ISLAMISLAM

H101 BrackettH101 Brackett

ISLAM: EMPIRE OF FAITHISLAM: EMPIRE OF FAITH

► For Muslims, God is unique and without equal. For Muslims, God is unique and without equal. They attempt to think and talk about God They attempt to think and talk about God without either making Him into a thing or a without either making Him into a thing or a projection of the human self. The Koran avoids projection of the human self. The Koran avoids this by constantly shifting pronouns to this by constantly shifting pronouns to discourage believers from inadvertently discourage believers from inadvertently reifying God and creating any physical image reifying God and creating any physical image of Him.of Him.

► God is known in Arabic as God is known in Arabic as AllahAllah to distinguish to distinguish Him from Him from ilahilah, which could refer to any of the , which could refer to any of the gods once worshiped in Arabia gods once worshiped in Arabia

The Five Pillars of FaithThe Five Pillars of Faith► In contrast to many other religions, the basic practice of Islam is In contrast to many other religions, the basic practice of Islam is

simplicity itself. The believer worships God directly without the simplicity itself. The believer worships God directly without the intercession of priests or clergy or saints. The believer's duties are intercession of priests or clergy or saints. The believer's duties are summed up in five simple rules, the so-called Five Pillars of Islam: summed up in five simple rules, the so-called Five Pillars of Islam:

► Belief-"There is no god but God and that Muhammad is His Belief-"There is no god but God and that Muhammad is His messenger." This phrase, known as the messenger." This phrase, known as the shahadashahada, (sha-HEH-da) or , (sha-HEH-da) or Profession of Faith, is central to Islam, for it affirms both God's Profession of Faith, is central to Islam, for it affirms both God's oneness and the central role of the Prophet. oneness and the central role of the Prophet.

► Worship- worship God five times a day — at dawn, noon, mid-Worship- worship God five times a day — at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and nightfall. All male believers are enjoined to afternoon, sunset, and nightfall. All male believers are enjoined to gather together on Friday for the noon prayer and listen to a gather together on Friday for the noon prayer and listen to a sermon, called a sermon, called a khutbakhutba in Arabic, by the leader of the community. in Arabic, by the leader of the community.

► Fasting- abstain from food, drink, smoking, and sex, between Fasting- abstain from food, drink, smoking, and sex, between sunrise and sunset during the month of sunrise and sunset during the month of RamadanRamadan, the ninth month , the ninth month in the Muslim calendar. in the Muslim calendar.

► Almsgiving- Muslims are supposed to donate a fixed amount of Almsgiving- Muslims are supposed to donate a fixed amount of their property to charity every year their property to charity every year

► Pilgrimage-to Mecca at least once in one's lifetime, if one is able, Pilgrimage-to Mecca at least once in one's lifetime, if one is able, during the first days of during the first days of Dhu'l-HijjaDhu'l-Hijja, the twelfth month of the Muslim , the twelfth month of the Muslim calendar. calendar.

The KoranThe Koran► The two foundations of Muslim faith are God's The two foundations of Muslim faith are God's

revelations to Muhammad, known as the revelations to Muhammad, known as the KoranKoran, from , from the Arabic word the Arabic word Qur'anQur'an, or "recitation"; and the reports , or "recitation"; and the reports about Muhammad's life and deeds, which are known as about Muhammad's life and deeds, which are known as the the hadithhadith, from the Arabic word for "report." The , from the Arabic word for "report." The central miracle of Islam is God's revelation to central miracle of Islam is God's revelation to Muhammad, whose human fallibilities as a mere mortal Muhammad, whose human fallibilities as a mere mortal are repeatedly mentioned in the Koran.are repeatedly mentioned in the Koran.

