is gender socially constructed or is it something that we do? lecture 2

Is gender socially Is gender socially constructed or is it constructed or is it something that we something that we

‘do’?‘do’?

lecture 2lecture 2

last week … summarylast week … summary

historical studies – e.g. medical textshistorical studies – e.g. medical texts

more similarities than differences more similarities than differences between men and women?between men and women?

why focus on differences?why focus on differences?

the ‘sexes’ may not be as distinct as the ‘sexes’ may not be as distinct as we might think – ‘five sexes’?we might think – ‘five sexes’?

continued …continued … idea of biological ‘facts’ as determining idea of biological ‘facts’ as determining

behaviour recentbehaviour recent

debates about what ‘really’ defines sexdebates about what ‘really’ defines sex

see examples and discussions about intersex see examples and discussions about intersex case studies in:case studies in:

Kessler & McKenna (1978); Butler (1990); Kessler & McKenna (1978); Butler (1990); Harrison & Hood-Williams (2002); Garfinkel Harrison & Hood-Williams (2002); Garfinkel

(1967) and Hird (2000)(1967) and Hird (2000)

intersex cases can help us understand intersex cases can help us understand gender as a constant achievement – is gender as a constant achievement – is

gender something we ‘do’? gender something we ‘do’?

lecture outline (1)lecture outline (1) ‘‘gender’ as a termgender’ as a term

social construction of gender and gender social construction of gender and gender socialisationsocialisation

critique of ‘essentialism’critique of ‘essentialism’

problems with sex-gender distinction?problems with sex-gender distinction?

constructing masculinities (Connell)constructing masculinities (Connell)

lecture outline (2)lecture outline (2)

crisis in gender order? (Connell)crisis in gender order? (Connell)

gender display? (Goffman)gender display? (Goffman)

‘‘doing’ gender? (West & Zimmerman)doing’ gender? (West & Zimmerman)

‘‘gender attribution’ (Kessler & gender attribution’ (Kessler & McKenna)McKenna)

summarysummary

‘‘gender’gender’ Gatens in Gunew 1991; Oakley 1997; Jackson Gatens in Gunew 1991; Oakley 1997; Jackson

in Jackson & Jones 1998in Jackson & Jones 1998

Freud (1905) & psychological Freud (1905) & psychological research 1930sresearch 1930s

Robert Stoller published Robert Stoller published ‘Sex and ‘Sex and Gender’Gender’ in 1968 in 1968

hermaphrodite/ adrenogenital hermaphrodite/ adrenogenital syndromesyndrome

social construction of social construction of gender (1)gender (1)

Jackson in Jackson & Jones 1998; Pilcher & Jackson in Jackson & Jones 1998; Pilcher & Whelehan 2004Whelehan 2004

‘‘gender’ and ‘sex’ commonly gender’ and ‘sex’ commonly used by feminists 1970sused by feminists 1970s

e.g. Ann Oakley (1972)e.g. Ann Oakley (1972)

‘‘Sex, Gender and Society’Sex, Gender and Society’

gender stereotypesgender stereotypes

gender stereotypes e.g.gender stereotypes e.g.

MasculinityMasculinity

assertiveassertive

rationalrational

strongstrong

activeactive

competitivecompetitive

unemotionalunemotional

(culture)(culture)

FemininityFemininity

submissivesubmissive

intuitiveintuitive

weakweak

passivepassive

cooperativecooperative

emotionalemotional

(nature)(nature)

gender: power and gender: power and inequalityinequality

not just about differencesnot just about differences

hierarchically organised and valuedhierarchically organised and valued

e.g. men and masculinity privileged e.g. men and masculinity privileged over women and femininity?over women and femininity?

