IRL 112: ANCESTORS OF CONTEMPORARY

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM

Course Outlinesü Early Human Development

ü Civilisation and its Attributes

ü The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia

ü The Course of Egyptian History

ü The Rise of New Empires: The Assyrian and Persian Empires

ü Early Chinese Civilisations

ü The Greek City-States

ü The Emergence of Rome

ü Renaissance Europe and the Emergence of the State System

Textsü Spielvogel, J.J (2003). World History, Modern Times. United States of America: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.

üKaarbo, J. and Ray, J.L. (2011) Global Politics, Tenth Edition. USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

ü Kegley Jr., C.W. and Blanton, S.L. (2013) World Politics: Trends and Transformation, International Edition. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

ü Cox, M, Dunne, T, and Booth, K (2001). Empires, Systems and States: Great Transformations in International Politics. Review of International Studies, 27, 1-15.

INTRODUCTION“It is important to understand

history in order to understand global politics. Recognising that things happening today have similarly

happened in the past and will likely happen in the future, gives us insight

into why such things happen” –Kaarbo and Ray, 2011:25

Early Stages of Human

Development

Paleolithic

Neolithic

Civilisation

The Paleolithic

Age

ü The term Paleolithic Age is used to designatethe early period of human history in whichhumans used simple stone tools.

ü Paleolithic is Greek for “old stone”, and thePaleolithic Age is sometimes called the OldStone Age.

ü For hundreds of thousands of years, humanbeings lived in small communities, seeking tosurvive by hunting, fishing, and gathering in anoften hostile environment.

ü Over a long period of time, Paleolithic peopleslearned how to create more sophisticated tools;how to use fire; and how to adapt to, and evenchange, their physical environment.

ü Paleolithic peoples were primarily nomads whomoved from place to place hunting animals andgathering wild plants for survival.

ü They also created a human culture that includedsophisticated cave paintings

The Neolithic Revolution

üThe Neolithic Revolution was therevolution that occurred in theNeolithic Age – the period of humanhistory from 8000 to 4000 BC.

ü The word ‘Neolithic’ is Greek for“new stone“. The Neolithic Revolutiontherefore approximates the New StoneAge.

ü The real change in the NeolithicRevolution was the shift from thehunting of animals and thegathering of food to the keeping ofanimals and the growing of foodon a regular basis – this is knownas systematic agriculture.

üThe planting of grains and vegetablesprovided a regular supply of food. Thedomestication of animals added a steadysource of meat, milk, and wool. Animalscould also be used to do work.

ü The growing of crops and thedomestication of animals created whathistorians called an agricultural revolution.Some believe this revolution was the singlemost important development in humanhistory.

ü The growing of crops on a regular basisgave rise to more permanent settlements,which historians call Neolithic farmingvillages. Once people began settling invillages or towns, they saw the need to buildhouses for protection and other structuresfor storage. Organised communities storedfood and other material goods, whichencouraged the development of trade.

ü As village inhabitants mastered the art offarming, they gradually began to developmore complex societies. As their wealthincreased, these societies began to createarmies and to build walled cities. By 3000BC, large numbers of people wereconcentrated in the river valleys ofMesopotamia, Egypt, India and China. Thiswould lead to a whole new pattern forhuman life.

The Emergence of Civilisation

q As we have seen, early human beingsformed small groups that developed asimple culture that enabled them to survive.As human societies grew and became morecomplex, a new form of human existence –called civilisation – came into being.

q A civilisation is a complex culture inwhich large numbers of human beings sharea number of common elements.

Important Characteristics ofCivilisation

1. Cities: As increase in food production in theriver valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India andChina led to significant growth in humanpopulation and the rise of cities.

2. Government: Growing numbers of people,the need to maintain the food supply, and theneed to build walls for defense soon led to thegrowth of governments in these new urbancivilisations.

3. Religion: All of the new urban civilisationsdeveloped religions to explain the workings ofthe forces of nature and then fact of their ownexistence. Rituals were developed to please thegods and goddesses. Temples were built asplaces for worship or sacrifice.

4. Social Structure: A new social structurebased on economic power also arose. Rulers andan upper class of priests, government officials,and warriors dominated the society.