► The Koran as a book is comparable in length to the The Koran as a book is comparable in length to the Gospels. It contains 114 chapters (each called in Arabic Gospels. It contains 114 chapters (each called in Arabic a a surasura) of varying length. It opens with the ) of varying length. It opens with the FatihaFatiha, a , a beautiful short prayer that serves as an invocation in beautiful short prayer that serves as an invocation in many situations many situations

► The other chapters of the Koran follow in descending The other chapters of the Koran follow in descending order of length, from the 286 verses of the second order of length, from the 286 verses of the second chapter, known as "The Cow," to the final two chapters, chapter, known as "The Cow," to the final two chapters, which are short prayers of a few lines. The chapters are which are short prayers of a few lines. The chapters are thus arranged neither in the order in which the verses thus arranged neither in the order in which the verses were revealed nor in a narrative sequence. were revealed nor in a narrative sequence.

TraditionsTraditions► The second basis of Muslim faith is the The second basis of Muslim faith is the

example of the Prophet. As the perfect Muslim, example of the Prophet. As the perfect Muslim, Muhammad served and still serves as the Muhammad served and still serves as the model for all believers. His sayings and deeds model for all believers. His sayings and deeds were remembered by his associates and were remembered by his associates and preserved in the Traditions, known in Arabic as preserved in the Traditions, known in Arabic as hadith. These Traditions normally take the hadith. These Traditions normally take the form of a chain ("So-and-so heard from so-and-form of a chain ("So-and-so heard from so-and-so, who heard from so-and-so, that the Prophet so, who heard from so-and-so, that the Prophet said [or did]"), followed by a report of what the said [or did]"), followed by a report of what the Prophet said or did. Prophet said or did.

► The Traditions came to be considered second The Traditions came to be considered second in authority to the Koran and also help explain in authority to the Koran and also help explain and elaborate the circumstances under which and elaborate the circumstances under which obscure passages in the Koran were revealed. obscure passages in the Koran were revealed.

People of the BookPeople of the Book►Muslims believe that God had Muslims believe that God had

previously revealed Himself to the previously revealed Himself to the earlier prophets of the Jews and earlier prophets of the Jews and Christians, such as Abraham, Moses, Christians, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims therefore accept the and Jesus. Muslims therefore accept the teachings of both the Jewish Torah and teachings of both the Jewish Torah and the Christian Gospels. the Christian Gospels.

►They believe that Islam is the They believe that Islam is the perfection of the religion revealed first perfection of the religion revealed first to Abraham (who is considered the first to Abraham (who is considered the first Muslim) and later to other prophets. Muslim) and later to other prophets.

►They call Jews and Christians the They call Jews and Christians the "People of the Book" and allow them to "People of the Book" and allow them to practice their own religions. practice their own religions.

The Founding of Islamic FaithThe Founding of Islamic Faith► INTERACTIVE TIMELINE INTERACTIVE TIMELINE

http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/timeline.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/timeline.html►Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, was born in Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, was born in

Mecca around the year 570. Orphaned before Mecca around the year 570. Orphaned before he had reached the age of six, he was raised he had reached the age of six, he was raised under the protection of his uncle. Muhammad under the protection of his uncle. Muhammad began working as a merchant and became began working as a merchant and became known for his trustworthiness.known for his trustworthiness.

► At age 25 he married Khadija, a wealthy widow At age 25 he married Khadija, a wealthy widow whose status elevated Muhammad's position in whose status elevated Muhammad's position in Meccan society. Muhammad and Khadija had Meccan society. Muhammad and Khadija had four daughters and two sons, both of whom four daughters and two sons, both of whom died in infancy. died in infancy.

► About fifteen or twenty years after his About fifteen or twenty years after his marriage, he began to have visions and hear marriage, he began to have visions and hear mysterious voices. He sought solitude in a cave mysterious voices. He sought solitude in a cave on Mount Hira on the outskirts of Mecca. on Mount Hira on the outskirts of Mecca.

►One night during One night during RamadanRamadan, the traditional , the traditional month of spiritual retreat, when Muhammad month of spiritual retreat, when Muhammad was about forty years old, an angel appeared to was about forty years old, an angel appeared to him in the form of a man and ordered him to him in the form of a man and ordered him to Recite in the name of thy lord who created,Recite in the name of thy lord who created,Created man from a clot;Created man from a clot;Recite in the name of thy lord,Recite in the name of thy lord,Who taught by the pen,Who taught by the pen,Taught man what he knew not.Taught man what he knew not.

