SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL

VOLUME 38 NUMBER 4 DECEMBER 1984 605 THIRD AVENUE. NEW YORK, N.Y. 10158

Council Initiates New Fellowship Program in International Security

WITH UPPORT FROM the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Council ha initiated a program of training and research award for MacArthur Foundation Fellow in International Se-curity. The e award will a i t doctoral candidate and recent po tdoctoral cholar to undertake work that may bring fre h per pective to the tudy of peace and security i ue. The fellow hip will be multiple-year award (for a minimum of two year) to upport a combination of advanced training and re-earch at univer itie or other in titution in which

fellow can obtain training in field other than their pre ent pecialitie. There are no citizen hip or re i-dency requirement , and fellow may tudy at any appropriate in titution in the world.

The program i intended to broaden the ba e of re earch in ecurity tudie . Accordingly, application are encouraged from doctoral candidate and cholar in the physical and biological cience or the ociliV behavioral ciences, including foreign area tudie. Becau e the program i. designed to attract new talent and fre h per pective to the field, doctoral candi-date who have pecialized in the study of interna-tional peace and ecurity i ue are not eligible to apply for di ertation re earch and training award . (The MacArthur Foundation ha al 0 granted fellow-hip fund directly to elected univer itie with major

graduate program in ecurity tudie .) The program ha been funded for an initial period of three year.

The author, a politic.tI scientist, i, president of the Council. The text of thi announcement is based in part on the "Annual Report of the President," Social ience Research Council, 1983- 1984 Annual Rf/JOrl, page xiii-xxv.

by Kenneth Prtwilt *

A recent review of the field During the past year, the Council ha collaborated

with the MacArthur Foundation in examining the nature and extent of existing training and re earch acuvltle related to national ecurity-broadly de-fined . Thi tudy of training and re earch re ource in the field of ecurity tudies confirmed the conclu-ion of a number of cholar and national organi-

zation that there is a thinne and a narrowne to

CONTENTS OF THIS ISSUE 61 Council Initiate ew Fellow~hip Program in Inter-

national Securit)'-Kmn,th Prroili 66 Exploring Re earch on Sc.:i nce and Technolog)'-

Ro~rt W. Pt'tlr,IOII 72 Child Development in Life-Course Per. pectiVe-i.Olllllt'

R, SJu.rrod 76 Activitie. of the Joint Area Committee

-Joint Advisory Committee on International Programs (page 76)

-African reo arch overview paper. (page 76) -African agri ulture: con eptuillizing the household

(page 77) -"Afrodik" : creating archive for vi ual material

(page 78) -Discoune in the humanitie. and social iences in

African ~tudie . (page 78) -Myth, and realitie, of the Zairian cri i (page 79) -Gender i ue, in Japanese studies (pag 80) -Party, late, and!>Oci ty in the Rus ian civil war (page

80) -Summer Wor~ hop on Soviet and East Europea n

Economi (page 2) 83 Other ctivitie at the Council

-Findings from the Censu of 19 0 (page 83) -Conceptions of cia (page 83) -Survey of In orne and Program Participation (pag

84) 5 Recent Council Publications

61

curity tudie that few out ide the field have p r-ceived. I Thi ituation exi ts even though everal key private funder , notably the Ford Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation of

ew York, and mo t recently the MacArthur Foun-dation, have inve ted heavily in the development of major univer ity graduate training program . The number of younger cholar at both the pre- and p tdoctorallevel ha been relatively low and limited to a fe\ di iplinary background.

on ider the following data on Ph.D. production taken from Dissertation Ab tracts Online. During the five-year period 1979 to 19 3, approximately 30,000 Ph.D . were granted in the ocial and behavioral i-en e by American univer itie . Of the e, only 155 di ertation were directly related to international peace and ecurity: alliance tructure , economic war-fare, nuclear proliferation, key confrontation of the nuclear power , regional in tabilitie , the evolution of military trategy and weapon, and the field' core i ue of deterrence theory, nuclear trategy, and the con equence of nuclear war.

The Ford Foundation International peace, ecurity and arm control i ue hould

be tudied broadly. It is not urficient-and i indeed mi -leading and con tricting-to focus narrowly on technical mili-tary capabilitie , either nuclear or conventional, trategic doc-trine or arm control negotiation . Rather, it i nece ary to e plore the broader political, economic, hi torical, social, p y-chological and organizational dim n ion of how tates iden-tifyand eek to achieve their ecurityobjective, and the con-dition required to mitigate or re Ive confli ts.

C'Re ults of the Ford Foundation' 19 3 International Competition for In titutional Re arch and Training Grant in International Peace,

urityand rm Control." ew York: Ford Foundation, 1983, un publi hed report, page 2.)

There are about 650 graduate departments in the 0-cial and behavioral cience in U. . univer itie ; from 1979 to 1983, only nine of the e produced a many a one di rtation per year on the ecurity topi Ii ted above. During the arne period, more than 5,600 Ph.Os. were earned in economics-only even of the e in-volved i ue related to international peace and e-curity. Political cience department trained mo t of the tudent of international ecurity-122 of them. But while the e 122 tudents were being trained, more than five time a many political cience di er-

I everal foundation and national organization have recently r vi w d th fi Id of international pea e and ecurity tudi and have i. u d report on some of their con lu ion . Quotati n from four of th ~e report. are located in bo e throughout thi announcement.

62

tation were being written on electoral behavior and public opinion alon . I ndeed, there were almo t a many di ertation on how children and youth ac-quire their political belief a there were on deter-r nce theory, nuclear trategy, and the con equence. of nuclear war. Although the trend in Ph.D. produc-tion in peace and ecurity tudie i up, trongly. 0, the per onnel ba e will remain mall for orne tim . It will a1 0 remain mall in the clo ely-related field of

oviet tudie, which ha al 0 uffered a p riod of neglect. There exi t, howe er, important training program in the oviet tudie field.2

Expanding training and re earch in international peace and ecurity tudie i not a mode t ta k, A broadened conception of ecurity require that we go beyond familiar form of interdi ciplinary exchange, in which cro -interrogation a i ts di cipline to bor-row from each other. The more demanding endeavor called for i an intellectual integration that ynthe ize and thereby create a new ba i for cientific work and policy di cour e. The ta k i complicated by two di-men ion of traditional ecurity tudie : their roots in the natural cience and their clo e connection with national policy .

Roots in the natural sciences Among the di cipline traditionally repre ented in

ecurity tudies are phy ic , engineering, and opera-tion re earch. The e di cipline have conducted the fundamental tudie of the trategic implication of

I The Council and the American Council of Learned Societie (ACLS) currently pon or two program related to the viet Union. The Joint Committee on viet tudie, admini tered by the Council, funds di ertation write-up e pen e for doctoral candidates in Ru ian and viet tudie. The International Re-earch and Exchange Board (IREX), admini ter d by ACLS,

manage a variety of re earch exchange program with the viet Union and the countrie of Ea tern Europe, a well a a devel-opmental fellow hip program for pecial advanced training prior to e change vi its to the Soviet Union and Ea tern Europe (IREX i located at 655 Third Avenue, ew York, ew York 10017.) Columbia Univer ity admini ter on behalf of the Ford Founda-tion a Program in viet and Ea. t European International ur-ity tudi ,which award fellow hip to tudent in Soviet area tudie to a quire competen e in international ecurity tudie. or

to tudent of international ecurity tudie to acquire compe-tence in Soviet area tudie. Three academi program that have recently received major foundation upport are the W. verell Harriman In titute for Advan ed tudy of the vi t Union,

lumbia Univer ity; the niver ity of California, Berkeleyl tanford Univer ity Program n viet International Behavior;

and the Rand/UCLA enter for the tudyof viet International Behavior. A guide to graduate programs in viet international behavior i being prepared by the Joint Committee on Sovi t

tudi and will be available in early pring, J 9 5.

VOL Mt. 38, . .1Bt.R 4

complex weapon y tern , which involve the analy i of development in uch technologie a micro-electronic, metallurgy, radar, directed energy, and upercomputer. ocial and behavioral cienti t in-

tent on eriou ly engaging peace, ecurity, and di -armament i ue will have to attend to the relevant technical literature, not to mention the theorie and finding of a long-e tabli hed field. The arm race ha its own grammar, one ba ed on a technical vocabulary for which few ocial cienti t are prepared by their formal training.

The Rand Corporation Que tions of maintaining peace or waging war have

traditionally been the province of trategy and policy analy i , but other di ipline may have knowledge that could be tran lated into u ful re pon e , including the ultimate que -tion of how to avert nuclear war. In particular, the behavioral cience [very broadly defined in this document], which gener-

ally addre i ue of deci ionmaking, judgment, perception, and ocial influen e, may offer ugge tion for policy based on concrete application drawn from tho e general topi .

O P. Kahan et aI., Prromtmg uckar Conflict: What Call 1M Bthavioral rima CO'ltribultr anta Monica, California: The Rand Corporation,

December 19 3, page I.)

Connections with national policy If contemporary international peace and ecurity

tudie have a perva ive technical dimen ion, they al 0 have a trong policy focu , and con equently are deeply enme hed in the political proce . cholar now promi ing to make a contribution mu t learn to operate in that ambiguou arena where a re earch agenda and a policy agenda overlap. Thi doe not preclude critici m of prevailing policie ,ju t a it ha not precluded a tron critical tradition in e tabli hed peace and ecurity tudie. But it doe a ume that advancing the policy di cu ion will rank high on the Ii t of purpo e to be erved. Thi i not a familiar, or comfortable, po ition for many foreign area cholar and other ocial scientist. or will many cholar be prepared for the inten e politization that e pe-cially impinge upon arm control and di armament tudie .

