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IS8004

Seminar 1:Introduction and the Road Ahead

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Topics

1. Introduction to Research Methods in IS and Associated Issues. 2. Types of Qualitative Data (Sources) and Analytical Techniques3. Dissection of a Typical Qualitative Research Paper4. Proposal Development5. Focus on Methods 1: Issues in the Field6. Focus on Methods 2: Case Study7. Focus on Methods 3: Ethnography8. Focus on Methods 4: Canonical Action Research9. Theory and Qualitative Research (Guest speaker?)10. Mixing Methods, Data Sources and Epistemologies11. Planning & Writing Qualitative Research12. Reviewing and Presenting Qualitative Research 13. Presenting Research Proposals

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AssessmentIn-class Participation – 40%– This is not an attendance mark. You need to

participate actively.

In-class Critical Analysis – 30%– Each of you will need to present a critical analysis of

one Qualitative Research paper towards the end of the semester

Proposal Development – 30%– Each of you will need to develop and present a

research proposal that involves qualitative data

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Expectations

Learning attitude– I do expect that you will read set readings before class, so

that you come prepared– I do expect that you will participate actively in classes. There

are very few “correct” answers. There are many possibilities. You will learn more if you participate.

Attendance– It is advisable. If you can’t come, please email me in advance

to let me know – and give a good justification.

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Research and MethodsIn order to tackle a research problem it is conventional to apply a method.A method is simply a way of doing something.There are many methods, and each has a prescribed set of rules about how it should be applied.There is no one ‘best’ method. Each method is appropriate for different situations. Sometimes, methods can be applied in combination.Just as important as the method is the researcher – who applies the method.

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The Research Process

In undertaking research, we attempt to:– Plan our designs in a realistic way– Measure things in a precise way– Generalize our findings in a useful way

However, realism, precision and generalization are to some extent opposed to each other and so doing all three is considered to be impossibleThis is known as the three-horned dilemma

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For Instance

Experiments (in the lab)– Have very weak realism and generalizability– But very strong control and precision in measurement

Field studies– Are high on realism, often not high on generalizability– And very low on control / precision

Surveys– Are less realistic, more generalizable, moderately

precise, have poor control

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Research and MethodsMethods can be classified according to the:– Type of data

• Quantitative or Qualitative– Type of data analysis

• Coding, Hermeneutic, Grounded, Metaphorical,…– Epistemology

• Positivist, Interpretivist, Critical– Role of researcher

• Observer, Intervener

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Types of Data

Quantitative (numerical) Data – Objective data, e.g. $, £, %, n

• Used to describe specific objective measures, e.g. of individual or organisational performance

– Subjective data, e.g. SA = 1, 31/100• Used to describe subjective perceptions of situations

– Transformative data, e.g. Σ, σ, x+y• Used in statistics so as to calculate results – for later

further analysis.

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Types of DataQualitative– Interviews

• Un/Semi-structured; Telephone, IM, Face-to-Face– Notes and observations

• Text, Audio or Video; Researcher– Diaries

• Data Subject; Confessional– Documents

• Usually organisation; Text, Audio or Video; Paper, Web– User-generated data

• Data Subject; Text, Audio or Video– Emails/SMS/IM/Wiki - logs

• Researcher and Data Subject(s)

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Data Coding

Organising data so that it can be analysedLooking for patterns in data– Thematic– Metaphorical

So as to identify theoretical constructs, as well as practical examples to illustrate existing theory.

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MetaphorThe concept of understanding one thing in terms of another. – This system is a dinosaur!– The system is full of rubbish– The system died, hung, flopped, etc.– Shoot the competition! Killer apps– Fly High with Business Knowledge– We should embrace IT– This function is a cornerstone of the programme– Our employees are immersed in an IT training course

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Themes

Organising (e.g. interview) data according to patterns or themes that can be identifiedHigh-level (Meta) themes, labels, concepts

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Grounded Theory… is a research method that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed.  … is "an inductive theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data." (Martin & Turner, 1986)

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Epistemology – Positivism

Positivism is premised on the scientific method as the best way to understand processes– It relies on observable, empirical and measurable

evidence– Data is collected through observation and

experimentation; – Hypotheses are formulated and tested with that data– The method is as objective as possible, to reduce bias– Description, control and prediction are key tenets– Context is often disregarded – except in the limitations

section

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Epistemology - InterpretivismAll actions occur in a social context– This context includes language, culture, shared

meanings– Interpretive studies generally attempt to understand phenomena

through the meanings that people assign to them and interpretive methods of research in IS are "aimed at producing an understanding of the context of the information system, and the process whereby the information system influences and is influenced by the context" (Walsham 1993, p. 4-5).