► In 622 the local rulers of Mecca forced In 622 the local rulers of Mecca forced Muhammad and his small band of followers to Muhammad and his small band of followers to leave the city. Muhammad accepted an leave the city. Muhammad accepted an invitation to settle in the oasis of Yathrib, invitation to settle in the oasis of Yathrib, located some eleven days (280 miles) north by located some eleven days (280 miles) north by camel, for the oasis had been nearly torn apart camel, for the oasis had been nearly torn apart by wars between the clans, of which many were by wars between the clans, of which many were Jewish. Jewish.

►Muhammad's Muhammad's hegirahegira from Mecca marks from Mecca marks the beginning of a new polity. For the the beginning of a new polity. For the first time in Arabia members of a first time in Arabia members of a community were bound together not by community were bound together not by the traditional ties of clan and tribe but the traditional ties of clan and tribe but by their shared belief in the one true by their shared belief in the one true God. God.

►Later believers, looking back on this Later believers, looking back on this event, recognized its seminal event, recognized its seminal importance by designating it as the first importance by designating it as the first year of their new era. year of their new era.

► In further recognition of this great event, In further recognition of this great event, the oasis of Yathrib came to be called the oasis of Yathrib came to be called Medina, "the city [of the Prophet]."Medina, "the city [of the Prophet]."

►Muhammad, surrounded by his followers, Muhammad, surrounded by his followers, lived in Medina for ten years, slowly lived in Medina for ten years, slowly winning over converts. winning over converts.

►Muhammad made repeated attempts to Muhammad made repeated attempts to attract the Jews to his cause, for example, attract the Jews to his cause, for example, he directed that believers worship like the he directed that believers worship like the Jews in the direction of Jerusalem. Jews in the direction of Jerusalem. Ultimately these attempts failed, and Ultimately these attempts failed, and henceforth Muslims prayed in the direction henceforth Muslims prayed in the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.of the Kaaba in Mecca.

► Muhammad's native town, which had long Muhammad's native town, which had long been a center of paganism, thereby been a center of paganism, thereby became the center of the true religion, the became the center of the true religion, the focal point of the believers' daily prayer, focal point of the believers' daily prayer, and eventually the object of their annual and eventually the object of their annual pilgrimage.pilgrimage.

► In 628, Muhammad finally negotiated a truce In 628, Muhammad finally negotiated a truce with the Meccans and in the following year with the Meccans and in the following year returned as a pilgrim to the city's holy sites. returned as a pilgrim to the city's holy sites.

► The murder of one of his followers provoked him The murder of one of his followers provoked him to attack the city, which soon surrendered. to attack the city, which soon surrendered. Muhammad acted generously to the Meccans, Muhammad acted generously to the Meccans, demanding only that the pagan idols around the demanding only that the pagan idols around the Kaaba be destroyed. Kaaba be destroyed.

►Muhammad's prestige grew after the surrender Muhammad's prestige grew after the surrender of the Meccans. Embassies from all over Arabia of the Meccans. Embassies from all over Arabia came to Medina to submit to him. came to Medina to submit to him.

►Muhammad's extraordinary life and career were Muhammad's extraordinary life and career were cut short by his sudden death on June 8, 632, cut short by his sudden death on June 8, 632, aged about sixty, less than a decade since he aged about sixty, less than a decade since he had set off from Mecca with his small band of had set off from Mecca with his small band of followers. followers.