5. Arts and Crafts: Abundant food suppliescreated new opportunities, enabling some peopleto work in occupations other than farming. Thedemand of the upper class for luxury itemsencourage artisans and craftsmen to create newproducts.

6. Writing: Writing was an important feature inthe life of these new civilisations. Above all,rulers, priests, merchants, and artisans usedwriting to keep accurate records.

The City-States of Ancient

Mesopotamia

Describing Mesopotamia…qMesopotamia was then known as the land “betweenthe rivers”.

q It was located in the valley between the Rivers Tigrisand Euphrates.

qMesopotamia was at the eastern end of an area knownas the Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in theMiddle East stretching in a broad semicirclefrom the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates

qMesopotamia had a large scale system of watercontrol – Irrigation and drainage ditches – which made itpossible to grow crops on a regular basis.

q The resulting abundance of food enabled largenumbers of people to live together in cities.

q The first states in Mesopotamia were City-States

A city-state is an autonomous state consisting ofa city with political and economic control oversurrounding territories

q These city-states were created by the Sumerians

q The most prominent building in a Sumerian city-statewas the temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess ofthe city.

Sumerians were the ancient people of Summer – an area in theSouthern region of Babylonia in present-day Iraq. Their owncivilisation was the establishment of city-states. By 3000 BC, theyhad established a number of city-states in Mesopotamia such asEridu, Ur, and Uruk, among others

The Sumerians believed that gods and goddesses owned the cities.The people devoted much of their wealth to building temples, as wellas big houses for the priests and priestesses who served the gods.Priests and priestesses – who supervised the temples – had a greatdeal of power.

q Eventually, however, ruling power passed into thehands of Kings. These kings led armies and organisedworkers for the irrigation projects on whichMesopotamia farming depended.

qAs the number of Sumerian city-states grew andexpanded, new conflicts arose. City-state began to fightcity-state for control of resources – land and water.These city-states were also open to invasion by othergroups.

q To the north of the Sumerian city-states were theAkkadians.

qAround 2340 BC, Sargon – leader of the Akkadians– overran the Sumerian city-states and established thefirst empire in world history (the Akkadian Empire).

qAttacks from neighbouring territories eventually ledto the fall of the Akkadian empire by 2100 BC.

q By 1792 BC, a new empire emerged inMesopotamia

An empire is a large political unit or state, usually under a singleleader, that controls many territories. Empires are often easy to createbut difficult to maintain. The rise and fall of empires is an importantpart of history

q The leadership of the new empire came from Babylon– whereHammurabi was the king.

q Hammurabi – the Babylonian king – gained controlover Sumer and Akkad, thus creating a newMesopotamian kingdom.

qAs ruler, Hammurabi built temples, encouragedtrade, and brought an economic revival to his land. Afterhis death in 1750 BC, the empire fell to new invaders.

The Code of Hammurabiq Hammurabi is remembered for his law code, acollection of 282 laws. Many of the codes were similarto later Israelite codes.

q The code of Hammurabi was based on a system ofstrict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were severe,and they varied according to the social class of thevictim. A crime against a member of the upper class (anoble) by a member of the lower class (a commoner)was punished more severely

q The principle of retaliation or retribution (an eye foran eye, tooth for a tooth) was a fundamental part ofthis system of justice.

q Some aspects of the code are provided below:

ü Consumer Protection: Builders were held responsiblefor the buildings they constructed. If a house collapsed andcaused the death of the owner, the builder was put to death.If the collapse caused the death of the son of the owner, theson of the builder was put to death. If goods weredestroyed, they had to be replaced and the house rebuilt atthe builder’s expense.

ü Marriage: Parents arranged marriages for their children.After marriage, the two parties signed a marriage contract.Without a contract, no one was considered legally married.

ü Family: Because the Mesopotamian society waspatriarchal, the men dominated the family. Women had farfewer privileges and rights than did men.

A woman’s place was in the home, if she failedto fulfil her duties, her husband had legalgrounds for divorce. If a wife was not able tobear children, her husband could divorce her.

If a son struck his father, he shall cut off hishand. If a son committed a serious enoughoffense, his father could disinherit him.

ü Highway Robbery: If a man committed highwayrobbery and was caught, the man was put to death.However, if the robber was not caught, the victim shallstate on oath what he lost and the city or districtgovernor in whose territory or district the robbery tookplace shall restore to him what he lost.

