thinking influences the work practices of the different cultural groupings

Study unit 7

100

7.4 MEMORYAND FORGETFULNESS

Like many people, you may be saying to yourself that it is not important to remember

long lists of phone numbers, times of meetings, agenda items, dates of people's birthdays

or people's names because, with the advent of modern technology, you can write things

down in your electronic organiser, or make use of various other electronic devices or

facilities to help you remember these facts. However, without your memory, you would

not be able to walk, talk, read, write or dress yourself.Your memory helps you to find

your way home from your workplace, schedule or record things in your various elec-

tronic devices or facilities, and form relationships with your family and friends. If you had

no memory, you would not be able to remember the course content of this module you

are studying, and you would therefore fail the examinations.

Forgetting is simply the inability to recover stored information from the long-term

memory. However, with the help of cues (activating stimuli), certain or all information

can be recovered.

ACTIVITY 7.3

Study the sections entitled ``Promoting memory'' (7.4.2) and ``Forgetting'' (7.4.3) in Bergh and Theron

(2009), and explain how forgetfulness can cause problems in the work environment. Indicate how you

would propose improving memory.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

As your answers will vary according to the specific situation in the work environment or organisation

you have chosen, we can only give you some ideas.

Consider the following issues relating to forgetfulness and its effect in creating work problems:

interference, motivated forgetting, distortion, false memories and the employee's mood.

You can improve memory through organising information by elaborative rehearsal, mnemonics,

simplifying information, mood state and by using humour and exaggeration.

Cognition

IOP1501/1 101

7.5 INTELLIGENCE, LEARNING POTENTIAL AND EMOTIONALINTELLIGENCE

Intelligence refers broadly to human beings' universal ability to conduct themselveseffectively and efficiently in different situations by means of, for example, understandingthe acquisition of knowledge, reasoning and memory. Intelligence is usually explainedfrom functional, structural or pragmatic viewpoints. Extreme levels of intelligence referto extreme or extraordinary manifestations of intelligence such as mental retardation orgenius.

The current focus in the dynamic approach to intelligence testing is learning potential,according to which the assumption is that your cognitive ability can change depending onthe conditions of the environment, thereby measuring the capacity to learn or the abil-ity to adapt or change.

Another recent area of interest is the influence of emotional intelligence, which refers tothe ability to manage emotions and interpersonal relations.

ACTIVITY 7.4

Study sections 7.5 (``Intelligence'') and 7.5.2 (Approaches to intelligence) in the prescribed book, andgive a general definition of intelligence and the various approaches to it. Your discussion should indicatethat your organisation has posts and jobs for people at every level of cognitive ability.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

If you are asked to provide a good general definition of intelligence, you could begin by stating that thereis no universally accepted one; many authors, however, see intelligence as a general ability coupled withspecific ability that enables people to familiarise themselves with their environment. It is not a tangibleentity; it can be inherited, and it can be influenced by the environment and a myriad of factors such asmotivation, interests, personality factors and emotional state. The various approaches to intelligenceinclude functional, structural and pragmatic viewpoints.

Study unit 7

102

ACTIVITY 7.5

Select an organisation or work environment that you know well.

Study sections 7.1 and 7.2 to 7.4.1 in the prescribed book and explain how each of the facets andsubfacets dealt with there can be useful or manifest themselves in the work environment that you havechosen.

Now study sections 7.4.2 and 7.4.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and explain how forgetfulness cancause problems in the work environment. Indicate how you propose improving memory.

Finally, take a stance with regard to the usefulness or otherwise of cognitive evaluation in the workenvironment. Present your response in the form of a paper to a colleague, friend and/or relative and askfor feedback on their impressions of it and whether they agree with your chosen stance.

FEEDBACK

This was quite a challenging activity! It not only required you to master a substantial piece of work bycovering an entire chapter in a single activity, but it also gave you a foretaste of how to applytheoretical knowledge in practice. You will also have learnt to form your own opinion on the basis of yourtheoretical knowledge. We trust that you presented your opinion and arguments clearly andprofessionally. Can you perhaps write down a few ideas about the information and practical applicationsthat you have gained from this study unit that would be useful to you as an I-O psychologist one day?


This study topic dealt with cognition, thought and reasoning.You may find it interestingto do some additional reading on topics such as creativity and decisionmaking that relatedirectly to activities in the work environment.Refer to the reading list supplied inTutorialletter 101. In South Africa the issue of language is particularly important, so we dealtwith that as well. Memory and forgetfulness crop up all the time in ordinary life, so wedealt with them as aspects of human behaviour. In the working world, intelligence is afactor in selection, placement, training and promotion, since different positions requiredifferent levels of cognitive ability. The points discussed in this section can be illustratedvery pertinently in the work environment. Against the background of this study topic,you may find yourself looking at that environment with new eyes.

SELF-EVALUATION


Cognition

IOP1501/1 103

(1) Which one of the following is not a component of thought?

(a) behaviour(b) concepts(c) mental imagery(d) problemsolving

(2) You have to decide how much to pay a person to paint your house. Your neighbour tells you that hehas paid R200 a day to have his house painted. You consider the amount, add R20 and decide topay R220. Which type of heuristic did you utilise to make the decision?

(a) representativeness(b) anchoring and adjustment(c) illumination deficiency problem(d) verification problem

(3) Short-term memory can retain separate pieces of information for ...

(a) 3 to 6 seconds.(b) 7 to 9 seconds.(c) 10 to 15 seconds.(d) 15 to 30 seconds.

(4) By the process of ... short-term memory can retain separate pieces of information that somehowseem to be related.

(a) working memory(b) encoding(c) chunking(d) sensory memory

(5) Ravi remembers the joyous moment when he walked into the bank to finalise a home loan for his newhouse. In this example, what type of memory is being illustrated?

(a) declarative(b) episodic(c) semantic(d) implicit

(6)±(9) Match each of the ways of promoting memory in column A with the corresponding example incolumn B.

Study unit 7

104

COLUMN A(WAYS OF PROMOTING MEMORY)

COLUMN B(CORRESPONDING EXAMPLE)

6. Humour and exaggeration (a) When introduced to a person with anunfamiliar name related to a cat, one canassociate the person's name by thinking ofthe cat.

7. Simplifying information (b) In trying to visualise a room, one recallsthe facts merely by looking around a room,seeing every window, wall, door andcupboard, each of which provides a cue forremembering a fact in sequential order.

8. Mnemonics (c) When trying to remember a philosophylecture by a certain professor, you mightremember that the lecturer was veryanimated and lively while he was explaininghis theories.

9. Elaborative rehearsal (d) A lecture on cognition can be organisedaccording to a scheme of its effects,influence and impact on work problems,thus making it easier to rememberbecause the information is not learnt asisolated facts.

(10) If a person's ... exceeds their ... , one can assume that they will have above average intelligence.

(a) mental age, chronological age(b) chronological age, average performance level(c) chronological age, mental age(d) biological age, chronological age


1 (a); 2 (b); 3 (d); 4 (c); 5 (b); 6 (c); 7 (d); 8 (b); 9 (a); 10 (a)


Cognition

IOP1501/1 105


Motivation and emotion

106

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION(BASED ON CHAPTER 8 OF BERGH AND THERON (2009))


An aspect of work life which we often take for granted is the underlying reasons or

rationale for rewarding employees. There are different methods of rewarding or mana-

ging good work performance. This also applies to other contexts, such as study and

sport, in which achievements and performance are rewarded. In rewarding effective or

ineffective behaviour, the idea is to identify and respond to the underlying reasons for

performing at a specific level. These issues are at the heart of motivation people's

motives or the reasons why people work (and experience job satisfaction) which is one

of the most important aspects of work-related human behaviour, and also an important

concern for human resource and business managers.

Lack of motivation is a common problem among workers, and is often attributed to fail-

ure on the part of management to understand the real needs of employees. It is argued

that if management recognised these needs, this would lead to the initiation of higher

levels of motivational behaviour. There are various reasons for this lack of motivation in

workers, and it is the task of the I-O psychologist to identify and then propose devel-

opmental interventions to resolve the problem.This study unit deals with various moti-

vational concepts and related issues that are relevant in organisations.

The aim of this study unit is therefore to explore concepts in motivation, the relationship

between emotion and motivation, and the way in which these aspects influence

employee behaviour.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. identify purposive behaviour with reference to characteristics and goals

. explain how reinforcement, job content and job design are used to enhance motivation processes

. analyse the attribute of self-actualisation and indicate its use as a motivational intervention

. evaluate Allport's theory in motivational interventions

. recognise expectancy theory in motivational interventions

. explain how perceptions of self-efficacy influence workers' motivation

. identify the dimensions of attribution

. recognise equity as a process of comparison in motivational interventions

. explain how goal-setting influences motivation

STUDYUNIT

8

IOP1501/1 107

. identify the effect of emotions on motivation and performance

. discuss how emotional intelligence influences motivation



Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

8.1 Overview:What ismotivation?

8.2 Extrinsic activators ofmotivation

8.3 Intrinsic activators ofmotivation

8.3.1 Self-actualisation

8.3.2 Functional autonomy

8.3.3 Expectancy theory

8.3.4 Achievement

8.3.5 Self-efficacy

8.3.6 Attribution

8.3.7 Equity

8.3.8 Goal-setting

8.4 Emotion

8.5 Emotional intelligence


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


purposiveness, reinforcement, job content, job design, extrinsic and intrinsic activators ofmotivation, self-actualisation needs, functional autonomy, expectancy, valence, instrumentality,self-efficacy, attribution, fairness (equity), goal-setting, emotion process, emotional intelligence


Study unit 8

108

8.1 OVERVIEW: WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

In the introductory section of chapter 8 of Bergh and Theron (2009), motivation is

explained as that which drives and gives direction to human behaviour, or the reasons

why people behave as they do. In module 2 you will also study motivation as a dimension

of personality functioning. There are as many explanations of motivation and its related

concepts as there are theories of motivation, although there is some agreement

regarding the classification of motivational theories and concepts. Motivation for beha-

viour differs, as everyone has their own unique reasons for behaving in certain ways or

making certain choices. A further complicating factor is that motivation is related to

many other factors, such as personality traits, emotions, attitudes, cognition and

perception, and may be influenced by many factors inside and outside the person.

8.2 EXTRINSIC ACTIVATORS OF MOTIVATION

Extrinsic activators of motivation are outside factors that influence people's motivation.

Usually these external factors are found in the work or personal environment, and can

have adverse physical or psychological effects.