BACK IN TIMEBACK IN TIME► The Life of the Prophet: c. 5The Life of the Prophet: c. 5

70 to 63270 to 632► c. 570: Birth of Muhammad c. 570: Birth of Muhammad ► 622: The Hegira: 622: The Hegira:

Muhammad flees to Medina Muhammad flees to Medina ► 630: Muhammad captures 630: Muhammad captures

Mecca Mecca ► 632: Muhammad dies. 632: Muhammad dies. ► Orthodox Caliphate Orthodox Caliphate

(Mecca and Medina): (Mecca and Medina): 632-661632-661

► Omayyad Caliphate Omayyad Caliphate (Damascus): 661-750(Damascus): 661-750 680: Death of Mu'awiya, 680: Death of Mu'awiya,

who is succeeded by his who is succeeded by his son, Yazid. son, Yazid.

685-687: Shi'ite revolt in 685-687: Shi'ite revolt in Iraq. Iraq.

711: Conquest of Spain. 711: Conquest of Spain. 717-718: Attempt to 717-718: Attempt to

conquer Constantinople. conquer Constantinople. 732: Battle of Tours. 732: Battle of Tours.

► Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad): Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad): 750-1258750-1258

► 751: Battle of Talas: Arabs learn 751: Battle of Talas: Arabs learn papermaking from Chinese papermaking from Chinese prisoners of war prisoners of war

► 765: A school of medicine is 765: A school of medicine is established in Baghdad. established in Baghdad.

► 750-850: The Four orthodox 750-850: The Four orthodox schools of law are established. schools of law are established.

► 850-875: The Tradition is 850-875: The Tradition is formalized. formalized.

► 1010: Firdawsi completes his 1010: Firdawsi completes his Epic of KingsEpic of Kings, , the great epic the great epic poem of Persia. poem of Persia.

► 1055-1250: Expansion of Islam 1055-1250: Expansion of Islam under the Seljuks and Christian under the Seljuks and Christian responses. responses.

► 1258: Mongols sack Baghdad. 1258: Mongols sack Baghdad. Abbasid Caliphate ends. Abbasid Caliphate ends.

► 756-1031: Omayyad emirate 756-1031: Omayyad emirate in Spain (Cordova)in Spain (Cordova)

► 910-1171: Fatimid Caliphate in 910-1171: Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt (Cairo)Egypt (Cairo)

► 1379-1401: Tamerlane 1379-1401: Tamerlane establishes an empire in Persia, establishes an empire in Persia, Iraq and SyriaIraq and Syria

► 1501-1723: Safavid 1501-1723: Safavid Empire in Persia Empire in Persia

► 1501: Ismail becomes 1501: Ismail becomes shah of Persia, founding shah of Persia, founding the Safavid Empire the Safavid Empire

► 1508: Ismail conquers 1508: Ismail conquers Baghdad and defeats the Baghdad and defeats the Uzbeks Uzbeks

► 1555: Ottoman-Safavid 1555: Ottoman-Safavid peace peace

► 1587-1629: Reign of 1587-1629: Reign of Shah Abbas I Shah Abbas I

► 1638: Truce between 1638: Truce between Safavids and Ottomans Safavids and Ottomans

► 1723: Safavid Empire 1723: Safavid Empire collapses collapses

► The Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire: 1350-1918.1350-1918. ca. 1243: Turkish nomads ca. 1243: Turkish nomads

settle in Asia Minor settle in Asia Minor 1299-1326: Osman I 1299-1326: Osman I 1402: Tamerlane defeats 1402: Tamerlane defeats

Ottomans at Ankara Ottomans at Ankara 1453: Constantinople is 1453: Constantinople is

conquered. conquered. 1520-1566: Suleiman II the 1520-1566: Suleiman II the

Magnificent Magnificent 1571: The Battle of Lepanto 1571: The Battle of Lepanto 1703-1730: Cultural revival 1703-1730: Cultural revival

under Ahmed III under Ahmed III 1774: Treaty of Kucuk 1774: Treaty of Kucuk

Kaynarca Kaynarca 1822-1830: Greek War of 1822-1830: Greek War of

Independences Independences 1853-1856: The Crimean 1853-1856: The Crimean

War War 1876: The Ottoman 1876: The Ottoman

Constitution is promulgated Constitution is promulgated 1914: The Ottoman Empire 1914: The Ottoman Empire

enters World War I enters World War I

SUNNI & SHIITESUNNI & SHIITE► After the death of the Prophet Muhammad two After the death of the Prophet Muhammad two

major positions developed about the nature of major positions developed about the nature of authority over the Muslim community. One group, authority over the Muslim community. One group, which came to be calledwhich came to be called Sunni Sunni, from the Arabic , from the Arabic word for "tradition," accepted the succession of word for "tradition," accepted the succession of Muhammad's elected successors, who were Muhammad's elected successors, who were known as caliphs. known as caliphs.