Rationale for a new fellowship program In cooperation with the MacArthur Foundation,

the Council explored variou trategie that might re pond to the e concern for new re earch and training in international peace and ecurity. Not ur-pri ingly, attention quickly focu ed on a national fel-

DI:.U.MBI:.R 1984

low hip program that would combine advanced training and re earch, encourage cholarly intere t from the full range of relevant academic di cipline , tre the recruitment of junior cholar at the doc-

toral and po tdoctoral level, and involve cholar from many nation. Fellow hip competition have frequently been a major impetu for field develop-ment. Notable examples are the Ford Foundation Foreign Area Fellow hip Program (tran ferred to the American Council of Learned ocietie and the So-cial cience Re earch Council in 1962); the Depart-ment of Labor Di ertation Award Program (1966 to 1983, tran ferred to the National Council on Em-ployment Policy, 1979-1980, and then to the Council, 1980-1983); the Council' Re earch Training Fellow-hip Program (1930-1981); and the recently-e tab-

Ii hed Mellon Fellow hip Program in the Hu-manitie . In each ca e, the availability of ub tan-tial upport for training and re earch in the early career period ha :

Attracted young cholar to the field Broken down exi ting di ciplinary boundarie Allowed young cholar to broaden their training

through expo ure to in tructor at more than one in titution

Created re earch network and elf-con ciou cohorts

timulated new re earch approache

election proce e typically involve knowledgeable program taff working clo ely with creening and selection committee of leading cholar who have a broad vi ion of field development needs and oppor-tunitie . Further, ucce ful program have been de-igned with ufficient flexibility to re pond to

emerging re earch trend , to provide feedback and guidance to awardee , and to create and u tain new

The National Re earch Council ... there are a number of area. of past and current research

in the behavioral and social scien es that may be relevant, directly or indirectly, to one or another a peet of the problem of redu ing the ri ks of nu lear connict. Even more important, it seems likely that future research in these di iplines ould yield in ights of potential utility to decision makers, negotiator, opinion leaders, and the public.

("Prospectu for an d Hoc Meeting to E"plole Potenti,tI Contribu-tion of the Social and Behavioral iences to Redu ing the Ri\k of Nuclear Conflict." Commi. ion on Behdvioral dnd Social Science\ and Education, National Academy of Sci nce~~ationdl Re\eilrch Coun-cil. Wa hington, D .. : rhe Coun ii, Jun 19 4, pilge I.)

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64

MacArthur Foundation Fellowships in International Security 1985-1986

SUMMARY OF THE PROGRAM

Po.5tdoctoraL and Dissertation FeLLow hipJ

Purpo To encourage new approach to the study of peace and ecurity

To encourage the application of theori and m thod from diver e disciplin to i. ue of international peace and ecurity To upport advanced training and re earch in interna-tional peace and urity tudies for holars and doctoral students in the phy i al and biologi al ciences or the ocial/behavioral scien e , including foreign area tudie

Program PO.ltdoctoral ftllow\hip.~ include support for one year of

advanced training and one year of research applying knowledge gained during the training ear. For scholar entering the field of international peace and security tudies, the year of advanced training mu t be in a specific area of pea and security tudies that will inform the re-earch to be conducted during the second year. For scholar

who have previou Iy pecialized in international pea e and ecurity tudie, the year of advanced training mu t be in a

specifi area of the phy ical and biological science or the ociallbehavioral scien e , including foreign area studie ,

that will inform the r search to be conducted during the econd year.

Di\Strtfltioll rtsmrch and trainillgftllow. hips add one year of training to the normal graduate program. During thi year, fellow will have an opportunity to combine their previou disciplinary skills with pecialized training in international peace and ecurity. A second year of upport i provided for dissertation re earch which hould reflect the broadened per pective acquired during the training year.

Training may occur at an in titution of the applicant' choice and may consist of formal cour work, tutorial , or supervised study with relevant faculty.

Awards An award of 30,000 per year for po tdoctoral fellow

and 15,000 per year for di ertation fellow is provided to cover living expen e, travel, and re earch ct. Ad-ditionally, funds are available for the payment of fee at institutions ho ting a fellow' training or r search. Fellow-ship may begin immediately upon announcement of the award but no later than 18 month following the an-nouncement of po tdoctoral award and no later than 12 months following the announcement of d. ertaUon award .

Sponsor hip The fellow hip are admini tered by the Social Science

R search Council a part of it program in International Peace and Security tudie. Fund for the fellow hip are provided by a grant to the Council from the John D. and Catherine T . MacArthur Foundation.

Selection Procedure Awards are made on the ba is of evaluation and recom-

mendation of a Council-appointed Fellow hip election Committee for International Peace and Security tudie. This committee i interdisciplinary and international in compo ition. Preliminary creening may be conducted by review panel with experti in an applicant' area of schol-arly intere l.

Eligibility Open to scholar of any nationality and from any

country For scholar in any recognized field of the phy ical and

biological ci nce. or theociaUbehavioral scien es, includ-ing foreign ar a tudic

At tht po.ltdoctoral Itvtl, for s holars who hold or will .hold (when the fellow. hip comm nc ) an earned Ph.D. degree or its equivdlent in anyone of the e di cipline

At tilt di.t trllltioll lrotl, for tudent who are candidates for the Ph.D. degree or its equival nt in anyone of these di ciplines, who hav ompleted all requirem nts for the degree except the di. ertation or who will have met th e requirement when the fellow hip commences. ( tud nts who have speciali7ed in th tudy of international peace and security i su s arc not eligible for award at the di ertation level.)

Application deadlines

March 31, 19 5 July 31, 19 5

Announcements of awards

June I, 19 5 Oct be. I, 19 5

For a brochure or application materials, writ

Social . ience Research Council Program in International Peace

and urity tudie 605 Third Avenue

New York, . ew York 10158 (212) 661-0280

VOLUME 38, N MBER 4

The Carnegie Corporation and the MacArthur Foundation ... it i highly important to broaden the range of di cipline from whi h engaged and effective contributiom are made, and abo to

deepen the capacity of both individuals and group for the kind of analy i that require under tanding of more than one holarly topic. The connection b tween phy ics and politic in nuclear weapon policy is obviou ,but the number of worker who have direct ma tery of both ubj ts i ex eedingly small. ... When we widen our per pe live to include the way of thought of the p ychologist and the hi torian, or the tudent of organization or deci ion-making or mammalian behavior, we ee that connections of many orts are both po ible and promi ing.

("To Make a Difference: A Report on eed and Opportunities for Philanthropi Action in the Field of International Security." npubli\hed report prepared for th Carnegie Corporation and the Ma Arthur Foundation by a committee under the chairman hip of McGeorge Bundy, New York Univer ity, April 19 4, page 5-6.)

re earch networks-all purpo e de irable for inter-national peace and ecurity tudie.

The MacArthur Foundation Fellow hip in Inter-national ecurity, at both the pre- and po tdoctoral level , will combine training and re earch. The intent i both to trengthen and to broaden ecurity tudi . " trengthen" here mean adding to the number of active cholar in the field while providing training upport to tho e already committed to peace and e-

curity tudie. "Broaden" i u ed in three clo ely re-lated way . Fir t, the program will allow tudents to place their previou training in a broader context and encourage them to frame more ambitiou re earch que tion than would have been likely in the ab ence of thi training opportunity. For example, a

ovietologi t trained in defen e policy might do ad-vanced training in Ru ian hi tory, and then de ign re earch which place contemporary defen e policy in a hi torical context. A phy icist trained in the analy i of complex weapon y tern might do advanced training in the economic and politic of weapon procurement, and then de ign research which place di armament negotiation in an economic-political context.

econd, the program will broaden the field by re-cruitin holars trained in a diversity of cientific di cipline who in the ab ence of the program might never have focu. ed their methodologie and ana-lyti al approache on i ue of international peace and ecurity. A pecialist in African politic might be encouraged to consider the con equence of outh Africa' trategic mineral depo it for both the local political economy and pattern. of international ten-ion; a ociologi t of complex organization with ad-

DECEMBER 1984

ditional training might conduct re earch on military command and control hierarchies; or a computer ci-enti t might receive advanced training in deterrence theory in order to con ider how development in upercomputing affect cri i management.

Finally, a. a con equence of thi multidimen ional effort to broad n the field, the re earch and training program will eek out and fund junior cholar who can frame re earch problem which connect domain of inquiry that are now largely eparate. If uc-ce ful, the program will each year add to the upply of scholar who how promi e for innovative, ynthetic re earch. The program will view favorably candidate who anticipate re earch career at the inter ection of uch policy domain a energy re ource , population

movement , international economics, and other area of tudy not commonly con idered central to the e-curity field.

Applications for fellowships

Approximately 30 MacArthur Foundation Fellow-hip in International ecurity will be awarded in

1985. In order that orne fellow will be able to begin work a early a eptember 1985, the Council ha di eminated information rapidly to a wide audience. An adverti ement was placed in cience magazine, announcement have been ent to profe ional new -letters, and brochure have been mailed to more than 6,000 dean, director, and departments. Highlight of the fellow hip program are ummarized on page 64. Intere ted reader are encouraged to write to the Council for a brochure or application material. 0

65

Exploring Research on Science and Technology

RECENT YEAR' have witne ed an accelerated growth of cholarly intere t in the relationship be-tween ociety, cience, and technology. 1 Thi atten-tion i ea ily under tood. Communication tech-nologie alter pattern of ocial interaction; develop-ment in chemi try and biology affect the products and proce e of agricultural production and thu pattern of human ettlement; and advance in ma-terial cience and their technologie permit the continued development of more ophi ticated and potentially de tructive weaponry, contributing to change in the way in which nation relate to each other. Moreover, cienti t and engineer have be-come more numerou and vi ible in the developed world and are more eagerly ought by Ie developed countrie a cience and technology are increa ingly thought to provide the ba i for advantage in a com-petitive international economy.

