it’s the final countdown!!! keystone review. module 2 cell growth and reproduction genetics theory...

It’s the Final Countdown!!!

Keystone Review

Module 2 Cell Growth and Reproduction

Genetics

Theory of Evolution

Ecology

Standards……

Describe the events that occur during the cell cycle: interphase, mitosis (nuclear division) or cytokinesis.

Mitosis

Purpose of Mitosis

Cell Growth Repair and replacement of

damaged cell parts Asexual reproduction

Cell Cycle

Mitosis

Meiosis

Purpose of meiosis is chromosomal reduction. It only occurs in the organs that produce sex cells.

Reduction division because it reduces the number of chromosomes in half

TOOOOOO produce sex cells/gametes!

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Mitosis and MeiosisStandard

Compare the processes and outcomes of mitotic and meiotic divisions

Mitosis and Meiosis

Comparison Chart

Mitosis and MeiosisStandard Check

Which part of the flower produces cells by meiosis?a. Styleb. Antherc. Stigmad. filament

Mitosis and MeiosisStandard Check

Which part of the flower produces cells by meiosis?a. Styleb. Anther produces pollen which are male reproductive cellsc. Stigmad. filament

Mitosis and MeiosisCRQ…….Standard

Check Patau syndrome can be a lethal genetic disorder in

mammals, resulting from chromosomes failing to separate during meiosis. Identify the step during the process of meiosis when

chromosomes would most likely fail to separate. Describe how chromosome separation in meiosis is

different from chromosome separation in mitosis. Compare the effects of a disorder caused by

chromosomes failing to separate during meiosis, to the effects of chromosomes failing to separate during mitosis.

Standard

Describe how the process of DNA replication results in the transmission and/or conservation of genetic information.

DNA

DNA is a polymer, long chain, of nucleotides.

These molecules contain the genetic information of the cell.

DNA is a nucleic acid

DNA

DNA Double helix Strands are complementary- which means

that each DNA strand has the information to construct the other strand

DNA is anti-parallel One strand runs in the 3’ to 5’ direction and the

other runs in the 5’ to 3’ direction DNA follows semi-conservative replication

DNA

DNA Replication Process Helicase unwinds the DNA double helix and

separates it into two strands Y-shaped replication fork will form as the double

unwinds Single-stranded DNA binding proteins help keep the

strands separate and prevent the strands from getting back together

This process will continue until the entire molecule has been replicated

DNADNA Replication Process

DNAStandard Check

Which process helps to preserve the genetic information stored in DNA during DNA replication?

a. The replacement of nitrogen base thymine with uracil

b. Enzymes quickly linking nitrogen bases with hydrogen bonds

c. The synthesis of unique sugar and phosphate molecules fro each nucleotide

d. Nucleotides lining up along template strand according to base pairing rules

Standard

Explain the functional relationships between DNA, genes, alleles, and chromosmes and their roles in inheritance.

Genetics

Genetics is the study of heredity.

Heredity involves the transmission of genetic characteristics

Genetics-Vocabulary Trait-physical characteristic

Chromosome-long stringy aggregate of genes that carries heredity information and is formed from condensed chromatin

Gene-segment of DNA that provides instructions for a particular trait

Allele-alternative form of a gene

Genetics-Vocabulary Trait-physical characteristic

Chromosome-long stringy aggregate of genes that carries heredity information and is formed from condensed chromatin

Gene-segment of DNA that provides instructions for a particular trait

Allele-alternative form of a gene Homozygous-same Heterozygous-different

Genetics-Vocabulary

Genetics-Vocabulary

Genotype-genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype- physical appearance of the organism

Genetics-Practice

Make sure you know how to draw and interpret a Punnett Square

Genetics-Standard Practice

In rabbits, black fur (B) is dominant over brown fur (b). If one parent rabbit is homozygous brown (bb), what is the probability of producing an offspring with brown fur? Use the Punnett square to determine your answer.

Give the phenotype and genotype ratios.


Give the phenotype and genotype ratios.

Genetics-Incomplete dominance

Incomplete dominance- traits in which the heterozygote shows a different phenotype from the homozygous dominant phenotype.

Genotype: BB homozygous black

Bb heterozygous

bb homozygous white

Phenotype: BB black fur

Bb Grey Fur

bb white fur

Genetics-Codominant

Codominance- traits in which both the alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote

Genotype: BB homozygous black

BW heterozygous

WW homozygous white

Phenotype: BB black fur

BW Black and White fur

WW white fur

Genetics-Polygenic Traits

Polygenic- traits in which several genes contribute to the overall phenotype.