► SUNNIS were opposed by those who believed that SUNNIS were opposed by those who believed that any head of the community had to be a direct any head of the community had to be a direct descendant of Muhammad through his daughter descendant of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali. They are called Fatima and her husband Ali. They are called Shiite, from the Arabic word shia meaning "party." Shiite, from the Arabic word shia meaning "party."

► The vast majority of Muslims today are Sunnis; The vast majority of Muslims today are Sunnis; Shiites form the majority only in Iran and are Shiites form the majority only in Iran and are sizeable minorities in Iraq, Syria and elsewhere.sizeable minorities in Iraq, Syria and elsewhere.

ISLAM TODAYISLAM TODAY► Islam, followed by more than a billion people Islam, followed by more than a billion people

today, is the world's fastest growing religion today, is the world's fastest growing religion and will soon be the world's largest. The 1.2 and will soon be the world's largest. The 1.2 billion Muslims billion Muslims make upmake up approximately one approximately one quarter of the world's population, and the quarter of the world's population, and the Muslim population of the United States now Muslim population of the United States now outnumbers that of Episcopalians. outnumbers that of Episcopalians.

► The most populous Muslim countries are The most populous Muslim countries are Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India. The number of Muslims in Indonesia alone The number of Muslims in Indonesia alone (175 million) exceeds the combined total in (175 million) exceeds the combined total in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran, the Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran, the traditional heartlands of Islam. traditional heartlands of Islam.

► There are also substantial Muslim populations There are also substantial Muslim populations in Europe and North America, whether converts in Europe and North America, whether converts or immigrants who began arriving in large or immigrants who began arriving in large numbers in the 1950s and 1960s. numbers in the 1950s and 1960s.

► Beginning in the 1970s and 1980s Islam Beginning in the 1970s and 1980s Islam remerged as a potent political force, associated remerged as a potent political force, associated with both reform and revolution. Given the with both reform and revolution. Given the large number of adherents, it is no surprise that large number of adherents, it is no surprise that Muslims incorporate a broad and diverse Muslims incorporate a broad and diverse spectrum of positions in regard to liberalism spectrum of positions in regard to liberalism and democracy. and democracy.

► Some are secularists who want to disengage Some are secularists who want to disengage religion from politics. Others are reformers, who religion from politics. Others are reformers, who reinterpret Islamic traditions in support of reinterpret Islamic traditions in support of elective forms of government. Still there are elective forms of government. Still there are others who reject democracy entirely. others who reject democracy entirely.

ISLAMIC CULTUREISLAMIC CULTURE►Muslims believe that God is unique and without Muslims believe that God is unique and without

associate, He cannot of course be represented. associate, He cannot of course be represented. As He is worshipped directly without As He is worshipped directly without intercessors, images of saints, as in Christian or intercessors, images of saints, as in Christian or Buddhist art, have no place in Islam. As the Buddhist art, have no place in Islam. As the Koran is not a narrative like the Torah or the Koran is not a narrative like the Torah or the Gospels, there is little reason for Muslims to tell Gospels, there is little reason for Muslims to tell religious stories through pictures. religious stories through pictures.

► Islamic religious art has focused on the Islamic religious art has focused on the glorification of God's word, specifically by glorification of God's word, specifically by writing it beautifully, and accompanying the writing it beautifully, and accompanying the Arabic script with geometric and floral designs Arabic script with geometric and floral designs known as known as arabesquesarabesques, in which plants grow , in which plants grow according to the laws of geometry rather than according to the laws of geometry rather than nature. nature.