The Council ha attempted to encourage and facilitate re earch in thi broad area through everal program. The ubcommittee on cience and Technology Indicator (upported by a grant from the National cience Foundation to the Committee on ocial Indicator) ought to improve the mea-urement and quantitative analy i of the condition

of cience and technology. Current Council activitie on the role of computer in contemporary ociety ( upported by a grant from the John and Mary R. Markle Foundation) are intended to facilitate re-earch on the ocial con equence of a particular-

albeit extremely complex-technology in a na cent field that i characterized by a fugitive literature and little empirical re earch.

The author, a political scienti t, is a taff a sociate at the Council, where on of hi a ignm nt i the uncil' exploratory program on the social consequence of computer.

I Increa ing member hip and activity characteriz uch organi-zation a the Hi tory of ience Society, the Philosophy of i-ence ssociation, the i ty for the Hi tory of Technology, and the iety for Social tudie of ience. Journal in thi area now include: Britilh Journal for 1M History of eima; Tht Bullttin if SomCt, Ttchnolo/fY, and ocitty; Cmllmrus; Hiltory of TtchnoloKj; I is; .\1intrv(/; R&D Managtmmt; RtItarch Policy; eitnet, TtehnoloKj, and Hurrum Valut. ; cimtomttric. ; ocial tudit. if ritner; ocioloKj of tht Scimw: A Ytarbook; Ttehnological Forte~ ting and ocinl Chfl1lgt; TfChnolo/fY and CultUrt; and th 4 Rroitw.

66

The reflectlons of six scholars at a board symposium

by Robert W. Pear. on

The ending of the Council' program in science and technology indicator and the initiation of a new program on the ocial con equence of computer marks a junction in the Council' concern for cience and technology tudie. It al 0 provide an opportu-nity to reflect on thi field of inquiry and to con ider que tion in the tudy of cience, technology, and ociety that call for greater attention. Thi reflection

wa the purpo e of a ympo ium on Science and Technology Studie that the Council' board con-vened on June 11, 1984.

To reflect thi dual purpo e, the ympo ium wa divided into two panel . The morning panel, "The Politic of Knowledge," included pre entation by Arnold Thackray, Univer ity of Penn ylvania, "An Overview of the Field of Study"; Theda Skocpol, U niver ity of Chicago, "Governmental Structure, ocial Science, and the Development of Economic

and ocial Policie "; and Loren Graham, Ma achu-ett In titute of Technology, " cience Policy in the

United tate. and the Soviet Union: Citizen Partici-pation in Policie Toward Molecular Biology." The afternoon panel, " tudying the ocial Con equence of Technologie ," included pre entation by Gavriel Salomon, Tel Aviv Univer ity, "The Computer a Educator: Le on from Televi 'ion Re earch"; Roger E. Ka per on, Clark Univer ity, "Information a a Hazardou. Commodity"; and Melvin Kranzberg, Georgia In. titute of Technology, "Looking Back-ward: tudying the ocial Con equence of the Computer in the Year 2000."

A fragmented field of study A with many fields of inquiry in the ocial and

behavioral . cience., science and technology tudie have grown increa. ingly divided along traditional di -ciplinar boundarie. In hi pre entation, Arnold Thackray sugge ted that this field i fragmented into three major intellectual communitie acro which di cour e i extremely limited. holar intere ted in (1) the hi tory and ociology of cience proceed inde-pendently of . cholar. concerned with (2) the eco-nomic of R&D and cience policy. And each of the e tream of inquiry within the broader field of cience

VOL fE 38, UMBER 4

and technology tudie tend to proceed apart from tho e who tudy (3) the ethic and values of cience and technology. 2

Thackray noted that the ize and fragmented tructure of thi international field of inquiry i Iml-

lar to that in the ocial cience when the Council wa founded in 1923. Diver e approache to the tudy of cience and technology call for a mechani m with

which cholar can explore the po ibility of common agenda.

One uch theme around which common re earch agenda might be developed i the politic of cience, an area that Thackray tated i relatively neglected within the ocial tudies of cience.

The scholarly neglect of the politics of science

The cholarly neglect of thi area is surpri ing. A a 100 ely defined enterpri e, science i (1) large (e ti-mated expenditure for R&D within the United State alone amounted to nearly 100 billion in 1984); (2) international (e.g., 55 per cent of all citations found in U.S. phy ic journal in 1980 were to publications in other countrie ); and (3) linked c10 ely to economic and military concern (e.g., private indu try up-ported half of all R&D in the United States in 1984 and 70 per cent of federal funds for R&D were de-voted to defen e).3 Scientific knowledge and the people and in titution that produce it are embedded within political and cultural y tem that hape, en-courage, impede, and give it ocial meaning. Science ha taken on a ymbolic meaning, largely po itive in many culture , that people u e to confer legitimacy or tatu on them elve or their activitie .

The poLitics of the ocial ciences. Nowhere doe a con-cern for under tanding the politic of cientific knowledge ari e with greater force or more practical con equence for ocial cienti ts than in the tudy of the relation hip between social science and ocial pol-icy, a Theda Skocpol argued in her pre entation, "Governmental Structure, ocial Science, and the Development of Economic and ocial Policie ."

Z A ment regarding the "fragmentation" and "Balkaniza-tion" oftudie, of cien ,technology, and ociety can be found in Ina piegel-Ro ing and Derek de lIa Price, editors, cu.na TuhlW/OIf), and Saci,ry. London and Beverly Hill ,California: age Publicalions, 1977; and Howdrd D. White and Be\ver C. riffith, "Author. as Marker of Intellectual Space,"Journal of Docummta-tiOll, 3 (4):255-272, 1982.

3 ee alional 'ience Bo.lrd, Sevllu IlIdicntoY.l-1982. Wa h-ington, D.C.: Governm nt Printing Office, 19 4.

DlClMBlR 19 4

kocpol ugge ted that hi torical and comparative tudie make it clear that governments and their ac-

tivitie have profoundly affected the emergence, 0-cial organization, and intellectual orientation of the ocial cience. In turn, variou Iy organized and

oriented ocial cience have influenced the overall hape and content of ocial and economic policie .

Agricultural economic and rural ociology have been eparately organized in many American univer-itie in part becau e of the prominence of the U.S.

Department of Agriculture and the federal- tate ex-ten ion ervice within America' generally weak and decentralized public admini tration. From the late 19th century through the 1920 , the e government agencies provided the re ources-and incentives-for partially di tinct di cipline oriented to accumulating appropriate, policy-relevant ocial knowledge through empirical re earch on farmer and farm condition . In part becau e of their inclinations and career experiences, ocial cienti t within the e policy- and practice-oriented di ciplines were better prepared than many other knowledge-bearing pro-fe sion to help fashion federal program during the 1930 .

During the ame period that agricultural economic and rural ociology acquired the e characteri tic and experience , a full array of univer ity-ba ed ocial cience di cipline developed in the United State .

The e di cipline included tho e committed to "pure" theorie and "ba ic" re earch u ing increa ingly ophi ticated quantitative method a well a the more

"practical" and "applied" per pective of agricultural economic . Skocpol noted that the relatively delayed emergence of a national American welfare tate may help explain why American ociology turned from its turn-of-the-century normative preoccupation with pecific urban social problem toward a more

theoretically-oriented et of que tion and a more tati tically-ba ed et of re earch trategie aimed at

under tanding ociety a a whole. The lack of "de-mand" from the national government for an wer to practical problem made it po ible for them to turn toward theory and y tematic re earch.

American government i both fragmented in it tructure and adver arial in it proce es. It may not

be urpri ing, therefore, that American ocial cience i a fragmented and competitive a one of the source of it upport and object of it tudy. or I It ur-pri ing that many academic ocial cienti t who have tried to influence national public policy have not uc-ceeded. American ocial cience ha attained interna-tional recognition for it extraordinary methodologi-cal ophi tication and analyti al creativene ,not for

67

its critici m of the premi e of exi ting line of public action.4

The intellectuaL fruits of comparative anaLy is: the ovitt Union and the United tate. Perhap no better illu tra-tion of the reward of comparative hi torical re earch i provided than by comparing cience policy in the

oviet Union and the United tate. Loren Graham de cribed the role of lay participation in the evalua-tion of cientific re earch and the u e of computer in the United tate and the oviet Union to illu trate the need for cautiou Iy interpreting or foreca ting the con quence of cience and technology.

The oviet Union po e orne rather intriguing in-tellectual puzzle for tho e who wi h to tudy the politic of cience. If, for example, the tructure and proce e of a nation' cience policy play an impor-tant role in the content and quality of cientific en-dea or , why do France and the oviet Union, which have uch imilar cience policie ,produce uch dif-ferent re ult ? Why, if the apparatu of the tate i 0 important, doe the oviet Union tend to excel primarily in tho e area of cience in which it wa trong prior to 1917? Why-de pite the ab ence of lay

participation-did a politically autonomou commi-ion in the oviet Union draft rule in 1978 for re-earch on recombinant DNA that mirrored tho e

formulated in the United tates, where there had been con iderable public debate and participation two to three year before?

