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Several aspects of culture require elaboration. First, culture is a comprehensive concept. It includes almost everything that influences an individual’s thought processes and behaviors. Although culture does not determine the nature or frequency of biological drives such as hunger or sex, it does influence if, when, and how these drives will be gratified. It influences not only our preferences but how we make decisions and even how we perceive the world around us. Second, culture is acquired. It does not include inherited responses and predispositions. However, since much of human behavior is learned rather than innate, culture does affect a wide array of behaviors. Third, the complexity of modern societies is such that culture seldom provides detailed prescriptions for appropriate behavior. Instead, in most industrial societies, culture supplies boundaries within which most individuals think and act. Finally, the nature of cultural influences is such that we are seldom aware of them. One behaves, thinks, and feels in a manner consistent with that of other members of the same culture because it seems “natural” or “right” to do so.

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Cultures are not static. They typically evolve and change slowly over time. Marketingmanagers must understand both the existing cultural values and the emerging cultural values of the societies they serve.

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A failure to understand cultural differences can produce negative consequences.

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Culture operates primarily by setting rather loose boundaries for individual behaviorand by influencing the functioning of such institutions as the family and mass media. Thus, culture provides the framework within which individual and household lifestyles evolve. The boundaries that culture sets on behavior are called norms, which are simply rules that specify or prohibit certain behaviors in specific situations. Norms are derived from cultural values, or widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable. Violation of cultural norms results in sanctions, or penalties ranging from mild social disapproval to banishment from the group. Thus, as Figure indicates, cultural values give rise to norms and associated sanctions, which in turn influenceconsumption patterns.

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Other-oriented values reflect a society’s view of the appropriate relationships between individuals and groups within that society. These relationships have a major influence on marketing practice. For example, if the society values collective activity, consumers will look toward others for guidance in purchase decisions and will not respond favorably to promotional appeals to “be an individual.”Environment-oriented values prescribe a society’s relationship to its economic andtechnical as well as its physical environment . As a manager, you would develop a verydifferent marketing program for a society that stressed a problem-solving, risk-taking,performance-oriented approach to its environment than you would for a fatalistic, security and status-oriented society.Self-oriented values reflect the objectives and approaches to life that the individualmembers of society find desirable . Again, these values have strong implications for marketing management. For instance, the acceptance and use of credit is very much determined by a society’s position on the value of postponed versus immediate gratification.

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Differences in verbal communication systems (languages) are immediately obvious toanyone entering a foreign culture. An American traveling in Britain or Australia will beable to communicate, but differences in pronunciation, timing, and meaning will still occur. For example, Dogpile, a U.S.-based meta search engine ( www.dogpile.com ), changed its name in Europe to WebFetch after realizing that in the United Kingdom “pile” refers to hemorrhoids or the result of a dog relieving itself! The problems of literal translations and slang expressions are compounded by symbolic meanings associated with words, the absence of some words from various languages, and the difficulty of pronouncing certain words:• In Japan, a global soft-drink company wanted to introduce a product with the attribute “creaminess.” However, research showed that there was not a corresponding word in Japan for this attribute, so the company had to find something comparable, which turned out to be “milk feel.”• Mars addressed the problem of making the M&M’s name pronounceable in France,where neither ampersands nor the apostrophe “s” plural form exists, by advertisingextensively that M&M’s should be pronounced “aimainaimze.”• To market its Ziploc food storage bags in Brazil, Dow Chemical had to use extensiveadvertising to actually create the word zipar, meaning “to zip,” since there was no such term in Portuguese.

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Additional communication factors that can cause problems include humor, style, andpace, for which preferences vary across cultures, even those speaking the same basic language. Nonetheless, verbal language translations generally do not present major problems as long as we are careful. What many of us fail to recognize, however, is that each culture also has nonverbal communication systems or languages that, like verbal languages, are specific to each culture. Nonverbal communication systems are the arbitrary meanings a culture assigns actions, events, and things other than words.

Can you imagine yourself becoming upset or surprised because people in a different culture spoke to you in their native language, say Spanish or German, instead of English? Of course not. We all recognize that verbal languages vary around the world. Yet we generally feel that our nonverbal languages are natural or innate. Therefore, we misinterpret what is being “said” to us because we think we are hearing English when in reality it is Japanese, Italian, or Russian. It is this error that marketers can and must avoid.