ACTIVITY 8.1

Scenario

The security department of your organisation has approached you for help in solving theirorganisational problems. At a consultation session with management and workers you give bothgroups an opportunity to discuss their problems. The session proceeds as follows:

(i) The managers of the department immediately launch into accusations, blaming the workers forbeing negative and unmotivated and of not showing any loyalty to the organisation. They accusethe workers of refusing to do anything that falls outside their job descriptions and of reacting withpassive aggression when tasks are delegated to them. They also accuse the workers of makingsnide remarks about management, but not being prepared to speak openly to management aboutthe conflict.

(ii) The workers respond that they will no longer accept exclusively negative feedback frommanagement. They maintain that they are continually humiliated by managers, even in front of theirfellow workers, that managers are hostile and they are rarely praised for good work. They mentionthat they are forced to work with equipment that is so old that it is beyond repair, yet areexpected to render top quality service. They say that they feel embarrassed to wear their shabbyold uniforms, and furthermore that they take no pride in being associated with their department.The shop steward reports that a survey was conducted to find out what security officers are paidin other organisations. The survey revealed a huge discrepancy, indicating that security staff inyour organisation are not remunerated at their market value. The supervisors state that there areno opportunities for promotion in the organisation and that they have reached their ceiling. Thisdemotivates them, since they have no real future in the organisation. Most supervisors say thatthey would like to be promoted to managerial positions and that management should be developingthem for this work.


IOP1501/1 109

Study sections 8.1 to 8.2.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:

(1) Management's behaviour as described in paragraph (i) is an example of.

Describe the adverse effect that it has on the workers.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) What would you propose to management as a more effective way of giving workers feedback?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(3) Identify the external activators that are adversely affecting the workers' motivation.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(4) Describe the hygiene factors and absence of motivators in the department in terms of Herzberg'stheory.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(5) How can job design be used to remedy the lack of opportunities for promotion of supervisors?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

Study unit 8

110

FEEDBACK

(1) Management's behaviour as described in paragraph (i) is an example of negative motivation. Itprovokes hostility and passive aggression, which is somewhat immature behaviour. There is alsoavoidance of management in that workers are not prepared to discuss the conflict frankly.

(2) Management should motivate workers positively by rewarding desirable behaviour. They should alsobe conscious of the manner in which they give feedback when workers behave undesirablyconstructive guidance and feedback are more effective than criticism. They should also look at thebehaviour without rejecting or humiliating the person. Finally it should be mentioned that whenmisbehaviour is pointed out, good behaviour should also be acknowledged.

(3) Lack of reinforcement, job content and circumstances and job design.

(4) Hygiene factors: old equipment, shabby uniforms and inadequate salaries.

Motivators: lack of recognition and opportunities for promotion.

(5) Two techniques for redesigning jobs would be job enlargement and job enrichment. Supervisors' jobscould be enlarged by including additional tasks of equal complexity to their job descriptions. Thussupervisors could occasionally perform administrative tasks in addition to their functional dutiesto prepare them for managerial positions. This would add variety to their daily work. Another way ofenlarging supervisors' jobs would be to give them more responsibility, for instance that of managingtheir own budgets.

8.3 INTRINSIC ACTIVATORS OF MOTIVATION

Intrinsic activators of motivation are psychological processes operating in employeeswhich influence their motivation. In the next two subsections we deal with two of theseprocesses: self-actualisation and functional autonomy.

8.3.1 Self-actualisation

Self-actualisation is an inward-directed process through which individuals express andfulfil themselves. It is a growth process which results in openness to experience andauthenticity.

ACTIVITY 8.2

Scenario (continued)

(iii) Later in the discussion the employees mention their dissatisfaction at the fact that managementfails to appreciate that they are constantly exposed to danger in their efforts to protect others.They point out that they chose their occupation because they wanted to serve people. Most of theemployees know that they contribute to the safety and security of other employees, and on the


IOP1501/1 111

whole this is an adequate source of reward and motivation, but they would still like management toencourage them with occasional praise. Instead, they are made to feel anxious and unhappy bythreats of dismissal.

(iv) From the discussion it becomes evident that the conflict is not just between managers andemployees, but also among the workers themselves. They are divided into a pro-management andan anti-management camp. This causes conflict and the inability to form and maintainrelationships. Some workers actually say that they no longer want to work for the organisationbecause there is too much competition and antagonism, and because everybody is treated in thesame way instead of being judged according to their performance, which they feel is unfair. Theyknow that some of their colleagues are not pulling their weight, but point out that there are anumber of others who do more than their share. They want to know from management why theynever receive recognition in front of other people. They also ask management to consult them whenit takes decisions that affect them. For their part, they will try to offer less resistance to changesin the organisation and to be more open to new experience.

Study section 8.3 as far as 8.3.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:

(1) Re-read paragraphs (ii), (iii) and (iv) of the scenario and describe how the employees' motivation isaffected by the lack of fulfilment of the first four levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

. Physiological needs

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

. Safety and security

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

. Love and affiliation

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

. Self-esteem

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

Study unit 8

112

(2) Indicate the point in paragraph (iv) at which the workers express their desire to fulfil their self-actualisation needs.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(3) What motivational interventions would you propose on the basis of these findings?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1) The lack of need fulfilment may be described as follows:

. Physiological: workers evidently find it difficult to fulfil all their physiological needs because theirwages are inadequate.

. Safety and security: workers feel insecure in their jobs because they are threatened withdismissal.

. Love and affiliation: there is an overall lack of satisfactory interpersonal relations betweenworkers and management, as well as between the workers themselves. The hostility and conflictprevent workers from fulfilling their need for love and affiliation.

. Self-esteem: Workers are given no recognition for their work. They receive no praise orencouragement.

(2) The workers indicate their need for self-actualisation in the last two sentences of paragraph (iv),where they say that they want to take more responsibility for their own lives and be more open tonew experience, which will stimulate growth and development.

(3) There seems to be an urgent need to review the staff's wage packets and to pay them market-related wages. They also need to be assured that, as far as is feasible, their jobs are secure andthat they are not facing dismissal, but will in fact be given opportunities to grow and develop. Inter-group conflict should be managed and a forum must be created where grievances can be dealt with.The managers possibly require training in interpersonal skills and conflict management. Finally,workers should be given both verbal and physical recognition for progress.


IOP1501/1 113

8.3.2 Functional autonomy

According to Allport's theory of functional autonomy, people's motives are transformedas they age.Childhood instincts are transformed into functionally autonomous motiva-tional systems over the years.

ACTIVITY 8.3

Study section 8.3.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and then answer the following questions:

(1) Give an example of appropriate functional autonomy from paragraph (iii) of the scenario.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) Give an example of perseverative functional autonomy from paragraph (iii) of the scenario.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1) Most of the workers are motivated by the knowledge that they are making a valuable contributionto the safety of their fellow employees. They feel a need to be of service to others. They mightoriginally have chosen their occupation simply as a means of earning a living, but have come torealise that it has other motivational value as well the satisfaction they derive from being ofservice to other people.

(2) The workers are motivated by the need for recognition, which they express in paragraph (iii).

8.3.3 Expectancy theory

The two main factors influencing employees' efforts are the value or valence of rewardsand perceived instrumentality.

Study unit 8

114

ACTIVITY 8.4

Study section 8.3.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:

(1) How would you describe perceived instrumentality, as manifested by the supervisors in paragraph

(ii) of the scenario?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) How would you describe the value that supervisors attach to rewards, as manifested in paragraph

(ii) of the scenario?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(3) To what extent would these two perceptions affect the effort that supervisors put into their work?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1) The instrumentality perceived by the supervisors is fairly negative, because they do not think that

good performance will be rewarded with promotion.

(2) The supervisors nevertheless attach great value to promotion to a managerial position, since most

of them indicate their desire for such promotion.

(3) Supervisors should display a fair measure of motivation, since they attach value to promotion to a

managerial position. They may get despondent at times because the lack of opportunity for

promotion means that their efforts are not rewarded.


IOP1501/1 115

8.3.4 Achievement

The need to achieve derives from growing expectations to acquire success, goals anddirection.

8.3.5 Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is people's perception that they are more or less in control of events thataffect their lives.

ACTIVITY 8.5


(v) During the discussion between employees and managers in the security department you noticethat some of the female supervisors are less motivated to achieve managerial positions than theirmale counterparts. They seem fairly ambivalent about promotion and express the opinion thatwomen are rarely promoted to managerial positions in this organisation.

(vi) Although the workers tended to pass the blame for every problem in the organisation on tomanagement, the discussion took an interesting turn at one point. One of the employees, MrNzimande, said very little at first, but listened intently. When he finally spoke he pointed out to hiscolleagues that they could not simply pass the buck for the department's poor performance tomanagement. He told them that they were also to blame and that the fact that they did not trustone another meant that they actually undermined one another. He referred to dishonesty andreminded a fellow worker that he had not attended the training courses that had been presentedfor some years, with the result that this person's skills were substandard. This caused greatanxiety when workers had to operate in hazardous conditions. In Mr Nzimande's view, employeeswere refusing to take responsibility for their own performance and development. He encouraged hiscolleagues to follow his example and, despite some real problems, qualify themselves better so asto improve their performance. He pointed out that employees could not expect the same pay if theydid not perform equally well. He asked them to compare their performance with that of theircolleagues. The workers took his words to heart and seemed rather embarrassed and ashamed.

(vii) In the end the group requested that a team development session be held at which managers andemployees could build their motivation by dealing with feelings of anxiety, encouraging one anotherthrough various innovative ideas and by being sensitive to one another's needs.

Finally you, as the consultant, helped the workers look into their sense of rejection and to understandit. It turned out that they felt rejected not only because of management's behaviour towards them, butbecause their offices were set apart from the rest of the department, and as a result they felt isolatedand cut off. They said that this made it impossible to build up a relationship with managers.

Study sections 8.3.4 and 8.3.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following question:

How would you account for the fact that female supervisors in the organisation were less motivated tobecome managers than their male counterparts were?

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Study unit 8

116

FEEDBACK

Men and women have different perceptions of achievement and self-efficacy. Unlike men, women have lowself-efficacy expectations because of the way they are socialised. Men's socialisation affords moreexposure to achievement in male roles than women's. Women also have fewer role models because mostwomen pursue traditional female occupations. It also appears that women have higher levels of stressand anxiety, which affect their self-efficacy. On the whole, women get little parental encouragement tofollow careers other than the traditional female ones.

Female supervisors in a security department may well be influenced by these factors.

8.3.6 Attribution

Attribution refers to the way in which people look for reasons to explain why theirbehaviour and the things that happen to them have certain outcomes. They mayperceive the causes as either external or internal factors within themselves.We there-fore distinguish between internal and external loci of causality.

ACTIVITY 8.6

Study section 8.3.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:

(1) What locus of causality do most of the workers in this organisation have? Give reasons for youranswer.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) What locus of causality did Mr Nzimande display in paragraph (vi) of the scenario? Give reasons foryour answer.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................