The arm -length di tance between many ocial ci-enti t and policy maker in the United tate i con-i tent not only with governmental tructure and

proce e but al 0 with the wide pread di tinction between fact and value; cienti t claiming (and being given) pecial authority with re pect to "finding the facts." The unique claim to authority in thi latter domain by cienti t , however, ha been increa ingly challenged in the United tate a the boundary be-tween fact and value b come permeable in uch ub-ject a the definition of death, the regulation of re-earch u ing human ubject, and the creation or

modification of the genetic makeup of living or-gam m.

Lay participation in the evaluation of cientific re-earch i now well e tabli hed in hundred of univer-

4 Martin Bulmer, " cien e, Theory, and Value in Social Sci-ence Research on Povert : The United tate and Britain," Com-/Xlmtiv, ocUli Rmarch, 6:353-369, 19 3; Walter Korpi, "Ap-proache to the tudy of Poverty in the United tate: Critical Notes from a European Per pective," in Vincent T. Covello, editor. Pov"ty and Public Policy: An Evaluation of Social oma R,,,arch. Cambridge. Ma a hu elts: Schenkman. 19 O.

68

ltle and re earch in titution in the United tate through In titutional Review Board. The e are con-iderably Ie well e tabli hed in the oviet Union. It i

perhap ironic that Marxi t philo opher have joined with Ru ian Orthodox prie ts in clamoring-thu far un ucce fully-that they be appointed to re earch review committee . Member of the oviet Academy have ucce fully re i ted uch "intru ion " by argu-ing that their member hip in the Party largely ob-viate any further outside control. Moreover, oviet Academician re i t tate intervention by pointing toward its damaging con equence . The mo t promi-nent example i the government' former ideo-logically-ba ed antipathy toward Mendelian ge-neti which, under T. D. Ly enko, help d cripple biological re earch.

Comparative hi torical re earch help illuminate the tudy of the con equence of both technology and cience. Graham u ed the example of computer to

illustrate two common error of noncomparative re-earch: (I) the failure to recognize the breadth of

po ible application of uch technologie , and (2) the failure to recognize that ocietie (or their governing elite) can modify, facilitate, or impede the u of technologie to protect the prevailing ocial and political order. Here it i in tructive to ob erve that the fear of orne We tern ob erver that computer provide the mean to realize the Orwellian image of 1984 find its counterpart in the oviet Union where government leader fear that the wide pread u e of per onal computer may lead to the 10 . of govern-ment control over information and the disruption of ocial order. In the oviet Union, the computer

repre ents--i.e., can be u ed as--an unregulated and uncen ored printing pre . To date, computer in the

oviet Union have been in titutionally hou ed and controlled, but at the co ts of retarding the growth of computer literacy and of limiting the efficiencie of information proce ing that computer have brought about el ewhere.

Studying the social consequences of computers The computer i championed (and criti ized) a the

defining technology of contemporary ociety. It i ea y to find progno e of it current or imminent con equence for the way we live, communicate, work, and think of our elve . Claim are made, for example, that the computer will reveal and amplify the logic of rea oning or that the computer will remake and rede-fine man' relation to nature and to him elf, thu endowing people with the qualitie of the technology a well a animating the technology in their likene .

VOL fE 38, MBER 4

There are few topic on which 0 much ha b en written recently in the pre yet on which 0 little empirical re earch ha been conducted.

There are ign, however, that the cholarly com-munity i re ponding to the need for uch re earch. The very way in which ocial re earch i concep-tualized, funded, and conducted ha become in-crea ingly affected by per onal computer and word proce or, enhanced facilitie to manipulate data, and changing way in which cholar can communi-cate with colleague or tudents. Many in titution have committed them elve to providing their mem-ber with the e tool. In everal in tance , univer itie and bu ine e have done 0 with ufficient cientific elf-con ciou ne , elf-que tioning, and elf-doubt to

have opened them elve to cholar who are a e ing the computer' effect on performance, cognitive pro-ce e, and the well-being of their member .

In orne in tance , recently completed re earch and work till in progre ha been de igned to permit ob ervation before, a well a continued and repeated ob ervation after, the introduction of computer. In orne tudie, ubjects have been randomly a igned

to "treatment" and "control" group of tudent or worker ,thu permitting inve tigator to unravel the effect of the computer from the complexity of other factor that affect performance, cognition, etc. Other Ie "controlled" tudie and more fine-grained ca e tudie promi e to enrich the di cipline ' de criptive

under tanding of the phenomena and to generate new concept and theorie . But if the above ob erva-tion about the tructure of re earch on cience and technology-and perhap the ocial cience in the United tate more generally-are applicable in thi area, we an expect re earch on the effects of the computer to be fragmented, theoretically narrow, and uncoordinated.

The computer a educator: Ie. on: from television re-earch. Gavriel alomon called attention to what he

feared may be 10 t in the predicted on laught of re-earch on the con equence of the computer. He

noted that earlier prediction -both dire and wonderful-have been made about the cognitive ef-fect of the printing pre ,radio, and televi ion. But regretably, the relevant ocial cience have not un-veiled the cumulative effects of the e technologie . In tead, mo t re earch ha focu ed on uch immedi-ate effects a arou al and entertainment. Rarely ha it been conceptualized or de igned to tudy more long-term effect .

The effects of computer are unlikely to fit com-fortably within the framework of technological de-termini m and uniform effects that re earch on other

DECEMBER 1984

technologie ha too often employed. People are agents a well a object of change and can be ex-pected to u e (or ignore) the computer in way that mirror, reinforce, or amplify pre-exi ting per onal characteri tic or ocial relation hip ,a well a change them. omputer are a technology with an infinite number and variety of function ; there i no computer with a capital "C." Computer are unlikely to have any more uniform effects than re earch ha hown televi ion to have. imilarly, the technology

may have off etting con equ nce ,a the automobile may have both encouraged church attendance among orne geographically-di p r ed farmer at the arne

time that it di couraged the attendance of other by providing recreational alternative .5

alomon further urged that future re earch on computer not naively a ume that the technology in it elf ha an impact. Already-completed re earch on the effect of computer-ba ed in truction (CBI) re-veal appreciable hort-term effects for CBI only when com pari on are made between different teacher of CBI and "conventional" cia e . Little dif-ference i found when the arne teacher u e both BI and conventional method of in truction.6

In tructor and other influence thu mediate the impact of a particular technology a it i applied in chool. Change in in tructor or cia room organiza-

tion frequently accompany the introduction of com-puter , thereby confounding analy e that eek to un-cover the unique con equence of computer while under coring the importance of re earch de ign that incorporate appropriate control group .

alomon a1 0 que tioned the role of computer in chooling. It i very likely that chool them elve

mu t be changed if they are to take full advantage of the computer' potential effect. Thi i unlikely to happen oon if at all; chool are more likely to adapt new technologie to current practice and ocial tructure than vice ver a. In many way uch "adap-

tation" are ea ily explained. The more difficult que tion i e aluati e or philo ophical: hould chool b required to change in uch a way a to

obtain full value from thi new technology? The complexity of the que tion i revealed by the

realization that chool are more than imply in titu-tion for learning; they provide child care and they

5 Claude . Fi her," tudying Technology and . ial Life," in M. Castells, editor, TtchllOloKY, pact, and ocitty: ETMrging Trtnds. Beverly Hill ,California: age Publication , forthcoming.

J. A. Kulik, C. L. C. Kulik, and P. A. Cohen, "Effectivene of Computer-Based College Teaching: A Meta-Analy i of Find-ings," RroiLw of Education Rt tarch, 50 :52~544, 19 O.

69

erve a agents for ocialization. What effect would change in school de igned better to erve one func-tion have on one of the e other function? alomon a ked whether computer might not be introduced in uch a way a to amplify exi ting inequitie and to

reinforce a belief among orne children that they in-deed know very little and that they have little hope of learning more.

A essing tM risks of information. Under tanding or predicting the con equence of the computer i a ub-et of a larger cla of tudie that attempt to mea ure

and a e the con equence of technology. A par-ticular line of inquiry under thi larger umbrella trace it lineage to work that began initially in the space and nuclear power program of the 1960 . Ri k a e ment-the subject of a pre entation by Roger Kasper on- eek to identify, mea ure, and a e the ocial meaning of ri k po ed to ociety by a given

technology. Impetu for recent re earch on ri k a e ment

derive from the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and from earlier advances in thi country' nuclear and space programs. Its twin underpinning are theories of probability and of deci ion making. One approach to risk a es ment attempts to develop cau al model that decompo e the elements of a par-ticular hazard into tage during which the ri k can be controlled or minimized.

Ka per on de cribed three major realm of hazard: energy, materials, and information. Con iderable at-tention ha been paid to the first two of the e realm but very little to the potential ri k of information. Ka per on argued that in ofar a hazard are defined a threats to people and what they value, the exclu-ion of information technologie from hazard a e -

ment i unwarranted. A information and the technologie that facilitate it accumulation and di -per ion increa e, 0 al 0 doe the need to develop new concepts of management or to apply existing meth-odological tool to under tand it con equence .

Information can be conceived of a falling into ev-eral cla e of hazard: (1) toxicity, e.g., violence on televi ion; (2) theft, e.g., copyright violation; and (3) infonnation overload.

The tudy of information a a hazard naturally produce methodological and epi temological diffi-cultie imilar to tho e pre ented by it metaphorical kin in energy and material . For example, there exi t major ambiguitie in mea uring the actual do age of information received by individual. Multiple ource of expo ure are typical and difficult to di entangle analytically. Furthermore, information per i ts in

70

time and may abbreviate pace ina much a it can be moved at great peed and volume. Managing the hazard of information are imilarly problematic: the peed of its diffu ion does not provide an opportunity

to learn through trial and error or imulation; the value of liberal democracy (e.g., privacy, limitations on government intervention) argue again t its control or regulation; and there are cientific limit to under-tanding the con equence of uch complex cau al equence.