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Demographics describe a population in terms of its size, structure, and distribution. Size refers to the number of individuals in the society. Structure describes the society in terms of age, income, education, and occupation. Distribution refers to the physical location of individuals in terms of geographic region and rural, suburban, and urban location.Demographics are both a result and a cause of cultural values. Densely populated societies are likely to have more of a collective orientation than an individualistic one because a collective orientation helps such societies function smoothly. Cultures that value hard work and the acquisition of material wealth are likely to advance economically, which alters their demographics both directly (income) and indirectly (families in economically advanced countries tend to be smaller). A critical aspect of demographics for marketers is income, particularly the distribution of income. One country with a relatively low average income can have a sizable middle incomesegment, while another country with the same average income may have most of the wealth in the hands of a few individuals.

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An important issue facing marketers is the extent to which one or more global consumer cultures or segments are emerging. Evidence suggests that there is indeed movement in this direction. Such a culture would have a shared set of consumption-related symbols with common meaning and desirability among members. One such proposed global culture is that portion of local cultures that view themselves as cosmopolitan, knowledgeable, and modern. Such individuals share many values and consumption-related behaviors with similar individuals across a range of national cultures. Such cultures are being created by the globalization of mass media, work, education, and travel. Some product categories (cell phones, Internet) and brands (Sony, Nike) have become symbolically related to this culture. This does not imply that these brands use the same advertising globally but rather that the underlying theme and symbolism may be the same. Thus, a combined shampoo and conditioner could be positioned as a timesaver for the time-pressured modern career woman. The advertisement might portray the shampoo being used in the context of a gym in the United States or Germany, where many females exercise, but in a home context in Japan, where few women visit gyms. Philips Electronic is one firm that has developed a global positioning strategy based on such a global culture.

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McDonald’s also adapts its store layout. As shown the illustration, separate sectionsfor families and singles are provided in Muslim countries.

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Is the Geographic Area Homogeneous or Heterogeneous with Respect to Culture? Marketing efforts are generally directed at defined geographic areas, primarilypolitical and economic entities. Legal requirements and existing distribution channels often encourage this approach. However, it is also supported by the implicit assumption that geographical or political boundaries coincide with cultural boundaries. Country boundaries represent general tendencies, but differences within a given country are also critical to consider. Thus, marketing campaigns must be developed for cultural and demographic groups, not just countries.What Needs Can This Product or a Version of It Fill in This Culture? Most firmsexamine a new market with an existing product or product technology in mind. The question they must answer is what needs their existing or modified product can fill in the culture involved. For example, bicycles and motorcycles serve primarily recreational needs in the United States, but they provide basic transportation in many other countries. General Foods successfully positioned Tang as a substitute for orange juice at breakfast in the United States. However, in analyzing the French market, it found that the French drink little orange juice and almost none at breakfast. Therefore, a totally different positioning strategy was used; Tang was promoted as a new type of refreshing drink for anytime of the day.

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Can Enough of the People Needing the Product Afford the Product? An initialdemographic analysis is required to determine the number of individuals or households that might need the product and who can actually afford it. For example, although China has over 1.3 billion consumers, the effective market for most Western goods is estimated to be less than 20 percent of this total. What Values or Patterns of Values Are Relevant to the Purchase and Use of This Product? The value system should be investigated for influences on purchasing theproduct, owning the product, using the product, and disposing of the product. Much of the marketing strategy will be based on this analysis.What Are the Distribution, Political, and Legal Structures for the Product? The legal structure of a country can have an impact on each aspect of a firm’s marketing mix.China recently banned TV ads for so-called “offensive” products such as feminine-hygiene products and hemorrhoid ointments The United Kingdom recently banned junk-food ads targeted at kids under the age of 16. And Brazil has put laws in place that limit the amount of alcohol advertising. In What Ways Can We Communicate about the Product? This question requires an investigation into (1) available media and who attends to each type, (2) the needs the product fills, (3) values associated with the product and its use, and (4) the verbal and nonverbal communications systems in the culture(s). All aspects of the firm’s promotional mix—including packaging, nonfunctional product design features, personal selling techniques, and advertising—should be based on these four factors.What Are the Ethical Implications of Marketing This Product in This Country? All marketing programs should be evaluated on ethical as well as financial dimensions.

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Ethnic subcultures are those whose members’ unique shared behaviors are based on a common racial, language, or national background. Although one’s ethnic heritage is a permanent characteristic, its influence is situational. That is, the degree to which a person’s consumption is influenced by his or her ethnicity depends on such factors as who he or she is with, where he or she is, and other physical and social cues. Thus, one’s ethnicity might play no role in a decision to grab a quick bite for lunch during a business meeting and a large role in deciding what to prepare for family dinner. Astute marketers are aggressively pursuing opportunities created by increased ethnicdiversity. However, successful marketing campaigns targeted at different ethnic groups must be based on a thorough understanding of the attitudes and values of each group,

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