POWER and INEQUALITY?POWER and INEQUALITY?(‘patriarchy’)(‘patriarchy’)

Simone de Beauvoir (1949: Simone de Beauvoir (1949: 295)295)

‘‘One is not born, but rather One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’ becomes, a woman’

gender differences in gender differences in hierarchical opposition – women hierarchical opposition – women

as ‘Other’ ?as ‘Other’ ?

feminists challenge the idea feminists challenge the idea that ‘biology is destiny’that ‘biology is destiny’


gender learned through socialisationgender learned through socialisation(Oakley: 174-176) – 4 processes(Oakley: 174-176) – 4 processes

1. 1. manipulationmanipulation- e.g. fuss over appearance- e.g. fuss over appearance2. 2. canalisationcanalisation – e.g. sex-typed objects - – e.g. sex-typed objects -

toystoys3. 3. verbal appellationverbal appellation – e.g. ‘bad boy’ – e.g. ‘bad boy’ 4. 4. activity exposureactivity exposure – e.g. domestic chores – e.g. domestic chores

operates through social institutionsoperates through social institutionse.g. school, work, especially the ‘family’e.g. school, work, especially the ‘family’


Jackson in Jackson & Jones 1998; Howson Jackson in Jackson & Jones 1998; Howson 20042004

critique of ‘essentialism’critique of ‘essentialism’

disputes that social roles disputes that social roles naturally determined and fixed naturally determined and fixed

masculinity and femininity masculinity and femininity historically and culturally variablehistorically and culturally variable

e.g. Mead; and ‘berdache’e.g. Mead; and ‘berdache’

‘‘problematising the sex-gender problematising the sex-gender distinction’distinction’

Jackson 1998; Gatens 1991; Butler 1990; Harrison Jackson 1998; Gatens 1991; Butler 1990; Harrison & Hood-Williams 2002; Howson 2004& Hood-Williams 2002; Howson 2004

assume ‘sex’ is biological and ahistorical?assume ‘sex’ is biological and ahistorical?

gender ‘mapped’ onto neutral bodies?gender ‘mapped’ onto neutral bodies?

does female = feminine/male = masculine?does female = feminine/male = masculine?

role of the body in the social construction role of the body in the social construction of gender – disrupt and /or maintain of gender – disrupt and /or maintain boundaries between femininity and boundaries between femininity and

masculinity?masculinity?

constructing masculinities? constructing masculinities? (1)(1)

Connell 1987, 1995; Pilcher & Whelehan 2004; Connell 1987, 1995; Pilcher & Whelehan 2004; Howson 2004Howson 2004 since 1980s research into this areasince 1980s research into this area

‘‘gender as a structure of social practice’ – gender as a structure of social practice’ – ‘gender projects’ ‘gender projects’

masculinity constructed in relation to what masculinity constructed in relation to what it is not, especially but not only femininityit is not, especially but not only femininity

life course, discourses and institutions – life course, discourses and institutions – intersect?intersect?

constructing masculinities? constructing masculinities? (2)(2)

Connell 1987, 1995; Pilcher & Whelehan 2004; Connell 1987, 1995; Pilcher & Whelehan 2004; Howson 2004Howson 2004 hierarchy of masculinities (and femininities) hierarchy of masculinities (and femininities)

hegemonic masculinity - dominant cultural hegemonic masculinity - dominant cultural idealideal

complicit masculinity – gain advantages complicit masculinity – gain advantages from cultural idealfrom cultural ideal

subordinated masculinity – homosexual mensubordinated masculinity – homosexual men

femininities – bottom of the gender femininities – bottom of the gender hierarchyhierarchy

‘‘crisis tendencies’ in current crisis tendencies’ in current gender order?gender order?

Connell 1995Connell 1995 challenges to hegemonic masculinity?challenges to hegemonic masculinity?

- unemployed working class young men – ‘breadwinner’- unemployed working class young men – ‘breadwinner’

- middle class – new technical occupations – lack authority- middle class – new technical occupations – lack authority

- men in the environmental movement – pro-feminist- men in the environmental movement – pro-feminist

- gay men – not heterosexual- gay men – not heterosexual

gender display (1)gender display (1)Goffman 1979: Harrison & Hood-Williams 2002; Goffman 1979: Harrison & Hood-Williams 2002;

West Zimmerman 1998[1987]; Smith 1996 West Zimmerman 1998[1987]; Smith 1996

body idiombody idiom

‘‘if gender be defined as the culturally if gender be defined as the culturally established correlates of sex established correlates of sex