IOP1501/1 117

FEEDBACK

(1) Most employees in this organisation appear to have an external locus of causality, since theyblame their poor performance mainly on causes outside themselves, such as management'shostility and environmental factors.

(2) Mr Nzimande, on the other hand, displays an internal locus of causality, as he assumesresponsibility for his own performance and does not look to others for the causes. He encourageshis colleagues to do the same.

8.3.7 Equity

Equity refers to a perception of fair play in the work situation. It implies that employeescompare the ratio between their inputs and outcomes with that of fellow workers.

8.3.8 Goal-setting

Goal-setting involves the individual's personal orientations toward interpreting and actingin achievement situations.

ACTIVITY 8.7

Study sections 8.3.7 and 8.3.8 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:

(1) How does Mr Nzimande deal with equity in paragraph (vi) of the scenario? Do you think he perceivesthe situation in the organisation as equitable or inequitable?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) What does he propose that workers should do to change the situation?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

Study unit 8

118

FEEDBACK

(1) Mr Nzimande refers to equity when he suggests that employees should compare their input-outcome ratio with that of other employees. In his view the organisation is not equitable, becauseeverybody at a certain level earns the same wage (outcome) even though they do not work equallyhard (input).

(2) What Mr Nzimande is actually getting at is that some workers in fact earn too much for the inputthey make. He suggests that their goal should be to work harder and actively try to improve theirskills.

8.4 EMOTION

Emotions have motivational value and can activate behaviour.

ACTIVITY 8.8

Study sections 8.4.1 to 8.4.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:

(1) Read the whole scenario and indicate where people display emotion and how it motivates them tobehave in certain ways. Mention both the emotion and the related behaviour.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) How does Mr Nzimande use the relationship between emotion and performance in paragraph (vi) ofthe scenario to explain employees' poor performance?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1) Managers feel anxious and that they lack control because workers' performance is substandard.This makes them aggressive and hostile.


IOP1501/1 119

Ð Workers feel humiliated and react with passive aggression.Ð Workers feel embarrassed to be associated with the department and behave antagonistically.Ð Supervisors feel frustrated and their behaviour is less motivated than it should be.Ð Workers feel dissatisfied and frustrated because they receive no rewards from management,

and this demotivates them.Ð Workers are anxious and unhappy because management threatens them and they no longer

respect management.Ð Workers feel threatened by all the conflict, hostility and competition and want to get out of

the organisation.Ð Workers feel unfairly treated and start negotiating with management.Ð Workers do not trust one another and so undermine one another's authority.Ð Workers feel embarrassed and ashamed after Mr Nzimande's comments, and start

reassessing their behaviour.

(2) Mr Nzimande points out that the workers are not sufficiently skilled to do their work properly anddo not attend training courses, and that this makes them anxious and impairs their performance.

8.5 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

ACTIVITY 8.9

Study section 8.4.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following question:

What emotional intelligence issues did the consultant explore in paragraph (vii) of the scenario to giveworkers insight into their sense of rejection?

FEEDBACK

(1) The consultant explored issues concerning feelings of anxiety, the achievement of goals throughcreativity and mastery and being empathetic in social interaction.


In both everyday situations and work situations almost everyone asks `̀why'' questions.

`̀Why are you using that training intervention?''asks your supervisor. `̀Why do I have to

go to sleep?''asks the little boy at bedtime. `̀Why did you decide to major in industrial

psychology?''asks a friend. The answers to these `̀why'' questions often lie in our motiva-

tions and emotions: psychological mechanisms that prompt us to move in one direction

Study unit 8

120

rather than another. These inner mechanisms can be called many things habits, beliefs,

feelings, wants, instincts, compulsions and drives, which we highlighted in this study topic

but no matter what we call them, they prompt us to take action. Each of these questions

has an answer; there is some motive for engaging in these behaviours.We may define a

motive (or motivation) as a need, want, interest or desire that propels someone (or an

organism) in a certain direction. Emotions, on the other hand, are something we all have,

and yet most of us cannot really explain them. Do people really know why they have

them, when they have them, how to control them, and so on? Like so many other

aspects of our psychological makeup, emotions comprise several components; in this

study unit we discussed them in terms of their cognitive, physiological, and behavioural

components. Motivation and emotion are therefore considered important concepts to

understand in the work setting, as they guide us in the work environment regarding

goal-directed behaviour, self-expression and appraisal of emotional events, leading to

better understanding of the individual's personality.

SELF-EVALUATION


(1) ... is the cardinal factor in instrumental conditioning.

(a) Positive motivation(b) Reinforcement(c) Negative motivation(d) Punishment

(2) You have studied very hard for a test, and you are very upset when a friend, who is generally lesshard-working, obtains better marks than you. You are experiencing ...

(a) homeostasis.(b) internal locus of causality.(c) inequity.(d) negative expectancy.

(3) According to Vroom's expectancy theory, an employee will be motivated if ...

(a) all his/her needs have been satisfied.(b) he/she values a specific goal.(c) organisational goals create opportunities to satisfy personal goals.(d) b and c.

(4) When experiencing an internal locus of causality, the individual feels that ...

(a) the supervisor is responsible for performance.(b) co-workers are responsible for performance.(c) he/she is responsible for performance.(d) the work-team is responsible for performance.


IOP1501/1 121

(5) According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, self-actualisation needs indicate the demand for ...

(a) status.(b) affiliation.(c) growth.(d) recognition.

(6) ... involves the individual's personal orientation toward interpreting and acting in achievementsituations.

(a) Goal-setting(b) Attribution(c) Equity(d) Self-efficacy

(7) When a person is challenged in real life, making ethical decisions in work situations, using his ownstrength to defuse anxiety-related issues in his life, working towards his five-year plan in hismarriage, and displaying kindness towards colleagues with problems could be related to theconcept of ...

(a) attribution.(b) emotional intelligence.(c) goal-setting.(d) expectancy.


1 (b); 2 (c); 3 (d); 4 (c); 5 (c); 6 (a); 7 (b)


Study unit 8

122

PART 3PART 3

Social behaviour and processesThe chapters in this part are concerned primarily with the social inputs into the func-tioning of organisations as open systems.The study of social behaviours explains how thephysical presence of individuals and groups, and their thoughts, feelings, attitudes, values,perceptions and behaviours influence others.The success of human coexistence, in otherwords, the coexistence of the various peoples and cultures in the world and in specificsocieties and groups, depends mainly on social processes and interpersonal skills that canaccommodate diversity and sociocultural differences. In the work context, the dynamic,creative, changing and evolving factors in organisations are based largely on the social orhuman structures, which are made up of individuals and groups, with all their attributesand interactions. The various structures and processes in organisations are integratedthrough individual and group interactions. The performance of tasks, as well as themanagement and leadership processes in organisations, also partly depends on the socialinputs by individuals and groups.

IOP1501/1 123


Attitudes and values

124

ATTITUDES AND VALUES(BASED ON CHAPTER 9 OF BERGH AND THERON (2009))


You may have heard people remarking on someone's bad or positive attitude, or sayingthat someone will have to change his/her attitude.You may even have heard the informalexpression `̀don't give me attitude.'' In the work context, when we experience poor orgood service in a business, we often comment on the attitude of the people who servedus. In fact, much of the climate or culture of a workplace can be attributed to the atti-tudes employees have about themselves, others and their employer.What we are actu-ally referring to here is a mindset that affects the way in which a person expresseshimself/herself with regard to his/her perceptions, feelings and actions or behaviourtowards something.The management of attitudes, which may be based on people's valuesystems, can be a demanding task for I-O psychologists and human resource managers,and is important in managing job motivation and satisfaction in the workplace. Theseexperts need to understand what attitudes and values are, how they influence thebehaviour of individuals and groups of employees, and how they can be changed to thebenefit of the organisation.

The focus of this study unit is the nature of attitudes and values as well as attitudes andvalues relating to the work situation and their role in personality and society.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. list the dimensions of the nature and functions of attitudes

. explain how attitudinal change can be stimulated and facilitated

. explain and evaluate work-related attitudes

. recognise the primary values of various occupational groups

. evaluate Spranger's six value orientations, which can be used to assess individual values

. evaluate Schwarz's theory of values

. evaluate Hofstede's cultural values, which can be used to assess power values in your organisation

. analyse the cultural values of collectivism in certain contexts

. assess the status of various masculine and feminine values

. differentiate between the various types of cultural diversity

STUDYUNIT

9

IOP1501/1 125



Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

9.1 Overview: nature and functions of attitudes

9.2 Attitudinal change

9.3 Work-related attitudes

9.4 Nature of values

9.5 Values as partof personality

9.6 Culturalvalues and diversity in an organisational context


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


attitudes, values, components of attitudes, central attitudes, peripheral attitudes, beliefs, opinion,prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination, self-perception, cognitive dissonance, job satisfaction,organisational commitment, cultural values, organisational values, communication, culturaldiversity


9.1 OVERVIEW: NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES

Attitudes may be divided into their cognitive, emotional (affective) and behavioural(conative) components.When individuals have an attitude towards somebody, it meansthat they think (cognitive aspect) about that person in a particular way, have certainfeelings and emotions for that person (affective aspect), and behave (conative aspect)towards that person in a specific way.We can illustrate this as follows:

Study unit 9

126

ACTIVITY 9.1

Study sections 9.1 to 9.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:

(1) Identify possible cognitive (ideas, thoughts), emotional and conative (behavioural) components ofthe following attitudes:

(a) A manager has a negative attitude towards unproductive workers.

Cognitive: ........................................................................................................................................................................

Affective: ........................................................................................................................................................................

Conative: ........................................................................................................................................................................

(b) An employee has a negative attitude towards people who do not voice their thoughts inmeetings.

Cognitive: ........................................................................................................................................................................

Affective: ........................................................................................................................................................................

Conative: .........................................................................................................................................................................

(c) An American employee has a negative attitude towards working with people from EasternEurope.

Cognitive: ........................................................................................................................................................................

Affective: ........................................................................................................................................................................

Conative: .........................................................................................................................................................................

(2) What functions of attitudes does each paragraph of the following scenario reflect?


IOP1501/1 127

ScenarioScenario

(i) You are a human resource manager. A discontented worker who has not been promoted to a muchsought-after position in a specialist department comes to see you to discuss the problem. Theman, who is clearly very upset, tells you that he believes that the other person got the job simplybecause he is always in the office and has a good relationship with the boss, whereas his own workkeeps him out in the field, as a result of which he is not as visible a presence in the office.

(ii) The employee tells you that the boss responds more positively to people who have personalitiessimilar to his own. Consequently, he only employs people who, like himself, are sociable and makefriends easily.

(iii) The employee mentions that there is evidence that preference is given to sociable people in theorganisation. He says that two of his colleagues who play golf with the boss also got promoted. Hemakes no mention of introverted people who also got promotions.