Analogou to alomon' a ertion that computer, like televi ion, are unlikely to produce uniform ef-fects, ri k a e ment doe not typically mea ure the effects of an "average" do e on the "average" per on. Attention i usually directed toward identifying which individual or groups are en itive to what levels of expo ure (although it i often nece ary to create control group in order to e tabli h ba e lines of ex-po ure to the type of information under con idera-tion).

Information differ in important respects from nu-clear wa te or toxic chemical . Individuals can more ea ily ignore information than they can ignore an expo ure to dioxin. Moreover, regulating informa-tion rai e a ho t of que tion that touch upon a con-cern for the protection of free peech and the unfet-tered operation of the marketplace of ideas.

Looking backward from the year 2000: technology since 1984. Melvin Kranzberg applied the tools of a hi to-rian of technology to ugge t how one might tudy the con equence of computer . Hi metaphor and con-cepts differ in everal way from Ka per on' . In place of toxicity, a hi torian attend to, or expects to find, lagged effect , clu ter of related technologie , unevenly-di tributed con equence , and elf-correc-ting y tern of purpo ive actor who are capable of making both elf-denying prophecie and elf-fulfilling one . It i al 0 likely that while the computer grab the headline , other new technologie are or will have equally important con equences for ocial change and economic development. It would be a mi take to attend only to the con equence of com-puter while ignoring, for example, the need to study the con equence of new compo ite and ynthetic material.

Ifhi tory promi e a cautiou guide to the future, it i likely that the con equence of the computer will not occur a quickly or a completely a they are now anticipated or dreaded. "Technological revolution " do not take place a oon a a new technology ap-pear. Kranzberg ugge ted that it may be in tructive, for example, to remember that nearly a century after

VOL ME 38, NUMBER 4

Jame Watt' engine began the "Age of team," more aggregate power wa generated in Britain by waterwheel . It i equally in tructive to remember that the diffu ion of technologie i not alway linear and cumulative. Twenty-five year after the dawn of the nuclear age in the United tate, more energy i generated from the burning of wood, and the growth of the nuclear power indu try it elf ha come to a nearly complete stop.

The variety of function that computer erve ug-ge ts that it con equence will be mixed, unevenly di tributed, and diffu ed, a imilated, and modified at uneven rate. While computer technologie may facilitate greater di per ion of more pecialized man-ufacturing production units, for example, trend toward financial concentration may continue un-abated for 10-20 year, encouraged by the arne technologie .

Prediction about the likely future of re arch on computer may be made with more confidence than prediction about the likely con equence of com-puter them elve . Kranzberg predicted that much of thi re earch will divide the problem into its imple t elements. Although thi philo ophical reductioni m ha contributed to the advancement of knowledge in thi and other area, the very technology under examination-along with its a ociated c1u ter of in-crea ingly ophi ticated analytic oftware, imulation model , and data ba e -permit more complex analy e than have been pre iou ly po ible in the ocial cience. Kranzberg argued that it may now be

po ible to take a more holi tic approach that include ocial a well a natural ecology in inve tigating the

interaction of ociety with cience and technology. Kranzberg concluded by re tating Thackray' call

for the ouncil to provide a mechani m for coor-dinating diver e cholar hip, to draw attention to un-attended interdi ciplinary que. tion ,to ugge t tan-dard for re earch, and to encourage ba. ic contribu-tion in methodology. Heretofore, ocial cience ha focu ed on the individual element of ocial interac-tion, the mall par ,a in the dot of George eurat' Pointilli m. The dot mu t and can now be put to-gether into a meaningful picture of ociety and it relation hip to ci nee and technology.

D ECEMBER 1984

The Council's future program

In many re pect , the ympo ium wa intended to initiate an ongoing di cu ion rather than determine what and how the Council hould proceed in the domain of cience and technology tudie. It accom-pli hed it purpo e admirably. It al 0 went beyond thi function by offering preview of everal projects in which the Council ha or will oon begin work.

The Council' Committee on State and ocial tructure i e tabli hing working group that will

examine the relation hip between ocial cience and tate policy making. One uch working group, tate

and the Tran national Diffu ion of Policy-Relevant Economic Knowledge, plan to examine the pread and adaptation of Keyne ian economic among ad-vanced indu trial ocietie. Thi project eek an under tanding of the "fit"--or lack thereof-between economic doctrine and the tructure and policie of national government , and the proce e and ocial and political network through which economic idea and practice are diffu ed and adopted. A econd working group being developed by the committee will examine through comparative and hi torical per-pective the relation hip among governmental tructure, ocial cience knowledge, and ocial

policie , along the line outlined in kocpol' ym-po ium pre entation.

During the next year, the Council' exploratory program on computer will pon or everal working group to plan work hop and eminar on the ocial and p ychological con equence of computer . The e meeting will provide a forum for the di cu ion and critique of the early re ults of recently initiated re-earch and will draw upon exi ting re earch on the

con equence of other information technologie to ugge t concept and method that may b imported

int tudie of computer . One uch group, chaired by herry Turkle, Ma achu etts In titute of Technol-

ogy, ha initiated plan to inve tigate the condition under which per onal computer mirror, amplify, reinforce, or change the pre-exi ting per onality characteri tic of different type of people at dif-ferent tage of their cogniti e and affecti devel-opment. 0

71

Child Development in Life-Span Perspective

liE 0 CI1.'S ubcommittee on hild Develop-ment in Life- pan Perspective (19 1- ) function under the auspic of the Committee on Li~ -Cour e Perspectives on Human Development (1977- ). IL'i program con. i ts of onference, work hop, and other a tivitie organized to examine conceptual and m thodological area for int raction between the fi Ids of child d velopment and adult life- pan devel-opment. Member of the subcommittee are Paul B. Baltes, Max Planck In titute for Human Develop-ment and Education (Berlin); Orville G. Brim, Jr., Foundation for Child Development (New York); Judith Dunn, Univer ity of Cambridge; Glen H. Elder, Jr., Univer ity of North Carolina; David L. Featherman, Univer ity of Wi con in; E. Mavi Hetherington, Univer ity of Virginia; Richard M. Lerner, Pennsylvania tate Univer ity; John W. Meyer, tanford Univer ity; Ro s D. Parke, Univer-ity of Illinoi ; Martin E. P. eligman, Univer ity of

Penn ylvania; M. Brewster mith, Univer ity of California, anta Cruz; and Franz E. Weinert, Max Planck In titute for P ychological Re earch (Munich).

Winning and losing across the life span A onference, e amining 0 ialization, a pirations,

and a hievement acro the life pan, wa held on December 2-3, 1983, in order to examine the pro-e. es whereby di repancie between a pi ration and

a hievement are re olved and to explore life- pan hange and continuitie in the e proces e ; hence the

title, "Winning and Lo ing." Data from varied ource were reported howing how fe\ difference there are by gender, oci economic tatu, and geographic re-gion in ubjective happine ,or in reported en e of well-being. Factor other than objective propertie of people' live mu t, therefore, contribute to people' ense of \ ell-b ing. Other factor con ide red by pre-entation: and di cu. ion at the meeting included (1)

human drive of growth and ma tery; (2) etting of a piration at levels of 'Ju t manageable difficulty" in the many 'ector of life; (3) pecific experience of daily ucces e and failure ,win and losse , through-

The author. a p ychologist. is a taff a 'sociate at the Council. where one of hi, a,ignment is to taff the Committee on Life-Cour Perspectives on Human De\'elopment.

72

by Lonnie R. herrod*

out life; and (4) the ocial approval of aspiration level by reference group and ignificant other . It wa con idered that rationally ordered change in a pira-tion , hifts in motive from one life- ector to another, and a variety of defen e , hiding place , attribution , and exits may be employed by individual or group at variou points in their live to re olve di crepancie between aspiration and achievement.

The meeting consi ted of brief, informal pre enta-tion followed by di cu ion of pre entation and general di cu ion.

Participants other than the ubcommittee included:

teven her Hans Bertram Norman M. Bradburn

andra Graham

Su an Harter Julius Kuhl Gil oam

Lauren e teinberg tanton Wheeler

niversity or Illinois Federal College (Muni h) National Opinion R search

('.enter. niver ity of Chicago ni\er ity of alifornia. Lo

ngeles niver,ily of 0 nver niver'ity of the Ruhr

Harval d Medical hool and McLean Ho pital (Bo ton) nivel-sity of Wi on in

Yale niver ity

The program wa organized acro broad and di-ver e area . Fifteen-minute commentarie within e-Ion focu ed on pecific topic . The following e-ion were held:

Orville G. Brim. Jr., "Introduction" and "Opening" Norman Bradburn, "Happines and ubjective Well-Being" M. Brew ler mith, "Reference Group and Social Comparison" teven A her, u an Harter, and Laurence leinberg, "Develop-ment of A piration/Achievement Di repancie"

Gil Noam, tanton Wheeler, and Martin E. P. eJigman, "Resolu-tion of Aspirationl Achievement Di repancies"

John Meyer, "Alternative Models"

Intellectual development and the schools A conference on "Intellectual Development and the

chool "wa held on August 9, 10, and II, 1984, at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral

iences ( tanford, California). Thi meeting wa fo-cu ed on interaction between the ocial tructural a peCtl of school and individual psychological devel-opment. The program wa de igned to addre. que-tions uch a : To what extent do age-graded change

VOLUME 38, N MBER 4

in "intelligence" during childhood and adolescence reflect the in titutionalized routine of ocialization and the corre ponding timetable of contextual de-mand within the chool ? To what degree are there enduring or equential change in differentiated chool contexts which produce "normative" individ-

ual and ubgroup variation in intellectual develop-ment? Obver ely, are there psychological or bio-p ychological developments which eem Ie re pon ive to contextual or ynergi tic per on/situation out-come ? How multidimen ional i intellectual devel-opment; i.e., are there cognitive and ocial intelli-gence elements of a ingle domain which change in ynchrony? What developmental relation hip en ue

from the over-time interplay of structured ocial in-teraction within chool and tructured cognitive program (e.g., curricular differential and hift therein)?