Examples: skin type of humans has four genes involved and that is why there is such a wide variety of human skin types.

Genetics-Multiple Alleles

Multiple Alleles-traits that have more than two types of alleles.

Example: Blood type

There are 3 different alleles for blood type; A,B,O

A is dominant to O. B is dominant to O. A and B are Codominant.

Genetics-Multiple Alleles

Phenotype Genotype

O OO

A AA or AO

B BB or BO

AB AB

Genetics-Sex-linked

Sex-linked traits are traits that are located on the sex chromosomes. Majority are located on the X chromosome.

Example: colorblindness

Remember: Men have a greater chance of having these conditions because they only have one X chromosome.


When an organism has two different alleles for a trait, is is said to be

a. Recessive

b. Dominant

c. Homozygous

d. Heterozygous


Use the following chart to answer the questions

Blood type is inherited through multiple alleles. A child has type A blood. If the father has type AB blood, what are all thepossible phenotypes of the mother?

a. Phenotype O or Ab. Phenotype A or ABc. Phenotypes A, B, ABd. Phenotypes O, A, B, AB


Which statement best describes the relationship between an allele and a gene?

a. An allele is a variation of a gene that can be expressed as a phenotype.

b. An allele is the part of a gene that attaches to messenger RNA molecules.

c. An allele is a segment of a DNA molecule that controls replication of a gene.

d. An allele is the primary protein made by a gene found in a developing embryo.


A trait in cows is determined by two alleles of a single gene: allele R is dominant, and allele r is recessive. What is the probability of the dominant trait being expressed in the offspring of one RR parent and one rr parent?

a. 25%b. 50%c. 75%d. 100%


A trait in cows is determined by two alleles of a single gene: allele R is dominant, and allele r is recessive. What is the probability of the dominant trait being expressed in the offspring of one RR parent and one rr parent?

a. 25%b. 50%c. 75%d. 100%

All offspring will be heterozygous with Rr genotype so all offspring will express the dominant trait.


Which form of genetic engineering was used by humans for many years before the discovery of DNA?

a. Gene splicingb. Gene insertionc. Animal cloningd. Selective breeding


Which form of genetic engineering was used by humans for many years before the discovery of DNA?

a. Gene splicingb. Gene insertionc. Animal cloningd. Selective breeding

Selective breeding results in offspring with desired genetic traits. Farmers and breeders have been doing this for centuries.


Genetic engineering has led to genetically modified plants that resist insect pests and bacterial and fungal infections. Which outcome would most likely be a reason why some scientists recommend caution in planting genetically modified plants?

a. Unplanned ecosystem interactionsb. Reduced pesticide and herbicide usec. Improved agricultural and yield profitd. Increased genetic variation and diversity

StandardSources of Variation

Describe the processed that can alter composition or number of chromosomes (i.e. crossing over, nondisjunction, duplication, translocation, deletion, insertion and inversion

Sources of Variation during Meiosis

Crossing Over- occurs when two chromosomes physically overlap and exchange chromosome material. This process occurs more often on some chromosomes than other chromosomes and changes the DNA sequence within each chromosomes.

This results in an endless number of different possible genetic combinations.

Sources of Variation during Meiosis

Nondisjunction- (not coming apart) is the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during meiosis I or II, during anaphase

Chromosomal Mutations

Deletion- mutation in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is missing

Inversion-a mutation that causes a reversal in the order of a segment of a chromosome within the chromosome, or a gene

Translocation-transfer of part of a chromosome to a different position on a non-homologous chromosome.

Duplication-a mutation in which there are two or more copies of a gene or of a segment of a chromosome.

Point Mutations Deletion- a mutation that results when one or two

nucleotides are removed

Insertion-a mutation that results when one or two nucleotides are added

Substitution-a mutation that occurs when when nucleotide is substituted with another nucleotide

Note: Deletion and Insertion can result in a frameshift mutation

Point Mutations Silent mutations

Does not affect the amino acid

Missense Mutations Causing a change in the reading of the

codons

Nonsense Mutations Results in a premature stop command

Mutations

MutationsStandard Check

Which type of change in chromosome composition is illustrated by the diagram?

A. Deletion

B. Inversion

C. Translocation

D. Insertion

MutationsStandard Check

What is a source of genetic variation? A. Adaption B. Mutations C. Replication D. Transcription

Standard Describe how the processes of

transcription and translation are similar in all organisms.