The Course of Egyptian History

Describing Egypt…q Before the Nile – the longest river in the world –empties into the Mediterranean, it splits into two majorbranches. This split forms a triangular territory – thedelta.

qWhile the Nile Delta is called Lower Egypt, the landupstream – to the south – is called Upper Egypt.

q Egypt’s important cities developed at the tip of thedelta – the point at which the Nile divides.

q Egyptian history can be divided into three majorperiods: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and theNew Kingdom. These were periods of long-term stabilitymarked by:

§ Strong leadership;

§ Freedom from invasion;

§ The building of temples and pyramids; and

§ Considerable intellectual and cultural activity.

q The history of Egypt began around 3100 BC whenMenes – the King – united the villages of Upper andLower Egypt into a single kingdom and created the firstEgyptian royal dynasty. A dynasty is a family of rulerswhose right to rule is passed on within the family

The Old Kingdomq The Old Kingdom – which lasted from around 2700to 2200 BC – was an age of prosperity and splendour.

q Like the Kings of the Sumerian city-states, themonarchs of the Old Egyptian Kingdom were powerfulrulers over a unified state.

qAmong the various titles of Egyptian monarchs, thatof Pharaoh eventually became the most common

q Kingship was a divine institution in ancient Egypt andformed part of a universal cosmic order. The King inAncient Egypt was a god by whose dealings one lived, thefather and mother of all men, alone by himself, without anequal. In obeying Pharaoh, subjects believed that they werehelping to maintain a stable world order.

q One of the great achievements of Egyptian civilisation –the building of pyramids – occurred in the time of theOld Kingdom

§ Pyramids were built as part of a larger complex ofbuildings described as royal tombs

§ The area included several structures: a largepyramid for Pharaoh’s burial; smaller pyramids formembers of his family etc.

§ Pyramids were tombs for the mummified bodies ofPharaohs and their families.

§ The largest and most magnificent of all the pyramidswas built under King Khufu. This pyramid –constructed in Giza around 2540 BC – covers 13acres, measures 756 feet at each side of its base, andstands 481 feet high. Guarding the Great Pyramid atGiza is a huge statue carved from rock

The Middle Kingdomq The collapse of the Old Kingdom was followed by aperiod of chaos that lasted about 150 years.

q Eventually, a new royal dynasty gained control of allEgypt and began the Middle Kingdom.

q The Middle Kingdom was a period of stability lastingfrom about 2050 to 1652 BC. Egyptians later portrayedthe Middle Kingdom as a golden age – an age ofstability.

q One feature of the Middle Kingdom was a newconcern of the Pharaohs for the people. Pharaohsof the Middle Kingdom undertook a number ofhelpful projects:

§ The draining of swampland in the Nile Deltaprovided thousands of acres of new farmland;

§ The digging of a canal to connect the Nile tothe Red Sea aided trade and transportation.

The New Kingdomq The Middle Kingdom came to an end around 1652BC with the invasion of Egypt by a group of peoplefrom Western Asia known to the Egyptians as Hyksos.The Hyksos used horse-drawn war chariots andoverwhelmed the Egyptian soldiers who fought fromdonkey carts.

q Eventually, a new dynasty of Pharaohs developedweapons using bronze and mastered the military skill ofusing horse-drawn war chariots.

q Through the use of these new weapons, they wereable to drive out the Hyksos and reunite Egypt,leading to the establishment of the New Kingdom.

q The New Kingdom was established and lasted fromapproximately 1567 to 1085 BC.

q The reunification of Egypt launched the Egyptiansalong a new militaristic path. During this period,Egypt created an empire and became the mostpowerful state in Southwest Asia.

qMassive wealth boosted the power of the NewKingdom Pharaohs. The Egyptian rulers showedtheir wealth by building new temples. The firstwoman to become Pharaoh built a great temple atDeir el Bahri, near Thebes.

q However, the New Kingdom was not withouttroubles. It collapsed in 1085 BC after new invasionsby the “Sea Peoples”, as Egyptians called them.