Exi ting paradigm for examining uch que tion were al 0 apprai ed. For example, how "nece ary" for a theory of intellectual development i a model of temporal hifts in expo ure to differentiated chool context ? How much doe an under tanding of the impact of chool tructure on ocialization pattern depend upon knowledge about elf-initiated learning, choice, or role haping? I there more to intellectual development than cognitive development, given that the chool varyacro time and pace in their degree a "total in titution " over educational career ?

The general format of the meeting included an opening e ion which provided a constructive cri-tique of the foci (current and needed) of re earch and conceptualization of chool and of intellectual change into adole cence. Over the ub equent two day of the meeting, a erie of five pre entation (up to an hour each) of re earch area and projects ad-dre ed pecific topic . A commentator initiated a general di cu ion at the end of each e ion. The final e ion offered a ummary with three paneli ts, each reflecting on (1) the pre entation and di cu -ion of the previou day; (2) the general que tion

around which the meeting wa organized; and (3) hislher own per pective.

The program con i ted of:

( 1) Introduction Wolfgang Edel. tein, "Overview and Evaluation of the tatu of

Re earch on hool and 1m lIectual Development"

(2) Comparative studies of scbooling and development S. P. Heyneman, "Two-third of the World' tudents: In-

tellectual Development and hool in D veloping Countries"

DECEMBER 1984

Harold W. teven on, " chooling and Cognitive Development: A tudy in Peru"

HerbertJ. Walberg, "Environmental and Edu ational Influ nce on Academic D v lopment"

(3) How cbools work: cia room, friend hip networks, ability groupings

Robert Dreeben, "Th Social Organization of hoot. and Indi-vidual Learning"

Maureen T . Hallinan, "Interracial Friend hips in ElemenLlry hool CIa rooms"

The participant and their affiliation were: Nancy A. Busch-Ro snagel Robert Dreeben Wolfgang Edelstein

K. Ander Ericsson Maureen T . Hallinan . P. Heyneman ancy L. Karweit

Marion Perlmutter Matilda White Riley Peter Roeder

Yo si havit Harold W. teven on Herbert J. Walberg

Fordham niversity University of Chicago Max Planck In titute for

Human Development and Education (Berlin)

Univer ity of Colorado University of Notre Dame The World Bank (Wa hington) The John Hopkin Univer ity

niversity of Minne ota ational In titute on Aging

Max Planck In titute for Human Development and Education (Berlin)

Univer ity of Haifa Univer ity of Michigan

niversity of Illinois at hicago

Becau e the conference wa held during the um-mer In titute on Individual Development and ocial Change ( ee page 75-76), in titute participants were al 0 invited to the meeting.

Attributions in mothers and children: a life-span approach

A work hop wa organized by the ubcommittee to focu on emotional development and attributions of cau alityaero the life pan. Although in recent year there ha been orne re earch examining attribution of cau ality, the tyle of attribution, and relation hip to cognitive and emotional development in adult and children eight year or older, there i relatively little attention to children at younger age . A a re ult, little i known about the age at which attribution emerge or about the origin of childhood attribution . The in truments which have been developed to mea ure attribution in adults and older children are imply not appropriate for pre chooler . Thu , it wa con-idered nece ary to examine the early childhood ori-

gin of cau al attribution and of attributional tyle a a preliminary tep to life- pan inve tigation of attri-

73

butional tyle and its relation hip to emotional devel-opment.

The work hop wa held on De ember 8-11, 19 3, on Kia\ ah 1 land, outh arolina. The objective of the meeting \ a to u e e i ting data ets contain-ing tran rip of moth r-child conver ation to ad-dre such que tion a: What i the earlie t age at which children make attribution ? I there an attri-butional tyle in pre chool children? How doe the formal tructure of cau al attribution and attribu-tiona I tyle change over time? What i the relati n hip between a mother' and a child' attribution? During the meeting, participants examined tran cript of mother-child conver ation from everal tudie ,and determined that uch material do allow the analy i of mother' and pre hooler' attribution . Tran-

ripts from everal tudie were analyzed a one part of the work hop agenda, and problem of analy i and interpretation and topic for ub equent r arch were di u d. he program con i ted primarily of pr entation by parti ipants of their ongoing re-ear h of relevance to the meeting theme. Follm -up

activitie \ ill be planned to examine ontinuitie and hange in attributional proce e from early hild-

hood through adulth d and to ear h for contextual influence on the de elopm nt of attributional tyle. Re earch on early childhood development, begun a a re ult of the fir t work hop, will con titute one major contribution to future activitie .

Parti ipants and their affiliation included:

Paul B. Balte.

Merry Bullock Deborah Coates Jame Connell Judith Dunn Frank Fin ham Joan Girgu Hannelore Grimm Robin Mount Mi hael O'Hara Chri topher Peterson

u 'an Nolen-Hoeksema

Marion Perlmutter Deborah Phillip Jon Rolf

Martin E. P. eligman Marilyn hatz Ellen kinner

Peter tratton

74

Max Plan k In titute for Human Development and Education (Berlin)

University of Briti h Columbia Catholi Uni e ity of America Univer ity of Rochester Univer ity of Cambridge University of IIlinoi Princeton Univer ity Univer ity of Heidelberg Harvard Univer ity University of Iowa Virginia Polytechni In titute

and tate Univer ity University of Penn ylvania

(reporter) Univer ity of Minnesota University of Illinois National In titute of Mental

Health University of Penn ylvania Univer ity of Michigan Max Plan k In titute for

Human Development and Education (Berlin)

University of Leed

Ruth W lie ational In litute of Mental He lth

Historical perspectives on child development On October 17-19, 1984, a meeting wa held on

the general theme of "Children and Their D velop-ment: Hi torical and Developmental Per pective ." The goal of the meeting wa to explore the value of interchange between two field of child tudy: the behavioral cience approach to the inve tigation of child development and the ocial hi torical approach to the tudy of children and their familie . The two line of tudy have much to offer each other. Over the la t decade, child developmentali ts have become more appreciative of hi torical influence , and the tudy of contemporary child development ha gained

popularity among hi torian . Both field are devel-oping intere ts in the life cour e a a theoretical orientation.

De pite thi promi ing movement toward fruitful interchange, there ha been little actual contact be-tween the two field . An initial planning meeting on January 17, 1984, in New York indicated, however, that both line of tudy could be enriched by one or more meeting that drew upon the life-cour e frame-work. Becau e it addre e i ue that are fundamen-tal to both field (e.g., contextual influence, temporal variation and change, the dynamic of change and tability), the life-cour e approach provide a com-

mon ground for di cu ion. The October meeting thu addre ed theorie of change and tability, methodologie of tudy, data collection trategie, an-alytic procedure ,and pecific re earch que tion .

The meeting wa de igned to draw upon the trength of the two field, ocial hi tory and child

development. The participant from hi tory, killed in a e ing the cour e of ocial change, were a ked to work on the implication for children and childhood. Participants from child development brought exper-ti e on the ocial, cognitive, and affective develop-ment of children and on the organi mic and envi-ronmental factor which affect the e developments. Thu, prior to the meeting, the child develop-mentali ts were charged with the ta k of identify-ing at lea t five prominent behavioral phenomena in the life experience of children: aggre ive and other problem behavior ; attachment and intimacy; a pira-tion and achievement; intelligence and cognition; and intervention. Likewi e, the historian were charged with identifying five ocial historical change ince the 1920 in the United States that have major

implication for the well-being and development of

VOW ~E 38, UMBER 4

children; thi hi torical period wa cho en to avoid a primary focu on the effect of indu trialization and to overlap with the chronological emergence of the field of child development. The hi torian 'nominee were: televi ion and other technological innovation ; change in pro perity; the Depre ion and World War II; change in women' role; and change in child-rearing ideologie and practice . The overall goal of the meeting wa to explore po ible linkage between the behavior and/or life experience of chil-dren and ocial historical change ; po ibilitie and trategie for re earching uch linkage were al 0

given a high priority. The program con i ted of an opening e ion on

Wedne day evening during which different analytical model were di cu ed for examining linkage be-tween hi torical change and children' behavior; thi e ion was chaired by Glen H. Elder, Jr. and John

Modell. The fir t morning e ion con i ted of brief pre entation from each field on the five re pective variable or domain

( I) Child development Robert Cairn , "Aggre ion/Problem Behavior" Ro s D. Parke, "Attachment/Intimacy" Orville G. Brim, Jr., "A pi ration and Achievement"

heldon White, "Intelligence/Cognition" Arnold Sameroff, "Intervention"

(2) History Jay Mechling, "Televi ion and Technology" Viviana Zelizer, "Pro perity and Attitudes to Children" William Tuttle, "The Depre ion and World War II" Joan Brumberg, "Women' Role" Peter tearn, "Child-rearing Ideologie and Practice"

The remaining e ion of the meeting con i ted of general di cu ion and pecific di cu ion organized by ubgroup around pecific topical or analytical theme. Ro D. Parke and Peter tearn erved a chair at the e e ion.

