islamic economics approaches to bridging the divergence
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Islamic Economics Approaches to Bridging the DivergenceTRANSCRIPT
Islamic Economics: Approaches to Bridging the Divergence
By: Ezry Fahmy B. Eddy Yusof
INCEIF
I. Introduction
Nowadays, people should not question whether Islamic economics ever exist; rather people (for
Muslim individuals) should ask what their contribution towards the realization of Islamic
economics is. Scholars in Islamic economics have work hard for the past few decades with their
literatures, but yet the question still arises, is Islamic economics framework ready to be an
alternative system to the current crisis? This is due to Islamic economics nowadays that much
more represent by Islamic banking and finance rather than itself as a whole system. It is
important to view Islamic economics from a 360 degree perspective to evaluate and manipulate
the particles that contains unique elements in it from its meaning, up to it concepts and practices
that understood by the Muslim scholars from the peak success of economic when it lead by the
Prophet and then the companions. This paper tends to explore some of the uniqueness of Islamic
economics in its practices of maslahah approach, al-hisbah institution and also voluntary sector,
it is in need to revive these particles inside Islamic economics correctly to help all Muslim
countries towards achieving the Islamic economics goals.
II. Islamic economics
Islamic economics is defined differently by all renowned Muslim economists. But all the Muslim
economist agreed that Islamic economics is a religious-based system of laws set forth according
to the al-Quran and as-Sunnah and imbued people with the values of Islam (Hasanuzzaman,
1984, p.52; Mannan, 1986, p.18; Siddiqi, 1992,p.69; Chapra, 1996,p.33; Aslam, 2005).
Addas (2008) successfully differentiate secular and Islamic system in several aspects regards to
methodology, worldviews, epistemology and sources of knowledge in economics of these two
systems. Islamic system clearly covers all aspect of life and being inclusivity, obviously different
than secular system where it tries to separate or not to include any religious aspect as well as
being exclusivity in its structural frameworks. The secular system or this secularization process
is very much a western European experience and may not be universally applicable, unlike
Islamic economics system that argued the concept of ad-deen which means ‘whole way of life’
provides an all-encompassing ethos for man, including that of economics. Religion of Islam is
seen as a source of ethics for economic behavior (Aslam, 2005).
Thus Islamic economics is totally different than secular system because it is clearly a system that
encourages and preoccupied with the welfare of a community where every individual behaves
altruistically and according to religious norms. It is based primarily on justice, benovelence,
expediency, wisdom and welfare as well as ensuring the well being and success in this world and
the life hereafter (Akhtar, 1981, p.26). Here where the system bridging the gap between religion
and economics especially when the paradigm of knowledge is seen as human reason aided or
rather guided, by revealed knowledge mainly the al-Quran and as-Sunnah.
The aims of Islamic economics system is mainly depends solely in its two dimensional utility
function, in this worldly life and life of hereafter. This according what creates Homo islamicus
individuals, an ideal person who is adhering to the guidance of Islam, brings distinctive moral
and ethical dimension to the economic sphere of life. This is obviously different than the secular
system that views human as a Homo economicus, the Economic Man or agent, represents a
rational human being formalized in certain social science models, especially in economics, who
acts in self-interest to achieve in a goal-oriented manner. (Kuran, 1995; Warde, 2000; Asutay,
2007). Moreover, Kay (2002) explains that Homo economicus as rational economic man that self
interested, materialistic, and obsessed with calculating his worth.
In addition, the structural framework of Islamic economics does forbid unjust transactions, plus
not only that but the religion of Islam also encourage risk sharing along with the availability of
credit for primarily the purchase of real goods and services and restrictions on usury (riba), the
sale of debt, short sales, excessive uncertainty (gharar), and gambling (maysir) where it is surely
could help to inject a greater discipline into the economic system.
III. Maslahah approach
Maslahah is one of the sources in Islamic jurisprudence, it is usually defined as an interest that
not supported by an individual text, but is upheld by the texts considered collectively. There are
many verses in the Quran which grasp the essence of the maslahah. Maslahah is acknowledged
by all four Sunni schools, in principle, that all genuine which do not conflict with the objective
(maqasid) of the Lawgiver must be upheld (Kamali, 1998, p.267-281).