(whether in consequence of biology (whether in consequence of biology or learning), then gender display or learning), then gender display

refers to conventionalized portrayals refers to conventionalized portrayals of these correlates’of these correlates’

(Goffman 1979: 1)(Goffman 1979: 1)

gender display (2)gender display (2)Goffman 1979: Harrison & Hood-Williams Goffman 1979: Harrison & Hood-Williams

2002; West Zimmerman 1998 [1987]; Smith 2002; West Zimmerman 1998 [1987]; Smith 19961996

gender is not a reflection of ‘essential gender is not a reflection of ‘essential nature’ but is made to appear so? nature’ but is made to appear so?

gender differentiation – produced and gender differentiation – produced and reproduced in interaction?reproduced in interaction?

enact culturally appropriate idealised enact culturally appropriate idealised performances of femininity and performances of femininity and

masculinity?masculinity?

gender socially scripted?gender socially scripted?

‘‘doing’ gender? (1)doing’ gender? (1)West & Zimmerman 1998 [1987]; Garfinkel West & Zimmerman 1998 [1987]; Garfinkel

1967; Kessler & McKenna 19781967; Kessler & McKenna 1978

critical of Goffman – for them critical of Goffman – for them gender is a routine ‘done’ in gender is a routine ‘done’ in

everyday interactioneveryday interaction

ethnomethodological approachethnomethodological approach

‘ ‘gender as an accomplishment’ – gender as an accomplishment’ – and situated doing?and situated doing?


1967; Kessler & McKenna 19781967; Kessler & McKenna 1978

need to distinguish between:need to distinguish between:

‘‘sex’sex’ (biological criteria) – can’t see (biological criteria) – can’t see

‘‘sex category’sex category’ – (what classified as) – (what classified as)

– – look the partlook the part

‘‘gender’gender’ – (how manage classification) – (how manage classification) – acting the part– acting the part

‘‘doing’ gender(3)doing’ gender(3)see e.g.see e.g. Kessler and McKenna (1978)Kessler and McKenna (1978)

‘‘gender construction in everyday gender construction in everyday life: transsexualism’life: transsexualism’

‘‘natural attitude’ in terms of gendernatural attitude’ in terms of gender

‘‘gender attribution’gender attribution’

genitals – ‘essential sign’?genitals – ‘essential sign’?


1967; Kessler & McKenna 1978; Tyler & 1967; Kessler & McKenna 1978; Tyler & Abbott 1998Abbott 1998

refer to ‘Agnes’ – ‘passing’?refer to ‘Agnes’ – ‘passing’?

‘‘sex category’ and ‘gender’ are sex category’ and ‘gender’ are ‘managed properties’?‘managed properties’?

gender assessment – accountabilitygender assessment – accountability

e.g. female flight attendants ‘doing’ e.g. female flight attendants ‘doing’ gender – weight, make-up, ‘emotional gender – weight, make-up, ‘emotional

labour’ labour’

summary (1)summary (1)

socialisation – emphasis on nurture socialisation – emphasis on nurture not naturenot nature

what happens to bodies?what happens to bodies?

contradictory gender meanings?contradictory gender meanings?

how does diversity amongst how does diversity amongst women/men occur? – Connell tries to women/men occur? – Connell tries to

account for these?account for these?

summary (2)summary (2) gender display – do we follow ‘scripts’?gender display – do we follow ‘scripts’?

is gender something we ‘do’?is gender something we ‘do’?

is it simply a display in interaction?is it simply a display in interaction?

does it involve work? – more for women?does it involve work? – more for women?

how do we know the routine? how do we know the routine? conscious?conscious?

is it possible is it possible notnot to ‘do’ gender? to ‘do’ gender?

next week …next week …

outline key theoretical outline key theoretical approaches to understanding approaches to understanding

gender.gender.

map the theoretical shift map the theoretical shift from from materialmaterial aspects of aspects of

gender to gender to cultural cultural representations of genderrepresentations of gender

is gender socially constructed or is it something that we do? lecture 2

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