Participants included:

Orville G. Brim, Jr.

Joan Jacob Brumberg Emily Cahan Robert Cairn John Demo Glen H. Elder, Jr. Tamara Hareven France Degan Horowitz Carl Kae tie William Ke en Jay Mechling John Modell Ros D. Parke

DECEMBER 1984

Foundation for Child Development (New York)

Cornell Univer ity Yale Univer ilY Univer ity of North Carolina Brandeis Univer ity Univer ity of North Carolina Harvard Univer ity Univer ity of Kansa University of Wiscon in Yale Univer ity Univer ity of California, Davi Carnegie-Mellon Univer ity Univer jty of IIIinoi

rnold ameroff

teven hlo man

Yvonne chiitze

Peter Tuttle heldon White

Viviana Ze1izer

Univer ity of IIIinoi at Chicago

Rand Corporation ( anta Monica, California)

Max Planck In titute for Human Developm nt and Education (Berlin)

Univer ity of Kansa Harvard Univer ity Barnard Coli ge

A a re ult of di cus ion at the meeting, four area were identified for further exploration: aggre ion and problem behavior; attitude and ocial value toward children; children' play and folk game ; and the age tructure and amount of choice in the child' life experience. Glen H. Elder, Jr., and Ro D. Parke organized the child development component of the meeting, and John Modell, Peter Stearn , and William Tuttle organized the hi torical component.

Summer Institute on Individual Development and Social Change

The Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral cience and the ubcommittee co pon ored an in-titute, held at the Center July 9 through Augu t 15,

1984. Subcommittee member Richard Lerner and John Meyer codirected the ix-week in titute.

The in titute focu ed on the relation between indi-vidual development and ocial change. Thi i ue ha attracted recent theoretical intere t and empirical at-tention. For in tance, there ha been much intere tin hi torical change that alter the ocial tructure in which individual development take place. And there i renewed intere t in the impact of individual and cohort development upon ocial change. Finally, in everal field there i a renewed inclination to ee

individual development a not only ituationally af-fected, but al 0 a contextually tructured. The in ti-tute empha ized theoretical i ue that emerge from the e new line of work. It al 0 empha ized method-ological problem rai ed by the foci, and options available to deal with them. Such theoretical and methodological problem were illu trated through diver e ub tantive literature : for in tance, concep-tion and tudie of mental abilitie , tempermental individuality and p ycho ocial adju tment, the ocial context of "mothering role ," hi torical change in childhood ettings, and other topic of intere t to in titute participant .

An announcement of the in titute wa di tributed widely during the fall of 1983. Application were due during January 1984 and reviewed during March.

75

The participant in the in titute and their affilia-tion were: David Baker

Roy F. Baumenster

Geraldine K. Brookin Roger A. Dixon

Nancy Eisenberg Martin E. Ford Jennifer L. Gla s

andra Graham

Anita L. Greene William B. Harvey

The Catholic University of America

Case Western Reserve Univer ity

Jackson tate University Max Planck Institute for

Human Development and Education (Berlin)

Arizona tate Univer ity tanford Univer ity

Univer ity of Southern California

University of California, Lo Angele

We t Virginia University North Carolina State

Univer ity

Mary R. Holley K. Jill Kiecolt Tri Van Nguyen Vilma Ortiz ally I. Power

J. Arturo ilva

Mark J . tern David L. Steven on Ro A. Thomp on Barbara J. Tin ley Alexander von Eye

Montclair tate College Loui iana State University Cornell University Univer ity of Wiscon in Harvard Medical School tanford Univer ity Medical Center

University of Penn ylvania Oberlin College University of Nebra ka University of Illinois Max Planck In titute for

Human Development and Education (Berlin)

A report prepared by the director and the partici-pants i available from Lonnie R. Sherrod at the Councilor Robert cott at the Center. 0

Activities of the Joint Area Committees Joint Advisory Committee on International Programs

Meeting for the fir t time on December 14, 1984, the new Joint Advi ory Committee on International Programs began to layout a long-term agenda con-cerned with the program and core funding of the 11 joint area committees, as well as the larger intellectual and tructural i ue in international re earch which provide the context for the area committee' activitie .

The committee wa appointed on the recom-mendation of the Committee on Problem and Policy by the pre idents of the Council and the American Council of Learned Societies-Kenneth Prewitt and John William Ward. It i compo ed of Richard D. Lambert, Univer ity of Penn ylvania (chair); Robert Darnton, Princeton Univer ity; Jame W. Fernandez, Princeton Univer ity; Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, Univer ity of Chicago; Jonathan D. Spence, Yale University; Rodolfo Stavenhagen, EI Colegio de Mexico; Franci X. utton, Dobb Ferry, New York; and Immanuel Wallerstein, State Univer ity of New York, Binghamton. Me r. tavenhagen, Sutton, and Waller tein are al 0 member of the Council' Com-mittee on Problem and Policy. David L. Szanton erve a taff.

At it initial e ion, the member of the committee

76

were joined by the pre idents of the two Council , a well a the profe ional taff that work with the area committee . The meeting it elf wa largely devoted to reviewing the background and mandate of the com-mittee and to preliminary di cus ions of the diver ity of current area committee programs and funding, a well a to di cu ions of broad is ue , trend , and opportunitie -intellectual, organizational, and financial-for international re earch generally. The committee expect to consult with the area commit-tee on the e i sue before its next meeting in May 1985.

African research overview papers In a continuing effort to timulate a dialogue that

will a e the tate of ocial cientific and humani tic re earch on Africa, the Joint Committee on African Studie commis ion paper which review the tate of re earch on particular topic for pre entation at the annual meetings of the African Studie A ociation. Paper pre ented at the 1983 meeting of the as ociation-"The Food Cri i and Agrarian Change in Africa: A Review E ay" by Sara S. Berry, Bo ton Univer ity, and "Labor and Labor History in Africa" by Bill Freund, Univer ity of the Witwater rand-have

VOLUME 38, NUMBER 4

been publi hed a a pecial i ue of the a OClatJon journal, the African Studie Review (27:2, June 1984; ee review on page 87-88, below).

At the 1984 meeting of the as ociation, held Octo-ber 25-28 at the Lo Angele Hilton Hotel, paper were pre ented on three topic :

"The Social Origin of Health and Healing in Africa," by te-ven Feierman, Univer ity of Wiscon in

"African Gno is: Philosophy and the Order of Knowledge," by V. Y. Mudimbe, Haverford College

"Afri an Oral Tradition and Literature," by Harold Scheub, Univer ity of Wiscon in

Topic of future paper include: Comparative Re-ligiou Movement; The Per on and the Life-Cycle in African Social Life and Thought; The Vi ual Arts; Pea ant and Rural ocial Prote t; Popular Culture; Rural Development; The Military in Africa; and Marx, Africa, and the We t.

African agriculture: conceptualizing the household

Macrolevel data on production, food imports, and nutrition in Africa all point toward a ignificant po t-war deterioration in many region and ector of the rural economy, particularly in taple food produc-tion. Far Ie clear, however, are the underlying pro-ce e which account for thi ituation. The Joint Committee on African tudie ha initiated a project, "African Agriculture: Cri i and Tran formation," which aim to clarify the e proce e by e tabli hing a framework for multidi ciplinary analy i of the com-plex interaction of ocial, political, and ecological tructure which have re ulted in the current cri i in

African agriculture. In eeking to develop new re-earch theme , analytical concept, and field

methodologie to a e the complex proce e of change in African and other rural economie , the project will empha ize the interdependent function-ing of hou eholds, regional economie , and national and international y tern .

The committee initiated work on the project' component on Gender, Hou ehold, and A ociation with an international work hop on Conceptualizing the Hou ehold: I ue of Theory, Method, and Ap-plication. A the tudy of hou ehold and family dynamic ha gained greater importance, both in long-term hi. torical tudies and in hou ehold decision-making analy es, the method of de cription and analy i have become more ophisticated and have been ubjected to greater crutiny. Particular i sue of controver y concern the boundarie of household and of ignificant unit of production,

DECEMBER 1984

con umption, and inve tment; the linkage between uch units; the intrahou ehold relation with special

reference to gender; and the hort- and long-term implication of particular hou ehold strategie for broader ocioeconomic pattern . The e concern have become particularly important in the African context where all analytical model centered on the corporate hou ehold have become problematic in their empirical application. To explore different di -ciplinary and theoretical approache to hou ehold dynamic in Africa and their methodological implica-tion , an international workshop wa organized by Jane I. Guyer and Pauline Peter, both of Harvard Univer ity. The meeting, which took place November 2-4, 1984 at Harvard, brought together cholar who have re ponded to the challenge of conceptualizing the hou ehold and collecting hou ehold data in their local re earch ituations by critiquing and modifying exi ting model and inventing new approache . The work hop ought to facilitate the exchange of critical and innovative in ights, experiments, and ucce es and failure which participant had experienced in the field.