– Interpretive research does not predefine dependent and independent variables, but focuses on the full complexity of human sensemaking as the situation emerges (Kaplan and Maxwell, 1994).

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Epistemology - CriticalCritical researchers assume that social reality is historically constituted.Although people can consciously act to change their social and economic circumstances, critical researchers recognize that their ability to do so is constrained by various forms of social, cultural and political domination. The main task of critical research is seen as being one of social critique, whereby the restrictive conditions of the status quo are brought to light. Critical research focuses on the oppositions, conflicts and contradictions in contemporary society, and seeks to be emancipatory.

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Role of the ResearcherObserver– Someone who watches and measures

• Case studies, Ethnography– Someone who designs and measures

• Experiment, Survey

Intervenor– Someone who changes and measures

• Action Research

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Case StudyA case study is an empirical inquiry that:– investigates a contemporary phenomenon

within its real-life context, especially when– the boundaries between phenomenon and

context are not clearly evident (Yin, 2003)

The case study is the most common form of qualitative research method in IS – as well as other disciplines

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EthnographyAn ethnographer is required to spend a significant amount of time in the field.Ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they study and seek to place the phenomena studied in their social and cultural context.Ethnographies are used to study the development of systems and work practices/processes.Cyber-ethnographies do the same thing in online environments

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Action ResearchCanonical AR involves the combination of theory and practice “through change and reflection in an immediate problematic situation within a mutually acceptable ethical framework” (Avison et al. 1999), with the dual intention of improving practice and contributing to theory and knowledge both within and beyond the immediate confines of the project (cf. Eden and Huxham, 1996).

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MixingEach of the above sources of data, types of analysis, methods, etc. can be mixed with othersOften, mixing enables one to gain a richer understanding of a phenomenonBut be careful not to violate each method’s principles and criteriaMake sure you represent each consistently– Venkatesh (MISQ)

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Rigour and RelevanceGood research needs to aim to satisfy both.Relevance– For whom is the research relevant and why?– Overly controlled or artificial research may not

have high levels of relevance– The ‘audience’ of the research is a key

stakeholder for relevance, notably including any organisations or managers who can actively use the research outcomes

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RigourSometimes this is assumed to mean ‘positivist’ or ‘scientific’ research.Actually, rigour simply means ‘exactness’ and ‘strict precision’Benbasat/Zmud define rigour as “the correct use of methods and analyses appropriate to the tasks at hand”

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Theory“There is nothing so practical as a good theory”! (Lewin, 1945)“There is nothing so dangerous as a bad theory”! (Ghoshal, 2005)So, clearly we have to handle theory very carefully.We have a dangerous fetish for theory!– Hambrick, 2007; Avison and Malaurent, 2014.

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The Purpose of Theory?

To provide prescriptions to be followed in practiceTo represent how concepts interact (e.g. IT, people, organisations)To explain how different concepts are related and then to create testable hypothesesTo make sense of the world.Universal statements designed as nets in which to catch the world and master it. (Popper)

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Types of Theory

Analysis and Description – What it is. No causality. No prediction.

Explanation – What, how, when, why, where. No prediction or testable

propositions.Prediction– What is and what will be. Testable propositions, but not

causal explanationsDesign and Action– How to do. Explicit prescriptions (methods, techniques)

for actionGregor, MISQ, 2006

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Examples of Theories Used in IS Research

Absoprtive capacityActor networkAdaptive structurationAgencyBehavioural decisionChaosCognitive dissonanceCognitive fitEtc.