Goals of Islamic economy is interpreted differently by the muslim scholars, however majority of
them hold view that Islamic economics objectives are to achieve social justice and economic
development (of all well-being of God’s creatures), or so called establishment of a just social
order (Chapra, 1996, Sanusi, 2008). The objectives not only cover worldly affairs but also the
life in hereafter. Thus maslahah plays an important role that differentiating Islamic economics
than others because it lays to an action taken to protect any one of the five basic objectives of the
Shari’ah, namely protection of faith, life, progeny, property and reason. The preservations of
objectives of Shari’ah parallel with the two major Islamic principles which are removing
hardship (raf` al-haraj) and preventing harm (daf` aldarar).
These underlying principles according to Asid, Asutay and Khawaja (2008) changing the
framework of how Islamic economics view on all economic theories such as the theory of
consumption, the theory of distribution and the theory of production when it includes maslahah
and “no-injury” (avoiding mafsadah) as the basic principles in the system.
Maslahah is about securing greater interest of the society could be is exercise when a situation
arises where procuring one’s interest implies the loss of another, then greater interest should be
pursued in preference to the lesser. On the other hand, anything regards to loss or injury the
reverse will apply where the greater will be avoided by tolerating the lesser (Kamali, 1998, p.
267-281).
It is obviously shown that the spirit of maslahah prefers the interest of society rather than the
individual. Different than other systems, Islamic economics give the government a special role to
play not likes any other system where the government cannot intervene the market or being a
dictatorship by imposing centralized the decision making. As a comprehensive and al-
wasatiyyah system, based on the maslahah principle, that in a situation of social loss there
should be involvement of the government for fixing prices.
Among the explaination given by Asid, Asutay and Khawaja (2008) where they believes that
according to maslahah principle:
“The state has the right to fix the floor price and secure resources, which are
becoming economically obsolete. It is also the duty of the government to estimate
the input-output coefficients for each of the vintages, which will guide the policy
makers for the formulation of their policies regarding the degree of economic and
physical obsolescence”(p. 64).
These are some of the example where the maslahah principle can be applied when the
Qadi or the state could save the public from the harm, underutilization of resources, or
any action that could deprive the poor as well as realization of the goals of Islamic
economy to social justice and economic development (of all well-being of God’s
creatures). Since the economy cover so many aspects of theories, the maslahah approach
is seen as the problem solver as what mentioned by Ahmad (2003), where all the
problems of imperfection economic approach could readily have avoided through
Maslahah approach.
IV. al-hisbah Institution
Human characteristic that was most responsible for the credit crunch recently is human greed.
This opinion is not only according to The Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Rowan Williams but
also agreed by most of the Muslim scholars like Nejatullah Siddiqi (2006), Umer Chapra (2008),
Hussein Shehatah (2009) and so forth. Human greed come into picture when the absence of
ethics and morality lead the investors, bankers, and people in the market becoming greed to
maximize profit, wealth and consumption by any means in keeping with the mores of the
prevailing secular and materialist culture. Thus the collapse of some important financial
institutions like Lehman Brother, Merill Lynch, AIG and so forth lead the market towards
awareness of the existence of corrupt regimes due to the lack ability of regulatory authorities.
The U.S administration themselves believes that they have an inadequate regulatory structure
when the Fed opted not to use their power to prevent the growth of the housing bubble which to
believe the starting point that lead the whole financial system went frozen (Barker, 2009).
However, Islam as a comprehensive religion may have the solution through the idea of al-hisbah
institution to suit current crisis face by most of the financial institutions. Hisbah literally means
reward, calculation. Technically, it refers to an institution that existed through most of Islamic
history for implementing what is proper and preventing what is improper (al-’Amr bil Ma’ruf wa
al-nahy ’an al-Munkar). The main role of al-hisbah was the regulation and supervision of
markets to ensure proper market conduct by all concerned (towards any malpractices or criminal
activities (Siddiqi, 1996, Sanusi, 2008, Amalina, 2009).