RNA RNA

Made of nucleotides Sugar in RNA is ribose and it contains

uracil in place of thymine RNA is a single strand of nucleotides

RNA-Transcription Transcription is similar to DNA replication, but

only one strand of nucleotides is formed. DNA is used as a template to make messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA carries the genetic information from DNA to ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

RNA-Translation Translation is the process where all three RNA’s

(mRNA, rRNA and tRNA) work together to translate the nucleotide language into amino acid language to build proteins. This occurs in the cytoplasm

RNA-Standard Check

Information on mRNA is used to make a sequence of amino acids into a protein by which of the following processes? A. Replication

B. Translation

C. Transcription

D. Transference

Standard

Describe the levels of ecological organization (i.e., organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome, and biosphere)

Ecology Levels of Organization

Organism

Population

Biological community

Ecosyststem

Biomes

Bioshere


Population Group of organisms of one species that live in the

same place at the same time

Population density is the number of organisms living in a given area.


Biological community Group that is made up of several populations

interacting with each other

If there is a change in one population it can dramatically affect the others living in within the community


Growth rate Is a change in population size, growth rate can be

positive, negative or zero

Exponential growth


Growth rate Is a change in population size, growth rate can be

positive, negative or zero

Logistic growth

Carrying capacity


When a population reaches its carrying capacity, a number of factors help stabilize it at that size. They are called density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors.

Density-Dependent Limiting Factors Competition Predation Parasitism Crowding/stress


When a population reaches its carrying capacity, a number of factors help stabilize it at that size. They are called density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors.

Density-Independent Limiting Factors Weather/fires Drought/floods Human activities


Ecosystem Study the interactions between populations (biotic

factors) and their physical surroundings (abiotic factors)

Terrestrial ecosystems Aquatic ecosystems

Salt water/ marine Fresh water


Biomes Taiga, desert, tropical rainforest

Biosphere Part of Earth that supports life

Atmosphere, aquatic and terrestrial

Standard Describe how energy flows through an

ecosystem (e.g., food chains, food webs, energy)

Energy Flow Energy is constantly flowing through

ecosystems.

Primary source is SUN

Terms to Know: Producers/autotrophs Consumers/heterotrophs Decomposers

Energy Flow Trophic level

Organisms are grouped into trophic levels based on their source of energy----organisms with the same energy sources are on the same trophic level

Food chain is a simple diagram that shows how energy and matter flows through an ecosystem

Food web is a diagram that shows multiple food chains and the interaction organisms have with each other, in other words a more complex interconnected system of food chains

Energy Flow Energy pyramids show how energy decreases at

each succeeding trophic level. The total energy transfer from one trophic level to the next is only about 10%.

HEY HEY HEY the 10% Rule

Energy FlowStandard Check

In the food chain below, which population will most likely decrease if snakes are removed from the food chain?

Grassgrasshopppergrogsnakehawk

a. Grass

b. Grasshopper

c. Frog

d. hawk


In the food chain below, which population will most likely decrease if snakes are removed from the food chain?

Grassgrasshoppperfrogsnakehawk

a. Grass

b. Grasshopper

c. Frog

d. hawk


In the food chain below, identify the initial source of energy for the ecosystem.


a. grass

b. sun

c. grasshopper

d. autotrophs


In the food chain below, identify the initial source of energy for the ecosystem.


a. grass

b. Sun ultimate source for everything

c. grasshopper

d. autotrophs


In the food chain below, identify the effect that would occur on one organism if the snake suddenly decreases.



In the food chain below, identify the effect that would occur on one organism if the snake suddenly decreases.


Hawks would be harmed because of a decrease in their food supply, could decrease the hawk population due to more competition for available food.

Standard Describe how matter recycles through an

ecosystem (i.e., water cycle, carbon cycle, oxygen cycle, and nitrogen cycle)

Cycles

Water Cycle

Cycles

Water Cycle

Evaporates from lakes, streams, oceans Condensation into clouds in the atmosphere Rainfall sends water back to Earth-precipitation Transpiration water given off by plants

Cycles

Carbon Cycle

Cycles

Carbon Cycle CO2 in atmosphere is used by plants during

photosynthesis and enters the ecosystem CO2 is released back into the atmosphere

through respiration, burning, volcanic activity, and artificially through the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)

CO2 enters aquatic systems through diffusion, used by marine algae, enters ecosystems and then is returned through respiration