(iv) Towards the end of the discussion he says that he is actually more suited for a post that will beavailable in another department in the near future and that this post will offer more opportunityfor promotion and better pay. He goes so far as to say that he might have been overqualified forthe other job (the one he didn't get).

(v) On mature consideration he concludes that by and large he trusts the managers in theorganisation, that they are fine people and that they probably know what they are doing.

FEEDBACK

(1) (a) Cognitive: The manager may think or believe that these people are lazy and unmotivated.

Affective: The manager may be angry, or feel hostile or even disappointed.

Conative: The manager may react aggressively, or he may ignore them.

(b) Cognitive: The employee may think that they are hiding something or that they are dishonest(people often think like this).

Affective: The employee may feel that they are not to be trusted.

Conative: The employee may prefer to avoid them.

(c) Cognitive: The employee may think that these people are unintelligent due to poor educationalfacilities in that part of the world and that they do not know how to do thingsefficiently.

Affective: The employee may feel superior to them because his country is considered aneconomic giant in the world of work.

Conative: The employee may behave in a domineering and undemocratic way.

(2) (i) Attitudes determine the meaning of facts and situations.

(ii) Attitudes are substantiated by organising facts.(iii) Attitudes select facts.

Study unit 9

128

(iv) Attitudes are used to defend the self.(v) Attitudes express the self and the person's values.

9.2 ATTITUDINAL CHANGE

Attitudinal change may be the result of changes in an individual's cognition or behaviour,which means that individuals are active agents in attitudinal change. I-O psychologistsand human resource managers need to understand how individuals go about changingtheir own attitudes, as well as how the process can be stimulated or facilitated bysomeone else.

ACTIVITY 9.2


(vi) The employee who consulted you is eventually promoted to a post in another department, but heexperiences cognitive dissonance. On the one hand he is excited about the opportunity, while on theother he is disappointed at not getting the other job that he had originally wanted.

Study sections 9.4.1.1 and 9.4.1.2 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:

(1) How could this employee come to understand or deal with his cognitive dissonance better using themethods proposed by Festinger? Give examples of each strategy for this situation.

Strategy 1: Look for new informationStrategy 1: Look for new information

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

Strategy 2: Misinterpretation of informationStrategy 2: Misinterpretation of information

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

Strategy 3: Find social supportStrategy 3: Find social support

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................


IOP1501/1 129

Strategy 4: Play down the importance of the causes of dissonanceStrategy 4: Play down the importance of the causes of dissonance

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) How could you as a human resource manager help the employee to change his attitude? Who wouldbe the best person to speak to him, what kinds of messages should be used, and should the personspeak to him individually or as part of a group? Remember, there may be other people who also feelunfairly treated.

FEEDBACK

(1) Strategy 1: Look for new informationStrategy 1: Look for new information

The employee could find out whether others in a situation similar to his own have been promoted. Ifso, it may help him to deal with his bias against management, that is, he may start to see theselection process in a different light.

Strategy 2: Misinterpretation of informationStrategy 2: Misinterpretation of information

Misinterpretation of information is not to be encouraged, since the person would actually bedenying the facts. An example would be if he were to persuade himself that he did not get the jobbecause the people in that department would have felt threatened by him.

Strategy 3: Find social supportStrategy 3: Find social support

The employee may start forming relationships with people in the new department who have hadsimilar experiences, and will thus feel less rejected and isolated.

Strategy 4: Play down the importance of the causes of cognitive dissonanceStrategy 4: Play down the importance of the causes of cognitive dissonance

The employee may come to realise that the work done by his new department is no less importantthan that of the specialist department, and that he can be proud of his department.

(2) The person who speaks to this employee should have credibility. It should be somebody whom hetrusts, respects and considers honest. The person should also have the facts at his/her fingertipsand be able to answer important questions. With regard to facts, the person should be able toexplain the criteria used for the appointment and explain frankly and honestly to the employee whyhe did not meet these criteria. The employee should be convinced that the selection process wasconducted correctly and that the organisation does everything in its power to ensure the validityand reliability of the process. Finally, the employee should preferably be interviewed on his own, sincethe matter is a personal one and other employees with such problems are given private interviews.This ensures confidentiality.

Study unit 9

130

9.3 WORK-RELATED ATTITUDES

Attitudes that greatly influence employees' performance in the work context are jobsatisfaction, job involvement and organisational commitment. The activity that followsdeals with these attitudes.You should understand the concepts and be able to assessthem in individuals and groups of workers.

ACTIVITY 9.3

Study section 9.5 (9.5.1 to 9.5.2) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:

(1) Compile a questionnaire which will enable you to measure the job satisfaction of people in yourdepartment. Use the factors identified by Robbins as influencing job satisfaction to draw up thestatements or items in the questionnaire. Also decide on a scale according to which employees canindicate whether or not they agree with the statements.

(2) Identify a friend or family member whom you know to have high work involvement, and describe thatperson's behaviour. What behaviour indicates high work involvement? Analyse the person's attitudein terms of cognitive, emotional and conative activities. If you get stuck, ask the person to help you.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(3) What factors affect employees' organisational commitment?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1) When compiling a questionnaire, you have to decide on a scale according to which participants willrespond to the statements in the questionnaire. This is particularly important if you are doingquantitative research, that is, when you want to quantify their responses (assign numeric scoresto them) so that you can add them up and obtain a total reflecting the respondent's attitude. Inthis example the total will indicate the person's general job satisfaction. Let us say you use a five-point scale for participants' responses. The question might read as follows:

To what extent do you agree with each of the following statements?


IOP1501/1 131

1 2 3 4 5

Not at all Totally

The scale gives participants five possible responses to choose from. If they choose 1, this indicatesthat they do not agree with the statement at all and that it does not apply to them. If theychoose 5, they agree totally, which indicates that the statement is true for them. If they agreeonly partially, they may choose 3 or one of the other options, depending on the extent of theiragreement.

The following are examples of questions that can be set with regard to each of the factorsidentified by Robbins:

. Mentally challenging

My skills and knowledge are used to the full in my job.My tasks are varied.My job allows me to take some decisions myself.I get regular feedback on my performance.

. Equitable rewards

I am remunerated fairly for the work I do.My organisation has equitable promotion policies and practices.I am remunerated fairly according to my responsibilities and the requirements of the job.I am remunerated fairly according to my knowledge and skills.I am paid a market-related salary.

. Working conditions

I work in a safe and comfortable environment.My work environment is clean. I have modern facilities for my work.I have adequate equipment.

. Working relations

I have a good relationship with my supervisor.My supervisor is supportive and friendly.I have good relations with my co-workers.I have good relations with my bosses.

(2) People with high job involvement may:

Cognitive: think that their jobs are worthwhile, that they make an importantcontribution to their organisation and that this earns them status andrecognition

Affective (emotions): feel proud to be associated with the organisation, be emotionally involvedwith their co-workers, feel useful

Conative (behaviour): sometimes do more than is required of them, work with commitment andresponsibility, defend the organisation's image to others and project apositive image

(3) Employees who share the organisation's values are usually committed. Positive attitudes towards

Study unit 9

132

the organisation, management and fellow employees, as well as towards the work of theorganisation, would increase their commitment.

9.4 NATURE OF VALUES

The following two ideas illustrate the crux of the concept of values:

A value is an enduring belief that a particular way of behaving is personally or so-cially preferable to its opposite.Values are also said to be prescriptive rules whichpeople observe. This implies that all people believe in a particular type of beha-viour and prefer it to other types of behaviour, and that these values direct theirday-to-day behaviour because they adhere to them.

ACTIVITY 9.4

Study section 9.6 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following task on the basis ofthe definitions given above:

Describe the ideal values which you believe an I-O psychologist should embrace and manifest.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

I-O psychologists should believe in and respect people's potential to make their own decisions abouttheir lives. Adopting this humanistic approach, they should believe in people's potential to grow anddevelop. In their interactions with others they should be empathic, accept people, and be sincere andgenuine. Thus, when dealing with employees during selection processes, for example, they should respectthe candidates' privacy, treat information as confidential, and be objective.

9.5 VALUES AS PART OF PERSONALITY

In the literature we find six value orientations: theoretical, economic, social, power,religious and aesthetic. People's behaviour is directed largely by their value orientations.Usually one can identify a primary orientation.


IOP1501/1 133

ACTIVITY 9.5

Study section 9.7 (9.7.1 to 9.7.6) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:

(1) Evaluate which of the six value orientations apply to you. Substantiate your answer and explain whyyou think this particular orientation forms part of your value system.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) What type of career would a person with each of the six value orientations be likely to pursue?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1) You will each have given an individualised answer, but make sure that you are able to describe thecharacteristics associated with each of your value orientations.

(2) Theoretical person:Theoretical person: science, engineering and other technical occupations

Economic person:Economic person: entrepreneurship, manufacturing and banking

Social person:Social person: psychology, social work and teaching

Power person:Power person: leadership, management and politics

Religious person:Religious person: any occupation, but their religious values will direct their behaviour; priestsand charity workers may fall in this category

Aesthetic person:Aesthetic person: not limited to the arts, may also include occupations such as natureconservation

9.6 CULTURALVALUES AND DIVERISTY IN AN

ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT

South Africa is referred to as the `̀rainbow nation'', which describes the rich culturaldiversity of its inhabitants. The population of South Africa is one of the most complex

Study unit 9

134

and diverse in the world. However, in one way or another every country today repre-

sents a multicultural society, containing different ethnic, religious and linguistic groups

that have common bonds in terms of heritage, culture, values and way of life.Cultural

values and diversity are here to stay and to grow.This ideology should also be trans-

ferred to the world of work, where, unless people respect diversity and build unity

through common bonds, they will not function as a cohesive unit, possibly to the detri-

ment of the organisation and their work environment. In this age of globalisation, cultural

values and diversity in the work setting are further challenged by the spread of democ-

racy and the awareness of human rights and ethics, and the new global networks of

communication that encourage people to debate issues and concerns openly.

Three value systems may be identified in an organisational context: power distance,

individualism versus collectivism, and femininity versus masculinity.

ACTIVITY 9.6

Study section 9.9 (9.9.1 to 9.9.3) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete the following tasks:

(1) Evaluate the distance of power in your organisation by discussing the issue with members of yourwork group. Use the descriptions in table 9.1 in section 9.9 of the prescribed book.

(2) Write a proposal to management in which you point out the advantages of and advocate collectivevalues in the organisation.

(3) Which of the masculine or feminine values are most appropriate in the new South Africa?

FEEDBACK

(1) Each of you will have given an individual answer, and therefore we cannot give you any guidelines inthis instance.