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InComplete ListAbsorptive capacity theoryActor network theoryAdaptive structuration theoryAdministrative behavior, theory ofAgency theoryArgumentation theoryBehavioral decision theoryBoundary object theoryChaos theoryCognitive dissonance theoryCognitive fit theoryCognitive load theoryCompetitive strategy (Porter)Complexity theoryContingency theoryCritical realism theoryCritical social theoryCritical success factors, theory ofDeferred action, theory ofDelone and McLean IS success modelDiffusion of innovations theoryDynamic capabilities

Embodied social presence theoryEquity theoryEvolutionary theoryExpectation confirmation theoryFeminism theoryFit-Viability theoryFlow theoryGame theoryGarbage can theoryGeneral systems theoryGeneral deterrence theoryHermeneuticsIllusion of controlImpression management, theory ofInformation processing theoryInstitutional theoryInternational information systems theoryKnowledge-based theory of the firmLanguage action perspectiveLemon Market TheoryManagement fashion theoryMedia richness theory

Media synchronicity theory

Modal aspects, theory of

Multi-attribute utility theory

Organizational culture theory

Organizational information processing theory

Organizational knowledge creation

Organizational learning theory

Portfolio theory

Process virtualization theory

Prospect theory

Punctuated equilibrium theory

Real options theory

Resource-based view of the firm

Resource dependency theory

Self-efficacy theory

SERVQUAL

Social capital theory

Social cognitive theory

Social exchange theory

Social learning theory

Social network theory

Social shaping of technology

Socio-technical theory

Soft systems theory

Stakeholder theory

Structuration theory

Task closure theory

Task-technology fit

Technological frames of reference

Technology acceptance model

Technology dominance, theory of

Technology-organization-environment framework

Theory of planned behavior

Theory of reasoned action

Transaction cost economics

Transactive memory theory

Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology

Usage control model

Work systems theory

Yield shift theory of satisfaction

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Discussion Questions

In which situations do you think a qualitative method might be most practical or useful?– Be as specific as possible. Justify why you think so.

Why is a good theory practical and why is a bad theory dangerous?Is it a problem that we have a fetish for theory?Can theory-light research ever be good research?

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References 1

Avison, D.E., Lau, F., Myers, M. and Nielsen, P.A. (1999) "Action Research", Communications of the ACM, 42, 1, 94-97.

Avison, D.E. and Malaurent, J. (2014) Is Theory King? Questioning the Theory Fetish in Information Systems, Journal of IT, 29, 4, 327-336.

Eden, C. and Huxham, C. (1996) Action Research for Management Research, British Journal of Management, 7, 1, 75-86.

Ghoshal, S. (2005) Bad Management Theories are Destroying Good Management Practices, Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4, 1, 75-91.

Gregor, S. (2006) The Nature of Theory in Information Systems, MIS Quarterly 30(3): 611-642.Hambrick, D. (2007). The Field of Management’s Devotion to Theory: Too much of a good thing?

Academy of Management Journal 50(6): 1346–1352.Kaplan, B. and Maxwell, J.A. "Qualitative Research Methods for Evaluating Computer Information

Systems," inEvaluating Health Care Information Systems: Methods and Applications, J.G. Anderson, C.E. Aydin and S.J. Jay (eds.), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994, pp. 45-68.

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References 2

Klein & Myers (1999) A Set of Principles for Conducting and Evaluating Interpretive Field Studies in IS, MISQ, 23, 1, 67-94.

Lewin, K. (1945) The Research Centre for Group Dynamics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sociometry, 8, 126-135.

Martin, P.Y. and B.A. Turner. "Grounded Theory and Organizational Research," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, (22:2), 1986, pp. 141-157.

Venkatesh, V., Brown, S. and Bala, H. (2013) Bridging the Qualitative-Quantitative Divide: Guidelines for Conducting Mixed Methods Research in Information Systems, MISQ, 37, 1, 21-54.

Walsham, G. (1993) Interpreting Information Systems in Organisations, Wiley: Chichester.

Yin, R.K. (2003) Case Study Research, Design and Methods, Sage Publications