Cycles

Nitrogen

Cycles

Nitrogen Nitrogen is assimilated into plant tissues due

to nitrogen fixing bacteria Nitrogen compounds enter the ecosystem Nitrogen leaves the ecosystem through

nitrogenous wastes, death of organisms or denitrifying bacteria which release nitrogen back into the atmosphere

Artificial source of nitrogen-fertilizers

CyclesStandard Check

Which element’s cycle depends on certain kinds of bacteria to keep the element available to other organisms? a. Carbon b. Hydrogen c. Nitrogen d. phosphorus


Which element’s cycle depends on certain kinds of bacteria to keep the element available to other organisms? a. Carbon b. Hydrogen

c. Nitrogen although bacteria are a part of the other cycles of all the elements listed above, only nitrogen requires the use of nitrogen-fixing bacteria to keep the cycle going

d. phosphorus


Most of the water on Earth is located in the oceans and has a salinity of about 3.5%. Which statement BEST explains why rain is fresh water and has a very low salinity? A. When water precipitates from oceans, most of the

salt remains in the oceans. B. When water evaporates from oceans, most of the

salt remains in the oceans. C. When water precipitates from clouds, most of the

salt remains in the clouds. D. When water evaporates from clouds, most of the

salt remains in the clouds.


Most of the water on Earth is located in the oceans and has a salinity of about 3.5%. Which statement BEST explains why rain is fresh water and has a very low salinity? A. When water precipitates from oceans, most of the

salt remains in the oceans. B. When water evaporates from oceans, most of

the salt remains in the oceans. C. When water precipitates from clouds, most of the

salt remains in the clouds. D. When water evaporates from clouds, most of the

salt remains in the clouds.

Standard

Describe biotic interactions in an ecosystem (e.g. competition, predation, symbiosis)

Interactions

Interspecific Competition Occurs when different species of organisms prey on

the same essential resource that is in limited supply

Intraspecific Competition Occurs between members of the same species

Competition may be harmful to either one or both ends of an interaction

Interactions

Predation- interaction that is useful for the predator but mostly fatal to the prey

Symbiosis-interaction between two species that keep a close physical association, there are three types Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism

InteractionsStandard Check

Which example describes a mutualistic relationship between organisms? A. Young wasps prey on caterpillars Crabs eat the remains of dead fish Ants protect a tree on which they feed Tapeworms feed on food in the intestines of cats

EcologyStandard Check

Why are nonnative species often considered a disturbance in an ecosystem? A. They increase mutations B. They compete for resources C. They have special growth needs D. They cause increased biodiversity

EcologyStandard Check

Standard

Explain how natural selection can impact allele frequencies of a population.

Evolution

What is natural selection?

A mechanism of evolutionary changes that happens when individuals that are better adapted in the challenges of the environment than other individuals survive and reproduce.

Evolution

Natural selection accounts for the differences among individuals in a population in survival and the ability to successfully reproduce.

Essentially, some individuals have alleles that produce phenotypes that help these individuals survive in their environment than other individuals. These successful individuals will then be able to pass these traits to their offspring.

Evolution-Darwin

Remember: Populations tend to produce more offspring than

what the environment can support Resources are limited Individuals need to compete for survival There is variation among the individuals in a given

population These variations can be inherited by the offspring Survival of the fittest- the most fit are best adapted to the

environment Overtime evolution can occur due to the advantageous

traits accumulating in a population

Evolution-Darwin

Remember: INDIVIDUALS DO NOT

EVOLVE POPULATIONS EVOLVE!!!!!!

Evolution-Standard Check

Ancestors of the koala lived on the ground, but modern koalas live in trees and eat eucalyptus leaves, which are poisonous to most other animals. The difference between the ancestor and modern koalas was caused by A. The presence of homologous structures B. The presence of vestigial organs C. Selective breeding D. Natural selection

Standard

Describe the factors that can contribute to the development of new species (e.g., isolating mechanisms, genetic drift, founder effect, migration)

Forces of Evolution

Genetic Drift Changes in the gene pool of a small

population due to CHANCE!

Chance events may cause the frequencies of alleles to drift randomly from generation to generation, since the existing gene pool may not be accurately represented in the next generation.

Forces of Evolution

Genetic Drift

The Bottleneck Effect The size of the population may be reduced drastically

by such natural disasters as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, fires, floods, etc. which kill organisms NONSELECTIVELY.

By chance some individuals survive. In the small remaining population, some alleles may be overrepresented as some under represent and some alleles may be totally absent.

Bottleneck Effect reduces overall genetic variability in a population since some alleles may be entirely absent.