(2) Since collective values mean that workers are dependent on the organisation, they may be morecommitted if the organisation looks after them properly. Giving workers development opportunitieshelps them to prepare for promotion and means that everyone is given the same opportunity, whichmakes it possible to achieve equity. If workers are given a chance to use all their skills and abilities,they may feel more useful. Group interests should be considered when managing workers so thatthe majority will benefit from the decisions that are made. Good relationships are essential foreffective functioning. If people have good relationships and trust one another, they will cooperateeffectively. The organisation should also take an interest in workers' families, as this reassuresworkers that the organisation cares and looks after their interests, which should increase theircommitment.

(3) Most of the feminine values in table 9.3 in the prescribed book are being promoted to an increasingextent in South African organisations.


IOP1501/1 135

ACTIVITY 9.7

Study section 9.10 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following questions:

(1) In your work or living environment, what kinds of cultural values are exhibited? Try to relate thesevalues to cultural diversity.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) We find that one of the challenges in dealing with cultural diversity in the work setting is theintroduction of innovation (finding new ideas or new ways of understanding and doing things).Having said that, what do you think are some of the ethical principles that can guide innovation inorder for us not to compromise our value and belief systems?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1) Each of you will have supplied a personalised answer, and so we cannot give you any guidelines.However, with regard to the second part of the question, types of cultural diversity, yourdiscussion could have included how assimilation and multiculturalism influence the different typesof cultural diversity, such as a minority culture versus mainstream culture, adopting the majoritylifestyle versus forming a new culture, active versus laissez-faire culture or collective versusindividual cultures. The type or types of cultural diversity you choose will depend on the way youanswered the first part of the question.

(2) Some of the ethical principles guiding innovation include human vulnerability, dignity, justice and theneed to be included. You could have included other principles relevant to your situation.


We must remember that attitudes and values are part of the individual's intentional

behaviour and that attitudes may be more or less constant or just temporary.Values, on

Study unit 9

136

the other hand, tend to be more constant, as they are intrinsic (inherent). However,they can change, as culture influences change.

SELF-EVALUATION


(1) When experiencing cognitive dissonance, an individual will ...

(a) consider opinions contrary to his/her own.(b) seek information objectively.(c) consider all the information objectively.(d) change his/her attitude to reduce stress.

(2) Joshua is employed in an accounting firm where the environment is very stressful. However, he stillsexperiences job satisfaction, because ...

(a) his work is not too difficult.(b) his work is mentally challenging.(c) his supervisor gives him clear instructions.(d) the job task is easy to carry out.

(3) Princess Diana was known as the ``people's princess'' because of various community projects sheinitiated. One could therefore say that she was driven by ...

(a) religious values.(b) power value.(c) social values.(d) aesthetic values.

(4) A person who puts pressure on others to recycle used material reflects ...

(a) economic values.(b) religious values.(c) power values.(d) aesthetic values.

(5) An organisation that encourages assertiveness and leadership in employees endorses ...

(a) masculinity.(b) collectivism.(c) high power distance.(d) individualism.

(6) Which of the following values is emphasised in masculine societies?

(a) solidarity(b) ambition


IOP1501/1 137

(c) cohesion(d) negotiation

(7) Research shows that male employees attribute the success of male managers to intelligence andcompetence, while they credit the success of female managers to luck and favourablecircumstances. The example given above explains which function of attitudes?

(a) Attitudes become selected facts.(b) Attitudes become substantiated by the organisation of facts.(c) Attitudes transmit social beliefs.(d) Attitudes determine the meaning of facts and situations.


1 (c); 2 (b); 3 (c); 4 (a); 5 (a); 6 (b); 7 (d)


Study unit 9

138


Prosocial behaviours, aggression and conflict

IOP1501/1 139

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOURS,AGGRESSION AND CONFLICT



It is important to understand why people form relationships. Positive relationships are an

important ingredient of social structure in organisations and an aspect that concerns I-O

psychologists and human resource managers in workplaces. If psychologists understand

the reasons for interpersonal needs such as power, love and acceptance, they will be

able to identify unsatisfied social needs that may result in relationship problems at work.

This awareness should help human resource workers to understand why some employ-

ees are better at working together than others, and how their cooperation and inter-

personal relationships can be optimised. Furthermore, in order to maintain good

interpersonal relations, we need to be able to identify and deal with aggression and

conflict. Aggression and conflict form part of our lives.Wherever people come into

contact, the differences between them can lead to conflict and aggression. More

recently, bullying and harassment seem to have crept into the workplace as well. Many

people think of aggression as a physical assault. However, workplace aggression is a

much broader problem, having to do with any situation in which a person is abused,

threatened, intimidated or assaulted at his/her place of employment.Our own behaviour,

and that of other people, gives rise to aggression and conflict and in some instances this

results in bullying. Relationships and behaviour are also helpful for understanding social

relationships in a broader context, such as in a diverse and multicultural country like

South Africa.

The purpose of this study unit is thus to familiarise you with the underlying dynamics of

prosocial behaviour such as attraction and affiliation, as well as aggression and conflict.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. analyse the definitions of attraction, affiliation, aggression and conflict

. analyse the role of attraction, affiliation, aggression and conflict in relationships

. evaluate explanations for attraction, affiliation and aggressive behaviour

. identify determinants of interpersonal attraction and aggression

. distinguish between types of aggression and conflict

. recognise instances of workplace bullying and harassment

. identify the determinants of workplace aggression

STUDYUNIT

10

140

. identify the stages of conflict escalation

. distinguish between the different conflict-handling styles



Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

10.1 Overview: definitions of attraction and affiliation

10.2 Explanations for interpersonal attraction

10.3 Situational determinants of attraction

10.4 Overview: what are aggression andworkplace aggression?

10.5 What areworkplace violence, bullyingandharassment?

10.6 Causes of workplace aggression

10.7 Conflict


Self-evaluation

KEY CONCEPTS


social competencies, social structure, social interaction, interpersonal attraction, affiliation,perception, social exchanges, rewards and costs, social comparison, biological and psychosocialdependence, instrumentality, social needs, social learning, stimulation, physical appearance andattractiveness, stereotype, self-esteem anxiety, appearance anxiety, dissimilarity, emotions,proximity, social support, social isolation, cultural differences, aggression, types of aggression,workplace violence, bullying, types of workplace bullying, phases of workplace bullying, harassment,causes of workplace aggression, instincts, imitate, displacing, anger, frustration, deindividuation,deprivation, punishment, catharsis, types of conflict, incompatibility, functional conflict, conflictescalation, competing, collaborating, accommodating, compromising, avoidance, managing conflict,aggression and violence, interpersonal aggression and conflict



IOP1501/1 141

10.1 OVERVIEW: DEFINITIONS OF ATTRACTION ANDAFFILIATION

Attraction refers to people's common and positive physical, social and psychologicalattributes that attract them to others and create good feelings between them.

Affiliation, on the other hand, refers to the human need to form and maintain varioussocial relationships with individuals or groups with a view to receiving empathy andaffection and having a sense of belonging.

ACTIVITY 10.1

Study sections 10.1, 10.2 and especially 10.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then complete thefollowing tasks:

(1) Take 15 minutes to analyse the following relationships in your life and indicate which attributes ofthe other person, group or organisation attract or repel you. Describe the physical, social andpsychological attributes involved in each instance.

Person, group ororganisation

Physical attributes Social attributes Psychologicalattributes

Your best friend

Your mentor

The person withwhom you share anintimate relationship

Your work group

The organisationthat employs you orthe university atwhich you study

(2) Consider the information that you included in the table above. How does it help you to understandthese relationships better? Does it explain why you are involved with the person, group ororganisation?

3) Take 10 more minutes to analyse the following relationships in terms of the degree to which theysatisfy your needs for affiliation (love and acceptance) and power. Note that one can distinguishbetween two dimensions of each of these needs. In the case of affiliation, the other party'sbehaviour may be predominantly friendly or hostile. In the case of power, the other party's behaviourmay be either dominant or submissive. Evaluate the person's behaviour in each instance andindicate how satisfying the relationship is to you and what you would like to change about it.

Study unit 10

142

Person Affiliation: person'sbehaviour (friendly

or hostile)

Power: person'sbehaviour (dominant

or submissive)

Relationship (satis-factory/unsatisfac-

tory), and thethings I would like

to change

One of your parents

The person withwhom you share anintimate relationship

Your best friend

Your supervisor orboss

(4) How important is it to you to satisfy your affiliation needs? How do you normally do this in arelationship? Do you have a strong need for affiliation, and therefore behave in a friendly manner, ordo you have a weak need for affiliation, and therefore behave in a hostile manner because you feelyou do not need others and would prefer to keep them at a distance? Remember, hostility does notmean overt aggression. Reserved people who do not establish contact with others are also hostileand keep others at a distance through their behaviour.

FEEDBACK

As this activity required you to use your personal insight, you will each have responded differently.However, the sections you read in Bergh and Theron (2009) should have helped you in your response.

10.2 EXPLANATIONS FOR INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

There are various explanations for interpersonal attraction.They include social exchangeor cost and reward ratios, social comparison, biological and social dependence, instru-mentality and needs, social learning and stimulation. The next activity will help you toapply these explanations and to understand your attraction to people and the relation-ships you have with them in your personal and working life. It will also give you ideasabout how to facilitate interpersonal relationships.

ACTIVITY 10.2

Study section 10.4 (10.4.1 to 10.4.3) in Bergh and Theron (2009), then complete the following tasks.This will take about 25 minutes of your time.


IOP1501/1 143

(1) Social exchange or cost and reward ratiosSocial exchange or cost and reward ratios. Evaluate your relationship with your best friend. Whatexchanges does the relationship involve? In other words, what do you put into the relationship andwhat do you get from it? Compare the rewards and costs of the relationship and indicate howsatisfied you are with the ratio.

Person Rewards from therelationship

Costs of therelationship

Satisfaction withthe ratio

Best friend

(2) Social comparisonSocial comparison. Describe your feelings about your colleagues and evaluate how the way you aretreated in the organisation compares with the treatment they receive. How do you feel about thosewho receive the same treatment as you do, and how do you feel about those who are treatedbetter? Be honest about your feelings. Do you sometimes feel jealous of the second group? Howdoes it explain your attraction or lack of attraction to them?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(3) Biological or social dependencyBiological or social dependency. Identify someone you know whose attraction to people may beascribed to dependency. On whom is this person dependent, and for what? What effect does theperson's dependency have on others? Do you think affiliation and attraction needs in people areinstinctive as a result of evolutionary influences?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

Study unit 10

144

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(4) Instrumentality of needsInstrumentality of needs. Relationships can be used as instruments to satisfy needs. Identifyrelationships in which you satisfy each of the following needs. To what extent does it account foryour attraction to these people and the fact that a relationship was established?