As a moral as well as a socio-economic institution, al-hisbah plays an important role in Islamic
economics system. Sanusi (2008) and Amalina (2009) both agreed that the institution of al-
hisbah has been practiced by Muslim society since the early years of Islam, when the Prophet
Muhammad (pbuh) has acted as the first muhtasib,or person that responsible for the maintenance
of the institution of hisbah. However, in today’s world, the institution of hisbah has been
separated into different institutions with different names lead by various peoples, even some of
the institutions not lead by qualified muhtasib (Mohamed, 2009).
In addition, Sanusi (2008) believes that the classical economic role of muhtasib can be further
expanded into current corporate affairs such as financial institution such as the banking sector.
This kind of supervision could ensure that financial institutions performance and its operations
are strictly on ethical basis. Besides that, he further suggests that the staffs in the financial
institutions to be a whistle blower, by further expanding the concept of hisbah testimony where
this action could help to develop social consciousness and responsibility to block the means to
evil acts (Sanusi, 2008, p.256; Amalina, 2009, p.372). The act of whistle blower in the financial
institutions by disclosing important information voluntarily is an appropriate act which abides by
the Islamic jurisprudence called blocking the means (Sadd al-dhara’i ), Sanusi (2008) and al-
Kashif (2009) both viewed that it is an obligation for every Muslim to prevent any act against
morality and must also be vigilant against any future threats to public interest. In addition, al-
Kashif (2009) further explains that the obligation not only confined to individuals but also
institutions regardless it is public or private owned.
On the other hand, the current existence of Shari’ah Supervisory Board practice by the Islamic
banks is deem to hold the spirit of al-hisbah when it is a board that supposed to direct, supervise
and review the activities of the Islamic Financial Institution (IFI) to ensure it is Shari’ah
compliance in all its activities and products offered. However, the scholars behind the scene that
lead the Shari’ah Supervisory Board must be jurists in fiqh a-lmua’malat (Islamic commercial
jurisprudence) or usul al-Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). The Shari’ah Supervisory Board may
follow certain guidelines provide by the Central Bank to execute any rules and regulations or
enforcement. Therefore this is a good example of how the spirit of al-hisbah works in the
modern approach in financial institutions, especially the Islamic financial institutions (IFIs).
Through the existence of al-hisbah institution to supervise the financial institutions, this could
help the financial industry from prohibited activities like carrying out illegal economic
transactions, political corruption or social mischief. Among the problems that relates to financial
institutions that should be supervise by the al-hisbah institution that categorize as financial
crimes under Islamic law are such as fraud, bribery, money laundering, insider trading, usury,
gambling and so forth (al-Kashif, 2009). Thus with the revival of al-hisbah institution, it could
helps the Muslims to achieves Islamic economic goals as a whole as this is already proven during
the Prophet time.
V. Voluntary sector
Voluntary sector is acknowledged in Islam and also other religions. Courtney (1994) sees a
bigger picture of voluntary sector as something enormously powerful, motivating and distinctive
about the voluntary sector that should be preserved and promoted. However, there are
differences in understanding the term voluntary sector between Islam and other religion because
Islam emphasize it more than any other religions when one of the pillars in Islam categorize it as
an obligation action that should be exercised by all Muslims, thus some voluntary activities is
seen as part of faith because it is included in the pillars of Islam. This is due to the important
aspect of voluntary sector where it could play a major redistributive role by affecting a transfer
of resources from the rich to the poor.
Siddiqi (1996) categorize voluntary activities in Islamic society onto several categories which are
obligatory family support, zakah, ‘ushr, sadaqat al-fitr, gift or grants in cash, kind or usufruct,
voluntary social service and also charitable endowments (waqf). Among the voluntary activities
that could contribute directly to the development of an economy are the voluntary activities such
as sadaqat, zakah, waqf and gift (hibah).