Society in Ancient Egypt

q Over a period of thousand of years, Egyptiansociety maintained a simple structure.

q The society was organised like a pyramid, withthe god-king at the top. The Pharaoh was surroundedby an upper class of nobles and priests. Themembers of this ruling class ran the government andmanaged their own landed estates.

q Below the upper class were merchants,artisans, scribes, and tax collectors. Merchantscarried on an active trade up and down the Nile,as well as in town and village markets. Egyptianartisans made an incredible variety of well-builtand beautiful goods such as stone dishes, paintedboxes, wooden furniture, linen clothes, gold,silver and copper tools and containers.

q By far, the largest number of people in Egypt simplyworked the land. In theory, Pharaoh owned all the landbut granted portions of it to the subjects. Most of thelower classes were peasants who farmed the land ofthese estates:

§ They paid taxes in the form of crops to Pharaoh,nobles, and priests.

§ They lived in small villages or towns

§ They provided military service and forced labourfor building projects.

Early Chinese

Civilisations

q Of the great civilisations discussed so far,China was the last to come into full flower. By thetime the first Chinese dynasty began to emerge asan organised state, the societies in Mesopotamia,Egypt and India had already reached an advancedlevel of civilisation.

q One likely reason for China’s late arrival wasits isolation from the emerging centres of cultureelsewhere in the world. Basically, China wasforced to develop on its own.

Government in old China was organised along dynasties(a sequence of powerful leaders in the same family).These dynasties included:

q The Shang Dynasty

q The Zhou Dynasty

q The Qin Dynasty

q The Han Dynasty

Government in Old China

q The Shang Dynasty

§ The Shang dynasty was in power between1750 to 1122 BC (roughly from the 18th to the12th centuries BC).

§ The dynasty created the first flourishingChinese civilisation. Under the Shang, Chinadeveloped organised government, a system ofwriting, and advanced skills in the making ofbronze vessels.

§ Under the Shang, the Chinese believed theycould communicate with supernatural forces toobtain help in worldly affairs. To do so, theymade use of oracles. They often confrontedthe oracles with questions such as

•Will the King be victorious in battle?

•Will the King recover from his illness?

q The Zhou Dynasty§ The Zhou dynasty was in power between1122 to 221 BC (it lasted for almost 800years).

§ Under the Zhou, China began to adopt manyof the features that characterised Chinesecivilisation for centuries.

§ One of these features was the Mandate ofHeaven.

§ The Zhou dynasty claimed that it ruledChina because it possessed the Mandate ofHeaven. It was believed that Heaven kept andmaintained order in the universe through theZhou King. Thus, he ruled over all humanityby a mandate, or authority to command, fromHeaven. The King who was chosen to rulebecause of his talent and virtue, was thenresponsible for ruling the people withgoodness and efficiency.

§ The Mandate of Heaven was however double-edged. The King was expected to ruleeffectively and efficiently. It was his duty toalways please the gods in order to protect thepeople from natural disasters or bad harvests. Ifthe King failed to rule effectively, he could beoverthrown and replaced by another ruler.

§ The dynasty eventually collapsed around 221BC and a new dynasty took over, beginninganother dynastic cycle.

q The Qin Dynasty§ The collapse of the Zhou dynasty led to aperiod of civil war which left China divided.

§A new dynasty, known as the Qin, thencreated an era of Chinese unity. The Qindynasty was founded by Qin Shihuangdi. Thedynasty was in power from 246 to 206 BC.

§ In order to protect China, the Qin King embarkedon the project of building the Great Wall. These wallswere constructed of loose stone, sand, or piledrubble.

§ The building of the Walls required the efforts ofthousands of labourers. Many of them died whileworking there and were buried within the Wall.

§ Although only a few of the Walls remain standingtoday, the Walls enabled the Qin Emperor to fight offthe threats of the nomads.

q The Han Dynasty§ The Han dynasty established an empire thatlasted over 400 years (from 206 BC to 220AD).

§ China, under the Han dynasty, was a vastempire. The population increased rapidly – bysome estimates rising from about 20 million toover 60 million at the height of the dynasty.

§ The large population created a growing needfor a bigger and more efficient bureaucracy tokeep the state in proper working order.

§ During the glorious years of the Handynasty, China extended the boundaries of itsempire far into the sands of central Asia andsouthward along the coast of the South ChinaSea into what is modern day Vietnam.