SAMPLE OF KORAN TEXT

ArchitectureArchitecture► The art of building was The art of building was

popular in virtually all popular in virtually all times and places in the times and places in the Islamic lands, providing Islamic lands, providing places of communal places of communal worship, social service, worship, social service, and stately residence. and stately residence. The most important The most important type of religious type of religious building was the building was the congregational congregational mosque, which had to mosque, which had to provide sufficient space provide sufficient space for the Muslim for the Muslim community to gather community to gather for weekly worship on for weekly worship on Friday at noon. Friday at noon.

► Like rulers everywhere, Like rulers everywhere, Muslims also Muslims also commissioned great commissioned great palaces, such as the palaces, such as the Alhambra in Granada Alhambra in Granada or the Topkapi Palace or the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. These in Istanbul. These universal types of universal types of buildings were erected buildings were erected using local materials using local materials and forms that suited and forms that suited the climate and the climate and geography. geography.

ALHAMBRA MOSQUE

LITERATURELITERATURE► Literature is one of the arts Literature is one of the arts

most valued by Muslims. most valued by Muslims. Medieval Muslims fostered Medieval Muslims fostered the art known as the art known as adabadab, , which came to imply the which came to imply the sum of intellectual sum of intellectual knowledge that makes a knowledge that makes a man courteous and man courteous and urbane. Based on pre-urbane. Based on pre-Islamic poetry, the art of Islamic poetry, the art of oratory, and the historical oratory, and the historical and tribal tradition of the and tribal tradition of the ancient Arabs, as well as ancient Arabs, as well as the corresponding sciences the corresponding sciences of rhetoric, grammar, of rhetoric, grammar, lexicography, and metrics, lexicography, and metrics, adab literature included adab literature included long compilations of long compilations of poetry, works for poetry, works for instruction, and manuals instruction, and manuals for princes meant to for princes meant to entertain sophisticated entertain sophisticated audiences. audiences.

► Muslims also fostered a Muslims also fostered a thousand-year tradition thousand-year tradition of classical Persian of classical Persian poetry, ranging from poetry, ranging from short quatrains to long short quatrains to long epics. epics.

► With the spread of Islam With the spread of Islam to other regions, there to other regions, there has been a corresponding has been a corresponding growth in literature in growth in literature in other languages, ranging other languages, ranging from Swahili to Malay.from Swahili to Malay.

16th century text

INNOVATIONINNOVATION►Medieval Muslims made invaluable Medieval Muslims made invaluable

contributions to the study of mathematics, contributions to the study of mathematics, and their key role is clear from the many and their key role is clear from the many terms derived from Arabic. terms derived from Arabic.

► By the 14By the 14thth century, Italian merchants used century, Italian merchants used the more modern numbering system of the the more modern numbering system of the Muslim world, which impact the way we do Muslim world, which impact the way we do math today, especially algebra.math today, especially algebra.

►Medieval Muslim scientists often focused on Medieval Muslim scientists often focused on practical matters, particularly hydraulic practical matters, particularly hydraulic engineering, as water was always a precious engineering, as water was always a precious resource in the arid lands where Islam resource in the arid lands where Islam traditionally flourished. Engineers designed traditionally flourished. Engineers designed various kinds of water-raising machines, various kinds of water-raising machines, some powered by animals, others powered some powered by animals, others powered by rivers and streams. by rivers and streams.

► Bridges and dams were Bridges and dams were needed to channel water. In needed to channel water. In addition to the standard beam, addition to the standard beam, cantilever and arch bridges, cantilever and arch bridges, engineers also designed engineers also designed bridges of boats to span rivers. bridges of boats to span rivers.

► Dams were widely used to Dams were widely used to divert rivers into irrigation divert rivers into irrigation canals. canals.

► Perhaps the most ingenious Perhaps the most ingenious hydraulic technologies were hydraulic technologies were the distribution networks of the distribution networks of canals and canals and qanatsqanats, , subterranean aqueducts that subterranean aqueducts that sometimes carried water for sometimes carried water for hundreds of miles. hundreds of miles.

