Islamic & Byzantine Empires

600 CE – 1450 CE

Pre-Islamic Arabia

Semitic (related to Hebrew) Arabs organized in autonomous Bedouin tribes, but with domestication Shepherds of camels (ca. 1200 BCE) – “fleet of the desert” – began trade caravans – 5th and 6th c. CE very important as Byzantines & Persians fighting

Bedouins were polytheistic, supreme god known as Allah, worship sacred

stones – most sacred at Ka’aba in Mecca. However, pockets of Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians – which fought one another.

Severe social and political divisions – no Arabian culture or state had ever encompassed the entire peninsula. Byzantine and Persian military continuously interfering in Arabian politics.

©20

04 W

adsw

orth

, a d

ivis

ion

of T

hom

son

Lea

rnin

g, I

nc.

Tho

mso

n L

earn

ing ™

is a

trad

emar

k us

ed h

erei

n un

der

lice

nse.

Due to Sassanid and Byzantine conflicts

in early 7 th c., Afro-Asian trade moved south –

creating a rise of merchant cities like Mecca

Pre-Islamic - Politics

Sheikh -- ruled the tribe– Majlis -- council of elders

Muhammad (570-622)

Belonged to trading clan, orphaned. Married to Khadija – wealthy widow and owner

of a trade network. 610 – went to mountains to reflect on difference

between Bedouin values of honesty/generosity and the affluent lifestyle of trading elite; received a message from Gabriel, the Qur’an – began to preach the message of Allah.

622 – after failing to convert those of Mecca, made a Hegira to Medina where he hoped to convert the Jewish people and solve their political problems between five tribes. Known as Year One in Islamic calendar.

Early Islam under Muhammad

Medina – became the first umma (community of followers) created first mosque and call to prayers; began to work closely with and study Christianity and Judaism considered them to be similarly “People of the Book” who had had the message of Allah revealed to them. Preached toleration of other monotheistic religions.

Series of wars with pagans – although outnumbered, significant and mysterious victories for Muhammad.

630 – marched on Mecca w/10,000 men – hajj. (although grain boycott had softened Mecca up) Treated the people of Mecca with tolerance (usual Bedouin practice was to slaughter everyone) – cleared pagan idols from Ka’aba and establish it as center of worship.

632 – Muhammad dies; Islam spreads throughout Arabia; many converted for nationalism, others for economic benefit – Muslims could not attack the trade caravans of other Muslims.

©20

04 W

adsw

orth

, a d

ivis

ion

of T

hom

son

Lea

rnin

g, I

nc.

Tho

mso

n L

earn

ing ™

is a

trad

emar

k us

ed h

erei

n un

der

lice

nse.

Writings of Islam

Qur’an (Koran) - Only revelation of God to the prophet Muhammad; literary masterpiece in Arabic, consisting of 114 suras (chapters); ethical guidebook, law code and political theory

Hadith – a collection of the sayings of the Prophet.

Shari’a – prescriptions to regulate daily life recorded by Muslim scholars, ulama.

Tenets of Faith

Five Pillars Forced conversion is

prohibited. - Accepts the prophets of the Judeo-Christian tradition; regard Jesus as messiah and great prophet but not son of God.

Everyone is equal in the eyes of Allah

Prohibitions on gambling, eating pork and alcoholic beverages.

Jihad – missionary work and, if necessary, fighting to defend faith – those who die in a jihad are guaranteed a garden paradise (unlike desert in which they live) “When you meet the unbelievers in the battlefield strike off their heads” (Koran, Chapter 47) -

Why is this against the tenets of the Koran and the message of Muhammad?

Daniel Pearl, beheaded Feb. 22, 2002

Problem of Succession

No clear instruction on succession – he had only daughters.

Sunnis – followed traditional tribal democracy, attempting to elect most pious Muslim (90% today are Sunnis), elected Abu Bakr (632-4) as caliph (political leader, but also head iman or religious leader)

Shi’ites believe that succession should fall to Muhammad’s eldest male relative, Muhammad Ali.

Arab Empire - Political

Expansion into weakened Byzantine and Persian (Sassanid) territory for trade benefits. (Muslim warriors motivated by Koran and nationalism)

Tolerant administration of conquered areas – govt left to local officials; had to pay special tax for exemption from military service (required of all male Muslims)

Egalitarian principles popular with conquered peoples.

Why spread so fast?