Need that is satisfied Person in your life How it explains yourrelationship

social comparison (need toreduce insecurity)

positive stimulation (need tohave an interesting relation-ship with somebody)

emotional support (a friendwhen you are in trouble)

getting attention (beingpraised and admired)

(5) Social learning. An employee who displays hostile behaviour towards people experiences a lot ofinterpersonal conflict at work. She comes to you, the I-O psychologist, for help with this problemand asks you to explain why it happens. Use social learning theory to explain the reasons to her.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(6) Identify someone in your life who has encouraged you to perform better. How did the person dothis, and what effect did it have on you? Indicate how you as an industrial psychologist can advisesupervisors in the organisation on how to encourage and stimulate workers in order to promotegood relations.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................


IOP1501/1 145

FEEDBACK

(1)±(4) You will each have provided a unique answer please ensure that it was based on the informationgiven in Bergh and Theron (2009).

(5) You could explain to this employee that one party's hostile behaviour usually provokes hostility onthe part of another: if you behave in a hostile manner towards other people, they will usuallyrespond with hostility. In terms of social learning theory, the employee's hostility could beattributed to a lack of encouragement and reinforcement of friendly behaviour by parents andothers during childhood. You should also point out that people generally assess others on thebasis of their friendliness or otherwise, and that this evokes positive or negative feelings.

(6) Supervisors need to stimulate and encourage their subordinates in their work, and thus build goodrelations. This can be done through acceptance, empathy and genuineness, by providing feedbackand opportunities for growth and development, by encouraging workers' interest in their field ofexpertise, and by acknowledging positive behaviour.

10.3 SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF ATTRACTION

Situational determinants are proximity, exposure, familiarity and external events.

ACTIVITY 10.3

Study section 10.4.4 (10.4.4.1 to 10.4.4.2) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then indicate which kind ofdeterminant accounts for the attraction in each of the following situations:

Situation 1 Two people start their new jobs at an organisation on the same day, and strikeup a friendship.

Situation 2 People in adjacent offices sometimes become good friends.

Situation 3 Two colleagues who work and live in the same neighbourhood get along welltogether.

Situation 4 Mr Vosloo wants to work with Ms Dada, a sophisticated and attractivecolleague whom he met at the company's year-end function.

Study unit 10

146

FEEDBACK

(a) Situation 1: external events

(b) Situation 2: proximity

(c) Situation 3: familiarity

(d) Situation 4: exposure

10.4 OVERVIEW: WHATARE AGGRESSION AND WORKPLACE

AGGRESSION?

First, we need to consider what aggression is.We are all able to sense intuitively when

somebody is behaving aggressively, but defining and measuring aggression accurately are

not so easy. In South Africa aggression is becoming an increasing problem and most

companies are losing millions of rands by not tackling it appropriately. The South African

workplace is a stressful environment.Discrimination is not only part of our history, but is

still very much a problem in the workplace today. There is widespread discrimination

against people living with HIV/AIDS, people with disabilities, and with regard to age and

sexual orientation.Our labour laws will be worthless if we are unable to change the

hearts and minds of workers and employers, and so we need to pay urgent attention to

these problems.

ACTIVITY 10.4

These tasks will take about 20 minutes of your time, but will be worth your while.

(1) Page through a newspaper, journal article or book and mark every item that deals with aggression

or conflict. Can you identify the underlying reasons for the conflict or aggression? How do you

perceive aggression? List some of the characteristics that will tell you whether or not a person is

aggressive.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) What would you consider to be possible ways of determining aggression? Will external

characteristics alone tell us whether a person is aggressive? Or could one use a questionnaire to

assess how aggressive someone is? Do you think one could establish whether a person is


IOP1501/1 147

aggressive by asking questions in a personal interview? What kind of questions would give you an

idea of a person's levels of aggression and/or behaviour that indicates aggression?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(3) Study sections 10.5.1 and 10.5.2 in the prescribed book and see what it says about aggression, and

the different types of aggression. Include what you learn from this section in the prescribed book in

your original list and suggestions.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1)±(2) This activity required you to demonstrate your own insight.

(3) The information in section 10.5.1 of Bergh and Theron (2009) will have shown you that there is

generally no consensus regarding a definition of aggression, which complicates the task of

describing aggression. However, problematic as this is, it is possible to collect data on the subject

and use that to formulate a definition. What is the origin of aggressive behaviour? In the next

section we look at the causes and effects of aggression and how to deal with them.

10.5 WHATARE WORKPLACE VIOLENCE, BULLYING AND

HARASSMENT?

Workplace violence is involved in any situation in which a person is abused, threatened,

intimidated or assaulted at his/her place of employment.Workplace bullying is any beha-

viour that demeans, embarrasses, humiliates, annoys or alarms a person, or a situation

where a person is verbally abused by someone he/she knows.Verbal abuse can include

swearing, insults and the use of condescending language. Harassment, on the other

hand, includes behaviour such as making negative remarks about a person or criticising

them on an ongoing basis; isolating a person by leaving them without social contacts; or

gossiping or spreading false information about that individual or a group of individuals. In

most instances, employees who engage in such actions would be in breach not only of

the common law duties of employees, but also of specific internal disciplinary codes of

conduct.

Study unit 10

148

ACTIVITY 10.5

Study sections 10.5.2.2, 10.5.2.3 and 10.5.2.4 in the prescribed book and complete and followingactivity.

(1) Select a work environment or organisation, and try to establish whether a policy on workplaceviolence, bullying and harassment exists there. If such a policy exists, discuss the issues included init. If there is no such policy, what do you think should be included in one?

(2) Why do you think that it is the duty of employers to implement a policy on sexual harassment andHIV/AIDS in the workplace? Substantiate your viewpoints.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1) Issues to include are: definitions of workplace violence, bullying and harassment; distinguishingbetween types of violent behaviour (covert vs overt vs dangerous acts); listing and explaining thetypes of bullying behaviour as identified by that particular work environment or organisation;explaining the phases of escalating conflict as regards bullying; and explaining the factors that areevident when harassment occurs. However, you could also have added other points.

(2) You will each have responded differently, but you may get ideas from the sections indicated in theprescribed book.

10.6 CAUSES OF WORKPLACE AGGRESSION

As Bergh and Theron (2009) point out in section 10.6, various determinants can cause

and influence aggression.When aggression is manifested, it needs to be dealt with.This is

discussed in sections 10.6.1 and 10.6.2.

ACTIVITY 10.6

These tasks will take roughly 15 minutes.

(1) List the causes of aggression mentioned in Bergh and Theron (2009). Now consider yourimmediate work or home environment and cite a personal example of each of the causes of


IOP1501/1 149

aggression. State how the aggression manifests itself in that environment as a consequence ofthe various causes.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

(2) Do the same with regard to the personal, social, environmental and situational determinants thatinfluence aggression and think of manifestations in your work environment. Do you recognise thebehaviour of people whom you know?

(3) Consider the situation in your life where you experienced the most aggression. Decide what wouldhave been the best strategy for managing it. Now think back: was that how it was managed? Whatdo you think would have happened if it had been managed differently?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

(1±3) These tasks required you to provide your own insight after reading the theoretical assumptionsrelating to the topic, so you will probably each have given a different answer.

The mere thought of aggression is enough to make some people tense up. Most of us have a naturalaversion to aggression and conflict. If you are familiar with the theoretical basis of aggression, this willhelp you not to take aggression personally when you encounter it in real life. By viewing the situationobjectively, almost ``academically'', you will find it easier to deal with aggression and conflict.

10.7 CONFLICT

Having considered the various aspects of aggression, let us take a look at conflict andconflict management. Study section 10.7 in Bergh and Theron (2009), then complete theactivity below.

ACTIVITY 10.7

(1) You are an I-O psychologist at a plant in the telecommunications industry. Over the past years theplant has suffered heavy financial losses as a result of worker discontent and strikes. Top

Study unit 10

150

management wants to deal with the problems proactively so as to prevent strikes and unrestamong the workforce. You are requested to submit a paper to top management in which you dealwith specific aspects of conflict, with appropriate examples from the industry. You structure yourpaper as follows:

Introduction: What is conflict?

Types of conflict

Causes of conflict

The escalation of conflict

The style or styles used to handle conflict

Conflict in industry (employment relations)

Stimulating conflict

Proposals for your organisation

Your talk should not take longer than 15 minutes. (Use your imagination with regard to pastconflict in the organisation and its causes.)

(2) Write a letter to your organisational newsletter in which you summarise your talk. Address theletter to the workers so that they can also make use of the information.

FEEDBACK

You will each have responded in an individual and creative way in completing these tasks.


Attraction and affiliation form the foundation of social relations in the workplace.Attraction is influenced by situational factors and affects the personal wellbeing of theindividual.We find that the common occurrence of tension and disagreement is an indi-cation of how little people know about how they affect one another and are affected byone another. Since South Africa become a democracy, many political and social changeshave placed the spotlight on the relationships between its people. Although socialdiversity and cultural differences maintain group identity, renewed efforts are needed tofoster affiliation and attraction among people from different groups.

We also learnt more about aggression, workplace violence, bullying, harassment andconflict.We considered the causes of these phenomena and the factors that influencethem. Awareness of their causes and influences, and of ways to deal with aggression andconflict, helps us to understand our own aggression and that of other people. It alsohelps us to deal with conflict when it arises.Conflict is necessary for the functioning oforganisations. However, the emphasis is now on the management of conflict, whichmeans that conflict sometimes has to be stimulated. Aggression, on the other hand, is aninherent part of human nature and helps people to deal with problems in their workenvironments.You can put this section of your study to good use: the next time youobserve prosocial behaviour, aggression and conflict around you, refer to this materialand see whether you can link the theory to the events you observe.


IOP1501/1 151

SELF-EVALUATION


(1) Biological and psychosocial dependence is linked to ...

(a) reward and punishment.(b) attachment behaviours.(c) dependence on equitable treatment.(d) social learning.

(2) Social learning includes ...

(a) getting to know who your friends are.(b) comparing values and attitudes.(c) comparing rewards with those received by others.(d) awareness of cultural norms.

(3) John has befriended Oscar in order to gain entrance to a professional club. The reason foraffiliation in this case is best explained as ...

(a) social comparison.(b) social exchange.(c) instrumentality.(d) psychological dependence.

(4) Social wellbeing refers to ...

(a) achieving your personal goals.(b) the lack of anxiety in relationships.(c) feeling isolated.(d) false uniqueness.

(5) The security guard on night duty at an organisation catches a burglar red-handed and usesphysical force and a gun to overpower and apprehend him. This is an instance of ...

(a) sanctioned aggression.(b) antisocial aggression.(c) hostile aggression.(d) instrumental aggression.

(6) The following is not considered a cause of aggression:

(a) inherent human nature.(b) learnt behaviour.(c) response to frustration.(d) threshold of conflict management.