► Cisterns and underground ice-Cisterns and underground ice-houses were used for storage. houses were used for storage.

► Various instruments were used Various instruments were used to measure water flow, and to measure water flow, and the Nilometer built in 861-62 the Nilometer built in 861-62 still stands on Rawda Island in still stands on Rawda Island in Cairo.Cairo.

► Muslim engineers also Muslim engineers also designed several types of designed several types of siege engines, notably siege engines, notably the traction and the the traction and the counterweight trebuchet. counterweight trebuchet.

► Their ingenuity is clear Their ingenuity is clear from the many kinds of from the many kinds of fine machines they also fine machines they also perfected, ranging from perfected, ranging from clocks and automata to clocks and automata to fountains. fountains.

► Some were meant for Some were meant for practical purposes but practical purposes but others were designed for others were designed for amusement or aesthetic amusement or aesthetic enjoyment, and their enjoyment, and their components and components and techniques were of great techniques were of great importance for the importance for the development of machine development of machine technology. technology.

► As in the other sciences, As in the other sciences, astronomers in the astronomers in the Muslim lands built upon Muslim lands built upon and greatly expanded and greatly expanded earlier traditions. earlier traditions.

► ObservatoriesObservatories► Translation of ancient Translation of ancient

textstexts► Muslim astronomers Muslim astronomers

worked out planetary worked out planetary models that depended models that depended solely on combinations of solely on combinations of uniform circular motions. uniform circular motions.

► Completed astronomical Completed astronomical tablestables

► Medieval Muslims Medieval Muslims revolutionized the revolutionized the science and practice of science and practice of medicine, as physicians medicine, as physicians began to question the began to question the medical traditions medical traditions inherited from both East inherited from both East and West and distinguish and West and distinguish one disease from one disease from another. another.

► discovered the minor, or discovered the minor, or pulmonary, circulation of pulmonary, circulation of the blood. the blood.

► Completed the Canon of Completed the Canon of Medicine Medicine

► Muslims also expanded Muslims also expanded the practice of medical the practice of medical schools and hospitals schools and hospitals

Paper & PublishingPaper & Publishing►Muslims were responsible for the transfer of Muslims were responsible for the transfer of

papermaking from China, where it had been papermaking from China, where it had been invented in the centuries before Christ, to invented in the centuries before Christ, to Europe, where it fueled the print revolution Europe, where it fueled the print revolution in the late fifteenth century. Muslims in the late fifteenth century. Muslims encountered paper when they conquered encountered paper when they conquered Central Asia in the eighth century. Central Asia in the eighth century.

►The use of paper soon spread from The use of paper soon spread from government offices to all segments of government offices to all segments of society. By the middle of the ninth century society. By the middle of the ninth century the Papersellers' Street in Baghdad had the Papersellers' Street in Baghdad had more than one hundred shops in which more than one hundred shops in which paper and books were sold. paper and books were sold.

►Medieval Islamic society had a paper economy, Medieval Islamic society had a paper economy, where both wholesale and retail merchants where both wholesale and retail merchants conducted commerce on credit. conducted commerce on credit.

►Orders of payment, the equivalent of modern Orders of payment, the equivalent of modern checks were drawn in amounts upwards from checks were drawn in amounts upwards from one dinar (a gold coin roughly equivalent to half one dinar (a gold coin roughly equivalent to half a month's salary).a month's salary).

► By the ninth century paper was used for copying By the ninth century paper was used for copying scientific and other types of utilitarian texts, scientific and other types of utilitarian texts, although it took longer for Muslims to accept the although it took longer for Muslims to accept the use of paper as a fitting support for God's word. use of paper as a fitting support for God's word.

►Medieval Islamic libraries had hundreds of Medieval Islamic libraries had hundreds of thousands of volumes far outstripping the thousands of volumes far outstripping the relatively small monastic and university libraries relatively small monastic and university libraries in the West.in the West.

TREATY