Possible explanationsProlonged drought on the Arabian peninsulaDesire of Islam’s leaders to channel the energies of

their new convertsPlanned by the ruling elites of Mecca to extend

their trade routes and bring surplus-producing regions under their control

Administration was generally tolerant (Sometimes left to locals)

Often welcomed by local people

Major Islamic Empires

Umayyads Abbasids (Cordoba & Fatimids break off) Seljuk Turks Ottoman Turks

Political – Umayyads

After assassination of Muhammad Ali in 661; his rival, Mu’awiya, governor of Syria, begins a hereditary caliphate in his family Umayyads. Capital at Damascas instead of Mecca.

Shi’ites cause rebellions in 680 against decadence of Umayyads. (suppressed)

Expands across N. Africa, conquer Berbers, pastoral people.

With Berbers led by Tariq crosses into Spain and defeat Visigoths – by 725; stopped by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours from expanding into France.

750 – revolt by Abu as-Abbas led to overthrow of Umayyads and establishment of Abbasids.

©20

04 W

adsw

orth

, a d

ivis

ion

of T

hom

son

Lea

rnin

g, I

nc.

Tho

mso

n L

earn

ing ™

is a

tr

adem

ark

used

her

ein

unde

r li

cens

e.

Abbasid Dynasty - Moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad (Persian for "city of God"). The location was strategic since it could take advantage of the river traffic to the Persian Gulf and the caravans from the Mediterranean and central Asia.

©20

04 W

adsw

orth

, a d

ivis

ion

of T

hom

son

Lea

rnin

g, I

nc.

Tho

mso

n L

earn

ing ™

is a

trad

emar

k us

ed h

erei

n un

der

lice

nse.

Abbasids

Muslim Spain – the Moors

many of the Umayyad leaders were executed.

One who escaped was Abd al-Rahman who made his way to Spain where he re-established the Umayyad dynasty in 756, capital at Cordoba.

By the middle of the tenth century, Muslim Spain disintegrated into the smaller states under the control of various families.

By 12th century, Christians regaining territory.

Cordoba (capital of Spanish Dynasty 756-1031)

The Great Mosque of Córdoba was founded 785 CE. It was added to and expanded over the next two hundred years to make it the third largest structure in the Islamic world.

The prayer hall is filled with almost 500 hundred slender columns and superimposed striped arches.

Previously the site was a Christian church built by the Visigoths around 500 CE. Before that, a Roman temple dedicated to Janus.

In 909 control over Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) was seized by a claimant who professed to be a descendent from Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter. In the second half of the tenth century, Egypt was conquered by the Fatimids and they transferred the capital from Tunisia to newly built Cairo. By 1000 the Fatimids also controlled southern Syria, the Hejaz, and Yemen as well as most of North Africa. In the early eleventh century the Fatimid empire began to disintegrate permitting Byzantine control over northern Syria and make possible the successes of the Crusaders.

Muslim North Africa

©20

04 W

adsw

orth

, a d

ivis

ion

of T

hom

son

Lea

rnin

g, I

nc.

Tho

mso

n L

earn

ing ™

is a

trad

emar

k us

ed h

erei

n un

der

lice

nse.

Eastern Abbasid Empire

Iran was increasingly difficult for the Abbasids to govern as independent dynasties were created. Out of weakness the caliph recognized their defacto control.

The Seljuk Turks, originating in the steppes of Turkistan, served as mercenaries for the Abbasids. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Abbasid, the Seljuks seized Baghdad and control of the empire. In 1071 the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines in eastern Anatolia at Battle of Manzikert and then seized most of the peninsula. This action would lead to the crusades. Internal weaknesses in the early twelfth century and the arrival of the Crusaders. - In 1194 Seljuk rule in Baghdad ended. By the middle of the thirteenth century the power of the Seljuk Sultan was broken by the Mongols who were conquering Persia and Iraq.

The Crusades - Byzantine emperor Alexius I, 1096

Saladin (1174-1193)

The MongolsDestroy populations and economyElites converted to IslamBy 14th c. began to split into separate kingdoms

Rise of the Ottoman Turks

Late 13th century: Northwest corner of the Anatolian Peninsula

Expanded westward and eventually controlled the Bosporus and the Dardanelles

By 14th century, expanded into Balkans

After a seven week siege, on May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell.

Islamic Empire - Economics

Trade (spices, luxury items, slaves)

Banking Economic

Upheavals due to overtaxing

Islamic Empire - Social

More egalitarian in principal than practice. Merchants gain significant status. Conquered peoples have tensions over

rights to rule. Slaves (captured from around non-Muslim

world – some of the best educated peoples in Abbasid Empire were slaves)

Islamic Empire – Social/Gender

Women subjected to increasing patriarchal control.