Study unit 10

152

(7) The state of diminished self-awareness manifested in mob behaviour is known as ...

(a) personal anonymity.(b) deindividuation.(c) catharsis.(d) environmental influence.

(8) A prerequisite for conflict is that ...

(a) conflict must be experienced.(b) people have to be overly aggressive towards one another.(c) parties have to be in opposition to each other.(d) goals must differ.

(9) Two large chain store groups engage in a public slanging match after the one group used acomparative advertisement depicting the other's service as inferior. What type of conflict does thisexemplify?

(a) interpersonal conflict(b) conflict between organisations(c) organisational conflict(d) public conflict

(10) The final stage of conflict as it escalates is marked by ...

(a) intention to do damage.(b) public attacks.(c) destructive deeds.(d) loss of control.

(11) The style of conflict management of parties who are high on self-assertion and low on cooperationis known as the ... approach to conflict management.

(a) accommodating(b) avoidance(c) competitive(d) cooperative

(12) When an organisation stagnates, it may help to ...

(a) stimulate conflict.(b) manage conflict better.(c) use a devil's advocate.(d) select managers judiciously.


1 (b); 2 (d); 3 (c); 4 (b); 5 (a); 6 (d); 7 (b); 8 (a); 9 (b); 10 (d); 11 (c); 12 (a)



IOP1501/1 153


Group behaviour and other social processes

in organisations

154

GROUP BEHAVIOUR ANDOTHER SOCIAL PROCESSES

IN ORGANISATIONS(BASED ON CHAPTER 11 IN BERGH AND THERON (2009))


Let us consider this topic for a moment! Most people are involved in some form ofgroup forming or group involvement in their lifetime. Think about your family, workgroups, management groups, sport teams and clubs, church groups, and so forth. In fact,group association forms part of people's basic social needs. In the workplace as well,group functioning is an important driving force or energiser.When involved in organisa-tional consultation, one of the important tasks that psychologists have to undertake isorganisational development, which includes developing the behaviour of individuals andgroups, and the organisation as a whole.

The aim of this study topic therefore is to focus on the characteristics, dynamics andbehaviour of groups in organisations and the way in which industrial psychologists canuse their knowledge of groups to optimise group behaviour as an element of organisa-tional development.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this study unit you should be able to ...

. identify the characteristics of groups to which you belong so as to evaluate the group's behaviour

. identify various types of group to which people can belong and the goals of these groups

. identify and describe the stages of work groups

. identify the various group structures in organisations and identify interventions for developing groupstructures

. analyse group processes in an organisation and indicate how they can be facilitated

. evaluate your own facilitation skills and identify any shortcomings

. describe the organisation as a social system

. discuss the role and process of organisational change

. discuss organisations and social change

STUDYUNIT

11

IOP1501/1 155

KEY CONCEPTS

Important concepts from this topic are listed in the following box.

groups, group dynamics, development, group processes, tasks, cohesion, communication, groupthink, group shift, ubuntu, group decisionmaking, group facilitation, organisational culture,organisational socialisation, social change




Learning outcomes

Keyconcepts

11.1 Overview: definition ofgroups

11.2 Types of groups

11.3 The five-stagemodel of group development

11.4 Group structure

11.5 Group processes

11.6 Group decisionmaking techniques

11.7 Facilitation of learning in groups

11.8 Organisational culture, socialisation and change


Self-evaluation

11.1 OVERVIEW: DEFINITION OF GROUPS

You will immediately realise the importance of groups in our lives from chapter 11, byreading section 11.1 of Bergh and Theron (2009).

Groups have distinctive features. They create opportunities for interaction and commu-nication during which individuals influence one another. In their endeavour to achievecertain goals groups have to agree on objectives. Apart from this, groups structuretasks, roles and rules and members identify and perceive themselves as part of thegroup. The next activity gives you an opportunity to analyse these characteristics inyour own work group.

Study unit 11

156

ACTIVITY 11.1

Study sections 11.1 to 11.3 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following question:

(1) Take 10 minutes to analyse the characteristics of groups in your own work group (or anothergroup) by indicating how each attribute manifests itself in your group.

Group characteristic How does the characteristic manifest itself in the behaviour ofgroup members?

Social interaction andinfluencing

Agree on commonobjectives

Create tasks, roles andrules to optimise func-tioning

Group members identi-fy and perceive them-selves as part of thegroup

FEEDBACK

How do your responses compare with our ideas in the completed table that follows?


Social interaction andinfluencing

With regard to the first characteristic, group members usuallyhave both formal and informal contact Ð formal contact in, forexample, meetings and informal contact in the tearoom. As a rulethey interact more with each other than with members of othergroups and they influence each other by persuading each other totry out new ideas, by dominating and even by competing with eachother.

Group behaviour and other social processes in organisations

IOP1501/1 157


Agree on commonobjectives

They usually agree on what they want to achieve during planningsessions and then pursue these objectives. They take theseobjectives to heart and collaborate actively to achieve them. Eventhough they may agree about their goals, they do not necessarilysee eye to eye on the way to achieve them.

Create tasks, roles andrules to optimise func-tioning

They organise and share out the work by assigning tasks todifferent people, authorising various people to assume roles suchas those of chairperson or leader, and laying down rules such ashow and when they will meet, as well as more subtle ones likeshowing mutual respect.

Group members identi-fy and perceive them-selves as part of thegroup

They recognise their group membership by, for example, referring to``us'' and ``my group'' in the presence of nonmembers.

11.2 TYPES OF GROUPS

The literature distinguishes between formal, informal, command, task, interest andfriendship groups. At some stage in our lives, we all belong to one or more groups.Thenext activity gives you a chance to identify the types of group you have belonged to inthe course of your life and to study the differences between them.

ACTIVITY 11.2

Study section 11.4 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following question:

(1) Identify the basic characteristics of each type of group and give examples of groups you havebelonged to for each category.

Type of group Characteristics Example of a group towhich you have belonged

Formal group

Informal group

Command group

Study unit 11

158


Task group

Interest group

Friendship group

FEEDBACK

Once again, what did you write down, and can you add to our summaries in the following table?


Formal group A formal group pursuingcertain objectives in theorganisation

Organisational groups

Informal group A group of workers whogather informally, forinstance to form a socialclub

Social club

Command group The leaders or managerscharged with administeringthe organisation constitutethe management group orteam

Management teamSupervisor teamHeads of departments

Task group A team, group or depart-ment in an organisationwhich has a specific task toaccomplish

Work group

Interest group A group of people who do notnecessarily work together inan organisational sense butwho come together becauseof a common interest

Trade union

Friendship group Friends who form a group tosatisfy each other's socialand emotional needs infor-mally

Circle of friends


IOP1501/1 159

11.3 THE FIVE-STAGE MODEL OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Theoretically groups pass through five distinct stages: forming, storming, norming,performing and adjourning or mourning. Each stage is marked by characteristic beha-viour. Industrial psychologists can use their knowledge of what stage the group is at todecide what interventions, reflections or interpretations to make in group processconsultations.

ACTIVITY 11.3

(1) Study section 11.5.1 in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then identify the distinctive behaviour orcharacteristics of each stage and the effect of this behaviour on your work group. How do membersof your work group deal with the anxiety that accompanies each stage?

Stage of the model Characteristics of stage Effect on your work group

Forming

Storming

Norming

Performing

Adjourning

FEEDBACK

(1) The characteristics of each stage are explained in Bergh and Theron (2009), so all we do here is tonote a few ideas about the effect of each stage on work groups.

The forming stageforming stage is usually marked by anxiety because members do not understand their roles orcannot identify them. They try to form relationships to make the situation more secure, but somemembers try to hang onto their identity because they do not want to be submerged by the group.They may attack the facilitator with overt aggression to get rid of their anxiety.

During the storming stagstorming stage members may come into conflict over who is to take command. If theconflict gets fierce some members may threaten to leave the group; others may behaveaggressively to fellow members.

The norming stagenorming stage gives rise to more security because of the rules or norms that are laid down.Members know what is expected of them, so they feel more secure.

The performing stageperforming stage is characterised by cooperation and satisfaction. Members usually feel moreat ease and may even be proud of belonging to the group.

Study unit 11

160

And finally during the adjournment or mourning stageadjournment or mourning stage some members may feel sad because the

group is being terminated.

11.4 GROUP STRUCTURE

Various factors determine group structure.You should be familiar with concepts like

formal leadership, roles, norms, conformity, status, size and composition, since they help

you to understand the structure and functioning of groups.

ACTIVITY 11.4

Study section 11.6 (11.6.1 to 11.6.8) in Bergh and Theron (2009), and then answer the following

questions:

This exercise will take about an hour from your time. Analyse each of the following situations and

identify the aspect of group structure that is at issue. Also indicate what intervention you would

suggest to enhance the structure.

Situation 1:

A manager is having difficulty controlling and disciplining employees because they undermine his

authority. In your interaction with him you discover that he has an overly friendly interpersonal style. As

a result workers do not see him as an authority figure, so they commit all sorts of offences without

worrying about the consequences, since they know that he will always forgive them.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Situation 2:

A female manager believes that she must be no less charismatic than her male peers and behaves

accordingly. Her fellow managers find her behaviour odd. They expect her to do things like pour

everybody's coffee at meetings.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................


IOP1501/1 161

Situation 3:

A manager convinces himself that he need not feel guilty about not attending his son's rugby matchsince he has to work to provide an income for the family.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Situation 4:

A work group in your organisation lacks norms and rules. This causes members to feel unhappy in thegroup because they do not know what is expected of them. Some members have actually left the groupon account of this. In addition there is very little cooperation in the group, with the result that no onereally knows what the others are doing and cannot give satisfactory answers to questions about theirfellow members' work. Because of the limited contact the workers do not know each other well andmisunderstandings are common. Members find it difficult to represent the group at meetings, sincethey do not know what their fellow members expect of them or what they consider important.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Situation 5:

Group members do not listen to the suggestions of one of their fellow members, even though theperson's ideas could offer a solution to their problem. They are all convinced that an alternativesolution should be adopted and are actually aggressive towards this person.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Situation 6:

After the manager of a department had resigned and vacated his office, the department was leftwithout a manager for a while. Employees found it difficult to communicate with top managementbecause they lacked the authority of a head of department. Eventually a new manager, one of thecurrent employees, was appointed but she did not move into her office immediately. While she wasabsent from work the employees decided to move her furniture into the manager's office.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Study unit 11

162

Situation 7:

A project team in your organisation is making no progress. The group consists of 25 members.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Situation 8:

A group of human resource consultants in your department is assigned the task of developing andpresenting a diversity programme. The group consists of two middle-aged white men and a middle-agedwhite woman. Employees show resistance to the programme, although the team members are all verycompetent people.