Sadaqat or gift (hibah) is an act of giving alms for the sake of Allah (fi sabilillah), the elements
of sadaqat and gift (hibah) relates to micro dimension that combine beneficial and ihsan form of
an individual or organization to others. Sadaqat and gift (hibah) are unilateral transfer that may
be in cash, kind or usufruct of certain things. The system of Sadaqat or gift (hibah) ensures
equitable distribution of wealth in the Muslim community and makes it certain that the wealth
does not remain hoarded in idle channels. Circulation of wealth in productive channels is ensured
by enhancing the purchasing power of the poor. Concentration of wealth in few hands is
discouraged and the gap between the rich and the poor is bridged.
The Sadaqat or gift (hibah) may go to social institutions like mosque, orphanage, school,
hospital and so forth. It also may sometimes go to individual or a family in an emergency that
caused by war, famine, flood, epidemic and etcetera regardless in period of happiness or sadness.
The sadaqat and gift (hibah) could help the state in response to an appeal funds since it is
decentralized sector and not under the state or government controlled. These voluntary activities
could also help to ensure the fulfillment of basic individual needs and essential social needs.
Besides that, according to Sareshwala (2008), zakah is universal in its scope can be seen in the
manner in which it is collected and distributed. After providing for the needs of eligible kin, the
zakah fund is designed to cover the needs of those who live in the community where zakah is
collected and then to those eligible recipients living in the county, state, country, and finally the
world at large. Through accumulation of surplus in zakah funds during prosperous years, the
institution of zakah provides necessary contingency funds during depressed economic conditions
when zakah revenues may not be sufficient to meet the required needs of the society. The levy of
zakah, particularly on the idle portion of an individual’s wealth, induces the zakah payer to seek
a return on his wealth at a rate at least as high as the rate of zakah, so as to be able to pay zakah
without reducing his or her wealth. The institution of zakah in its fully operational would become
a fountain of economic harmony and contentment since it could helps in eradicating the poverty
as well as providing an economic safety net to the society.
Charitable endowments (waqf) is also a unique practices since the early days of Muslim society
where it have some special features to be distinguish from private or public properties. Waqf
concept turns the ownership of the property in the way of Allah, thus making it neither a state
property nor a private property. It is permanent and irrevocable (Zuhayli, 2006). This act
according to Siddiqi (1996) could “serve to mitigate the ill effect of inequality in the distribution
of income and wealth” (p.147). Moreover, Goh Chok Tong (2007) realizes that waqf practice
may able to stimulate the economy and provided additional fund to the state and therefore less
demand for commercial or financial organizations in the form of corporation is needed for sake
of boosting tax revenue. Therefore, waqf administration is changing nowadays where it is not
restricted to religious building only but some revenue from waqf in several Muslim countries has
been used to build hospitals, universities and commercial and office complexes. Such innovative
financial uses from this voluntary sector help to unlock the economic potential of waqf (Goh
Chok Tong, 2007).
Both voluntary sector namely zakah and waqf is widely used in generating the Islamic economy.
However, these words cannot be used interchangeably, but the function of both of them for
financing poverty projects are often used together or to complement each other. Islam has
declared that the poor and destitute have due share in the wealth of the rich and the rich are
bound to return the share of the poor without stint.
Last but not least, Zaman and Asutay (2009) agreed that the voluntary sector reflects justice,
tazkiyah and rububiyah that included in the body of huquq ul ‘ibad (rights of the people) and
nourish the voluntary sectors with ethics of care as part of huquq ul ‘ibad within huquq Ullah (rights
of the Allah) within the tawhidi paradigm. The voluntary sector from Islamic perspective completes
the essence of the doctrine of social obligatory duties (fard al-kifayah) as well as contributes to the
development of an economy, directly or indirectly.
VI. Conclusion
In a nutshell, these approaches may seem trifling, but do play an important role for a state to suit
in the Islamic economics system as a whole. It is in need to complement the juristic/fiqhi
approach by the maqasid approach in order to deliver a meaningful agenda. With the passage of
time the constraining influence of the detailed rules and regulations of fiqh seems to have all but
extinguished the spark of maqasid-inspired thinking. The fiqhi approach, understanding maqasid
shariah it highly important to grasp and dealing with the management side of other important
sector in economics. There may be other important elements or particles that should be taken
seriously besides what has been discuss in this paper, thus every aspect should be taken seriously
without disparage any other aspect.
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