To be treated with respect Had right to inherit property Polygamy permitted Right of divorce restricted to

the husband Covering all parts of the body

common in urban areas (more Arab tradition than Koranic law)

Intellectual/Sci.

Muslims were encouraged by the Prophet Muhammad himself to "seek learning even as far as China". In the area of medicine, the Prophet Muhammad also encouraged a scientific approach. He said, "For every disease, Allah has given a cure," and scientists were encouraged to find those cures.

developed the earliest astrolabe Discovered refraction of light Discovered how eye worked Hospitals developed w/hygiene as key

(understood quarantine for sick) Perfected waterwheels

Paper was first invented in China and then the Muslims learned how it was made. (Actually Chinese papermakers were taken prisoner and forced to teach their captors how to make paper!)

Islamic Empires – Art/Literature

Islamic Literature– Omar Khayyam,

Rubaiyat– The Tales from 1001

Nights – Rumi in the 13th century

adopted beliefs of Sufism to his poetry

– al-Mus’udi (b. 896) was the first great Islamic historian

Islamic Art and Architecture

– Dome of the Rock, built 691

– Mosques– Palaces– Woolen rugs– No representation of the

Prophet Muhammad– Influence of East Asia on

painting

Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, below Dome of the Rock

Byzantine Empire

– The Reign of Justinian (527-565)– Theodora– Objective of reestablishing the Roman Empire

Empire included Italy, part of Spain, North Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Syria

Lost after his death– The Codification of Roman Law

Corpus Iuris Civilis (Body of Civil Law), 529 Eventually used in the West

– Life in Constantinople: The Emperor’s Building Program Rebuilt 532 Commercial center Royal palace complex, Hagia Sophia, and the Hippodrome

Haghia Sophia – reused as Muslim Mosque

©20

03 W

adsw

orth

, a d

ivis

ion

of T

hom

son

Lea

rnin

g, I

nc.

Tho

mso

n L

earn

ing ™

is a

trad

emar

k us

ed h

erei

n un

der

lice

nse.

– From Eastern Roman to Byzantine Empire– Frontier insecurity

Battle of Yarmuk, 636 Bulgars

Byzantine Empire in the Eighth Century– Christianity and Iconoclastic Controversy, 730– War economy and power of the emperor– Eastern and western empire separated

The Zenith of Byzantine Civilization– Michael III (842-867)– Iconoclasm abolished, 843– Reforms in education, church life, the military, and the peasant

economy– Struggle between the pope and Patriarch Photius

– The Macedonian Dynasty– New dynasty of Macedonian emperors, 867-1056– Economic prosperity– Missionary activity of Easter Orthodox Christianity– Competent emperors and efficient bureaucracy

New Challenges to the Byzantine Empire– Internal struggles after the demise of the Macedonian dynasty– Excommunication of each other by Pope Leo IX and Patriarch

Michael Cerularius, 1054– Threats of the Seljuk Turks

Manzikert, 1071– Revival of the empire under Alexius I Comnenus, 1081-1181

Byzantine Government

Emperor was God’s representative on Earth. Theoretically Elective, but often inherited. (caesaropapism – head of church and state)

Bureaucracy – highly effective and centralized. All were trained in common. Fair tax and legal system. Many were monks.

Byzantine Empire - Religion

To be a citizen of Byzantine Empire had to be Orthodox Christian.

Orthodox believe Catholic Pope to be laughably arrogant. “Better the turban of the Turk than the tiara of the Pope.”

Issues: Trinity, Iconoclast Controversy, marriage of priests, unity of Church and State

Practice Question

Which of the following is true of the Turks and Mongols

a. Both conquered and ruled Japan

b. Both were skilled administrators and bureaucrats

c. Both had written languages based on Arabic

d. Both used the Confucian civil service examination system

e. Both were pastoral nomads originally from the Central Asian steppes.

Practice Question

After the expansion of Islam into West Africa

a. Native animist beliefs disappeared

b. The economy slowed

c. Civil war broke out

d. A decentralized government developed

e. Trade increased

Practice Question

All of the following are true statements about Islam EXCEPT

a. Mohammed was the messenger of Godb. All are equal under the eyes of Godc. Muslims should pray 5x a dayd. A clear line of succession was established

after Mohammed’s deathe. The hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca

Practice Question

The term Dar al-Islam refers to

a. Areas that share a common Muslim culture as a basis for society

b. Lands that are enemies of the Muslim religion

c. Religious leaders influential in the community

d. Conquered areas that refuse to convert to Islam

e. Trade routes that link the Islamic world to the non-Muslim world