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK

We think in the following ways. What can you add?

(a) Situation 1:

Here we have a formal leader who has difficulty carrying out his duties. His interpersonal style whendealing with group members could be too friendly, which causes problems when he has to disciplineand control them. It may be necessary to teach him to be more dominant and self-assertive attimes.

(b) Situation 2:

The female employee in this situation has a role perception that requires her to behave in the sameway as her male colleagues. Her male colleagues have more traditional role expectations of her.Probably the males find it difficult to cope with the diversity in the group. Their stereotyping couldundermine the female employee's power and status. The group needs to be sensitised to theeffects of discrepant role expectations.

(c) Situation 3:

This manager is experiencing conflict between his work and family roles and tries to rationalise hisguilt feelings. Possibly he should learn to balance his personal and work roles so that work does notalways come first to the detriment of his responsibilities and authority in his home life.


IOP1501/1 163

(d) Situation 4:

The group should be made aware that norms and rules can enhance and optimise group functioning.They help to ensure the survival of the group and if members know what is expected of them, theymay be less likely to leave the group. Rules about cooperation and coordination would keep membersinformed of each other's activities which would make the work environment and everyone's behaviourmore predictable. Norms governing regular contact and gatherings would give members a chance toget to know each other so that relationships can develop and be maintained. This would reduceinterpersonal conflict. If the group is conscious of its identity and values, members will know whatto do when they have to represent the group.

(e) Situation 5:

The group members may have focused on conformity to the extent that they will not give thisperson a chance to explain the proposal. Although conformity is conducive to security, it candeprive group members of valuable opportunities for growth and development if members are notopen to alternative views.

(f) Situation 6:

The group was worried about their status in relation to other groups in the organisation if theyappeared to be without a manager, so they legitimised their new manager through this behaviour.

(g) Situation 7:

Probably the team is too big. Teams that have to take decisions should preferably have aboutseven members.

(h) Situation 8:

The team's composition shows no diversity and it is unlikely that they will be able to communicatethe idea plausibly to the organisation.

11.5 GROUP PROCESSES

Group dynamics refers to the unconscious motivation of groups.Consultants analysethese dynamics so as to understand group functioning and internal conflict. Behaviouralpatterns that are typical illustrations of group dynamics include dependence, fight orflight, pairing and oneness. All these behaviours are ways in which group members tryto reduce their anxiety.

ACTIVITY 11.5

Study section 11.7 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and then answer the following question.

Have you ever observed group dynamics, as manifested in behavioural patterns, in your work group? Giveexamples. What effect did it have on the group?

Study unit 11

164

Behavioural patterns ofgroup dynamics

Examples in your work group and effects

Dependence

Fight or flight

Pairing

Other aspects like me- and we-ness, anxiety, valence, boundaries, representation, authorisation,leadership, relationship and collectivism also form part of group dynamics (see 11.7.1 in Bergh & Theron,2009).

FEEDBACK

Your examples will be relevant to your situation.

11.6 GROUP DECISIONMAKING TECHNIQUES

Whenever we interact in groups there will be some measure of censor and pressure onindividual members to conform to the group's opinion. The various group decision-making techniques offer some methods for arriving at a solution. The techniques forgroup decisionmaking include: brainstorming, the nominal group technique, the Delphitechnique, SWOTanalysis and electronic meetings. Each technique has its own advan-tages and applications.

ACTIVITY 11.6

Study sections 11.8.1 and 11.8.5 in Bergh and Theron (2009) and then answer the following question,which will take you about 10 minutes.

Evaluate each technique and indicate in what situation you would use it in your work context.

Decisionmakingtechnique

Situations in which it could be used

Brainstorming

Nominal group technique


IOP1501/1 165

Decisionmakingtechnique

Situations in which it could be used

Delphi technique

SWOT analysis

Electronic meetings

FEEDBACK

Your examples will be relevant to your situation. The prescribed book should offer sufficient guidance.

11.7 FACILITATION OF LEARNING IN GROUPS

Facilitation may be defined as the creation of opportunities for growth and developmentin groups, primarily by utilising the group's energy and resources. Facilitators requirecertain personality traits

ACTIVITY 11.7

Evaluate yourself in terms of the personality traits of effective facilitators. Do you think that you meetthe criteria? What could you do to increase your skills?

FEEDBACK

Study section 11.9 in Bergh and Theron (2009) to give you a basis for formulating your answers.

11.8 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE, SOCIALISATION ANDCHANGE

Organisational culture allows employees in the work setting to realise which behavioursare acceptable and unacceptable and those behaviours that would be rewarded orpunished and how these behaviours able to guide us to make decisions or solve

Study unit 11

166

problems.Organisational socialisation brings about further understanding of how allemployees of an organisation share major values and this enables them to make sense ofthe organisation's policies and procedures and lastly organisational change brings aboutan understanding that work settings constantly change and organisations need to changeand adapt to these changes to prolong their survival in the competitive world of work.

ACTIVITY 11.8

Culture does not pop out of thin air, nor does it fade away. We need to understand the aspects thatinfluence the formation of a culture and what causes organisations to change.

Conduct an interview with an employee to inquire about his/her understanding of the:

. culture of the organisation

. the formation of this culture

. how to establish an adaptive culture

. the organisation's socialisation process

. social change in the organisation

FEEDBACK

Study sections 11.10 to 11.12 (including the subsections) in Bergh and Theron (2009) to give you a basisfor formulating your questions for the interview.


Knowledge of group behaviour can be applied to any group process in the work situa-tion. It applies to working with teams and improving their performance to attain higherproductivity. A new concept in this field is `̀ self-directed work teams''. This refers to thefacilitation of learning within the group so that the group can move towards greatermaturity, self-management and productivity. Another applicable concept used in theSouth African context is the Zulu word ubuntu, which literally means `̀humanness''.Ubuntu is a social and spiritual philosophy that serves as a framework for Africansociety. The practice of ubuntu is fundamentally inclusive, involving respect and concernfor all parties concerned (one's family, friends, colleagues, neighbours and the communityat large).Organisations' practising this philosophy take the time to listen to their workercommunities so as to be able to provide the necessary resources to support theirworkers' various needs. Thus, armed with the necessary tools for understanding groupbehaviour, industrial psychologists can enhance the performance of diverse groups andimprove the cohesion of the groups.


IOP1501/1 167

SELF-EVALUATION

To evaluate your learning experience in this study theme, do the assessment activities at the end ofchapter 11 in Bergh and Theron (2009). To give you even more learning opportunity, also answer thefollowing multiple-choice questions.

(1) The purpose of boundary management in groups and organisations is to ...

(a) emphasise authority and position.(b) reduce anxiety.(c) improve relationships.(d) create a feeling of ``we-ness''.

(2) Why are norms important in a group?

(a) They give the group an identity based on shared values.(b) They guide the behaviour of group members.(c) They increase the predictability of group members' behaviour.(d) They provide comfort by reducing potential embarrassing moments.

Questions (3), (4), (5) and (6)

For each of the following statements, select a corresponding decisionmaking technique.

(3) In order to conduct a thorough study of problems experienced by staff members, Company ABCinvited all of its employees to voice their opinions so that a few vocal group members do notdominate the discussions.

(4) During its skills audit Company EFG made use of this decisionmaking technique as a way ofobtaining the opinion of experts without necessarily bringing them together face to face.

(5) The management of Company KLM believes that they would have a better chance at developing thecompetitive advantage if they first identify the fit between the company's strength and upcomingopportunities.

(6) Company XYZ value the creativity of its employees. During discussions every idea is written downand judgments about ideas are saved until later, when the group returns to all of the ideas andselects those that are most useful.

(a) Delphi technique(b) Brainstorming(c) SWOT analysis(d) Nominal technique

(7) You have been appointed as the facilitator of a project team that is responsible for thedevelopment of a new project. You have identified internal disagreement and conflict as majorobstacles to team performance. How would you handle the situation? Would you ...

(a) teach group members how to deal with disagreement themselves and arrange a meeting whereit can be discussed?

Study unit 11

168

(b) give group members a lecture on functional and dysfunctional conflict, and ways to resolveconflict?

(c) assign clear roles to team members to reduce role ambiguity and role conflict?(d) identify the individuals who are responsible for the conflict and give them a ``fatherly'' talk when

the other members are not present?

(8) Organisational ... specifically is a process of obtaining knowledge with regards to values, norms andexpected behavioural patterns required by the job so that the employee can identify with theorganisation.

(a) culture(b) socialisation(c) change(d) adaptiveness

The correct answers to the preceding questions are:

1 (d); 2 (b); 3 (d); 4 (a); 5 (c); 6 (b); 7 (a) and 8 (b).



IOP1501/1 169

APPENDIX 1

EVALUATE YOUR LEARNING EXPERIENCE

You should now be able to evaluate your learning experience of personality in the workcontext as well as how you experienced our presentation of the study material. Pleasecomplete the questionnaire below, cut or tear it out and return it to the address at thebottom of the page. Because we, like you, are learning, we need your feedback!

Please indicate whether the learning material and the method of presentation wereuseful by responding to each statement using the following scale: 1 = not at all; 2 = to aslight extent; 3 = to a fair extent; and 4 = to a great extent.

Scale point

1 The learning activities in the study guide made it easier to understand thestudy material in the prescribed book.

2 I was able to share my learning experiences with other people.

3 I think I am more sensitive to my own and other individuals' and groups'behaviour and practices.

4 The learning experience improved my skills, which I can use to createopportunities for myself or to apply in my work/studies.

5 I have learnt certain decisionmaking and problemsolving skills.

6 The learning experience has helped me to think more critically and creatively.

7 The various methods showed me how to learn more effectively.

8 I sometimes had to work with other individuals or groups in order to learn.

9 I have learnt some basic research skills, such as reading information critically,analysing, evaluating and organising it, and presenting it logically.

10 I had to take responsibility for my own learning, for instance by working at myown pace and discovering for myself in order to grasp concepts and principles.

11 The learning experience has helped me to write more concisely, for instance whenmaking summaries.

170

Scale point

12 The learning methods and the methods and applications of the subject that Ihave experienced have made me more sensitive to other people's behaviour andthe influence of our various environments.

13 The learning experience has broadened my view of things, and I now realise thatwe can understand people in various ways and that people function subject toand along with many other influences.

14 I have a clearer picture of I-O psychology as an occupational field.

Comments

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

NOTE: Please complete the questionnaire and forward it to the:

Course Leader IOP1501, Department of Industrial and OrganisationalPsychology,Unisa, PO Box 392,Unisa, 0003.

APPENDIX 1

IOP1501/1 171

iop 1501 study guide

Documents

learning outcomes

fields of study

key concepts

basic concepts

iiistudy topic

module xvlayout

peoples career development

critical development