Work hop participant were concerned with adapting method which incorporate and document the differential role, work, value , contribution , and welfare of women and children within house-holds; method which enable the short-run data and synchronic analy i to be integrated with analy-si of mid-term developmental cycle and long-term trend ; and methods which permit relation within the hou ehold units to be set within a wider ocial con-text. In the workshop discu ion, participants hared, examined, and critiqued creative innovations which they had developed in re ponse to the challenge po ed by the e concern in their particulari tic field ituation , within particular di ciplinary frameworks,

or within particular re earch group and institutions. The workshop began by examining different way of conceptualizing and approaching the hou ehold, and way in which theoretical and/or practical policy concerns of participant have determined the form-ulation of field que tions and method. ubsequent e ions focused on methods developed at the

microeconomic level to addre internal hou ehold organization and its relation hip to patterns of alloca-tion; distributive relation hip which may cros hou ehold boundarie and involve member in wider units and network of re ource acce ,for production as well as consumption and investment; and inter-familial relation in broader contexts, e pecially in regard to labor acce s and allocation. pecial attention wa given to the influence of pa t policies-for exam-

77

pie, family and land law, taxation, and rural devel-opment projects--on hou ehold and family relation ; and conver ely, to the implications of concept and method of hou ehold re earch for policy i ue. The work hop al 0 con idered method of defining di-men ion of family change which encompa political and economic change, and the problem of recon-structing hi tory and extrapolating trend which can be linked back to microeconomic method

The work hop participant were:

O.,mund nigbo Mark Beittel

Eileen Berry Sara Berry Dehorah Bryceson Lynne Brydon Graham Chipande Elizabeth Eames Felicia Ekejiuba Eleanor Fapohund.1 Hilar Feld,tein

James Ferguson Jean-Marc Gastellu :\1artha Gephart

Mitzi Goheen Luisella (~oldschmidt- lermonL Jeanne Henn Allen Hoben Christine Jone~

Pri,dlla Kariuki Diane Kayongo-Male Eileen Kennedy

Fas~il Kiro~ Shbuh Kuma! G. Kamau Kuria Mothokoa Mamashela Elias Mandala William Martin

James McCann Katherine McKee Della McMillan Joyce Lewinger Moock

olin Murray H.W.O.Okoth-Ogendo Onigu Otite Pepe Roberts Beatrice Rogers Parker hipton Fatou Sow Megan Vaughan H. Leroy Vail Ann Whitehead

78

Univer ity of Nigeria tate Univer ity of New York, Binghamton

Clark Univer ity Bo ton Univer ity Sl. Antony's College (Oxford) University of Liverpool Chancellor College Harvard Univer ity Univer ity of igeria University of Lago Harvard Institute for

I nternational Development Harvard Univer ity OR TOM (Pari ) Social ience Research

Coun il Tufts University Free University of Brus e1s Northeastern University Bo ton University Harvard Institute for

International Development Univer ity of Nairobi University of Nairobi IFPRI (Washington, D.C.) o REA (Addis Ababa) IFPRI (Washington, D.C.) University of Nairobi Univer ity of Lesotho Univer ity of Roche ter tate University of New York, Binghamton

Boston Univer ity Ford Foundation (New York) Univer ity of Florida Rockefeller Foundation (New

York) Univer ity of Liverpool Univer ity of Nairobi Univer ity of Nigeria Univer ity of u ex Tuft University Harvard Univer ity Univer ity of Dakar Univer ity of Cambridge Harvard Univer ity Univer ity of u ex

"Afrodisc": creating archives for visual materials

The Joint Committee on African tudie pon ored a planning meeting to explore the fea ibility of creating a videodi c archive for vi ual material . Or-ganized by Jean M. Borgatti, Clark Univer ity, the meeting wa held at the Mu eum of African Art in Wa hington, D.C. on June 28, 1984. Repre entative of two commercial firm demon trated the po ibilitie of the videodisc technology for preserving photo-graphic materials in a pre entation both to the plan-ning committee organized by M . Borgatti and to member of the Smith onian In titution. A videodisc archive would record private collections of fragile photographic material in a more durable format; it could also house videodisc record of institutional image collection. During the coming year, the plan-ning committee will explore the fea ibility of ecuring funding for a pilot project.

The participant in the meeting were:

Jean M. Borgatti Margaret Child Karen Dubiler Ekpo Eyo

Bryna Freyer Valentine Grigorians Ivan Karp Peter Koehn Ed Lit: chitz Mary McCutcheon Donald Morrison Robert icholl imon Ottenberg

Claude avary

Harold Scheub Roy ieber Janet tanley

ylvia William

Clark Univer ity Smith onian In titution

mith onian In titution Department of Antiquitie

(Lago) Museum of African Art Gaither burg, Maryland

mithsonian Institution University of Montana Mu eum of African Art Smith onian In titution Harvard Univer ity Howard Univer ity University of Wa hington Ethnographi Mu eum

(Geneva) Univer ity of Wiscon in Museum of African Art Smithsonian In titution Museum of African Art

Discourse in the humanities and social sciences in African studies

In an effort to promote a reflexive dimen ion in African tudie, the Joint Committee on African

tudie pon ored a erie of panel at the 1984 an-nual meeting of the African Studie A ociation which ought to examine the manner in which the field of African tudie and its different national traditions have drawn upon an already-con tituted et of image and idea about Africa to conduct it work. Four panel examined the effect of ocial and cultural

VOLUME 38, NUMBLR 4

background in the production of Africani t knowl-edge and evaluated the con equence of utilizing cholarly format and written mode of tran mi ion

to repre ent the range of experience in Africa. The peaker and di eu ants in the panel were:

African Humanities: The Impact of Western Conceptualizations

Chair: DonaldJ. Co entino, University of California, Los Angeles peaker : Timothy Asch, University of Southern California

Kwabena Nketia, Univer ity of Pittsburgh Discu ant: Warren D'Azevedo, Univer ity of Nevada

Discourse in Africanist Social Science

Chair: Ivan Karp, mithsonian In titution (Washington, D.C.) peaker : Lual Acuek L. Deng, U niver ity of Wisconsin

Deny e de aivre, AUDECAM (Pari) David Parkin, hool of Oriental and African tudies (London)

Africanisms I: Hi tori cal Trends

Chair: V. Y. Mudimbe, Haverford College peaker : Fernando Lambert, Laval Univer ity

Laurent Monnier, Lausanne Univer ity Alf hwarz, Laval Univer ily

Di us ants: Wyatt MacGaffey, Haverford College Nzongola-Ntalaja, Howard Univer ity

Africani m II: Epi temological Is ues

Chair: V. Y. Mudimbe, Haverford College peakers: Bogumil Jewsiewicki, Laval Univer ity

D ni Martin, International Cenler for Political l -en e, Pari

Paul Rabinow, Univer ily of California, Berkeley Discu sant: Immanuel Waller lein, tale University of New York,

Binghamton

Myths and realities of the Zairian crisis The Republic of Zaire has been in a nearly-

continuou tate of cri i ince its independence in 1960. A major dimen ion of thi ocial and institu-tional cri i ha been the chronic inability of thi re ource-rich country to generate and u tain eco-nomic growth and development. To date, cholarly analy es have failed to explain the nature and under-lying cau e of thi cri i and its eon equence for the people of Zaire. To examine the rea on for thi fail-ure, and to generate new ideas and approache , the Joint Committee on African Studies spon ored a re-eareh work hop on "Myth and Realitie of the Zai-

rian Crisi .. on October 5-6, 1984 at Howard Univer-ity. Organized by Nzongola-Ntalaja, Howard Uni-

ver ity, the work hop began with a se ion on the

DECEMBER 1984

nature of the cri i of the tate in po tcolonial Africa. Pre entation on Zaire con idered the hi torical back-ground of the Zairian cri is, its international dimen-ions, and urvival trategie in urban and rural area .

The Zairian case wa then as e ed in light of com-parative analy e of Burundi, Chad, Ghana, Rwanda, and Uganda.

Participants in the work hop were:

Mario Azevedo Eyamba G. Bokamba Thoma Callaghy Walter C. Carrington Robert J. Cummings Walter T. Davis, Jr.

Dibinga wa aid

Paul-Albert Emoungu Emmanuel Hansen

Mervat Hatem alen Hull

lIunga Kabongo Bogumil Jew iewicki Ghi lain C. Kabwit

Kalonzo lIunga

Edward Kannyo

Rene Lemarchand Winsome Le lie Janet MacGaffey Makidi Ku Ntima Philomene Makolo Etienne Mbaya Bonaventure Mbida-Essama

William Minter

V. Y. Mudimbe T. L. Mukenge Franl;ois Muyumba Catharine Newbury David Newbury Sulayman . Nyang Nzongola- talaja Jean-Philippe Peemans Allen F. Roberts . N. Sang-Mpam

Bereket Habte e1assie Herbert F. Wei Stephen R. Wei sman

Jack on tate University University of Illinois Columbia University Howard Univer ity Howard Univer ity San Francisco Theological

Seminary Omenana Re earch Center

(Roxbury, Ma achu etts) Howard Univer ity The Open Univer ity, London

Region Howard University The Pragma Corporation

(Washington, D. .) University of Kin hasa Laval Univer ity International developm nt

con ultant (Washington, D.C.)

Zairian National Railroad Company

Human rights and development consultant (New York)

University of Florida Columbia Univer ity Bryn Mawr College Atlanta Univer ity Univer ity of Ottawa Univer ity of Cologne World Bank (Wa hington,

D.C.) Contributing editor, Africa

Nt'W.\

Haverford College Morri Brown College Indiana State Univer ity We leyan University Bowdoin College Howard Univer ity Howard Univer ily Catholic University of Louvain Univer ilY of Michig-dn DePauw University Howard University Brooklyn College taff as ociate, House

ubcommittee on Africa, U.S. Congre

79

Gender issues in Japanese studies

The joint ommittee on japane e tudie pon-ored a workshop on june 28-29, 1984, at the Uni-

ver ity of Wa hington to con ider po ible new direc-tion for re earch on gender in japan a part of its

ffort to direct attention to important but underde-velop d area within japane e tudi . The commit-t e convened thi work hop with everal goal in mind: to provide an opportunity for member of the committee and other to con ider i ue rai ed by re earch on gender; to inform t