Forces of Evolution

The Founder Effect

The Founder Effect When a few individuals colonize a new

habitat, genetic drift is also likely to occur. Genetic drift in a new colony is called the founder effect.

The smaller the founding population, the less likely its gene pool will be representative of the original population’s genetic makeup.

Forces of Evolution

Gene Flow

Gene flow is the migration of fertile individuals, or the transfer of gametes between populations.

Natural populations may gain of lose alleles by gene flow, since they do not have gene pools which are closed systems.

Forces of EvolutionStandard Check

Horses and tapirs have a common ancestor, but they now look very different from one another. Horses are now grassland animals adapted fro grazing on grass and shrubs. Tapirs are jungle animals that live in dense forests and eat fruit, leaves, and aquatic vegetation. Which of the following led to the development of such differences in the two species? A. Selective breeding B. Convergent evolution C. DNA hybridization D. Natural selection

Standards

Explain how genetic mutations may result in genotype and phenotypic variations in a population.

Mutations

Mutations A new mutation that is transmitted in

gametes immediately changes the gene pool of a population by substituting one allele for another.

Mutations are important to evolution because they are the original sources of genetic variation, which is the raw material for natural selection.

Speciation

Speciation is

When one species splits to form two, that's called speciation. In animals, we say two individuals are different species if they can't interbreed with each other. Sometimes this can happen when two sub-populations are separated. Continents can drift apart, migrating birds can be blown off course, or fruit flies can be bred in different labs.

Allopatric speciation is speciation that occurs because populations live in different places. (Contrast this with sympatric speciation, where the two populations might live in the same place but have some other reason why they can't interbreed.)

Speciation

Speciation

Speciation

Speciation Speciation

Major cause of speciation is isolation. Types of isolation are

• Geographical• Reproductive• Behavioral• Temporal

Speciation Speciation

Types of isolation are

• Geographical• Reproductive• Behavioral• Temporal

Standard

Interpret evidence supporting the theory of evolution (i.e. fossil, anatomical, physiological, embryological, biochemical and universal genetic code)

Evidence for Evolution

Fossil Record If today’s species came from ancient

species, then we should be able to find remains of those species that no longer exist.

There are many fossils of organisms that no longer exist, but resemble organisms that do exist today.

Fossil record creates a geological time scale.


Comparative Anatomy Homologous structures-common ancestor,

structures that are similar in structure but different in function

Example: human arm and bat wing


Comparative Anatomy Vestigial Organs

Seemingly functionless parts, snakes have tiny pelvic and limb bones, humans have tail bones


Comparative Biochemistry and DNA There is biochemical similarity in all living

things.

Organisms that are closely related will have less differences in their proteins, which means that the amino acid sequence will be similar which means the DNA nucleotide sequence will be similar.


Comparative Embryology Developing organisms have similarities in

their early stages of development.


Observation of Species change WolvesDogs Light colored peppered mothdark

colored peppered moth

Evidence for EvolutionStandard Check

Fossils of Archaeopteryx show that this animal had feathers, like a bird. It also had a bony tail, teeth, and claws on its wings, like a reptile. These fossils are evidence that support the idea that A. Birds and reptiles have a common ancestor B. Birds have changed very little over millions

of years C. Reptiles species are more advanced than

bird species D. Reptiles are warm-blooded like birds


Fossils of Archaeopteryx show that this animal had feathers, like a bird. It also had a bony tail, teeth, and claws on its wings, like a reptile. These fossils are evidence that support the idea that A. Birds and reptiles have a common

ancestor B. Birds have changed very little over millions

of years C. Reptiles species are more advanced than

bird species D. Reptiles are warm-blooded like birds


Which of the following is considered by most biologists to be the most accurate in supporting the theory of evolution? A. Fossils B. Embryology C. DNA sequencing D. Genetic equilibrium


Which of the following is considered by most biologists to be the most accurate in supporting the theory of evolution? A. Fossils B. Embryology C. DNA sequencing D. Genetic equilibrium

DNA sequencing is the most accurate tool for determining relatedness.

STUDENTS

I think you rock…..and I want you all to know that you are so much higher than 1500’s so show the state how great you ALL really are.

BEST OF LUCK TOMORROW IWILL BE THINKING OF YOU ALL!!!!!!!!!!

WHAT IS?

Category: Characteristics Of Life

Ability of populations to change over time

ANSWER: Evolution

WHAT IS?

Group of cells that carry out a similar function

WHAT IS?

A group of different species that live in the same habitat and interact with one another

WHAT IS?

A group of different species that live in the same habitat and interact with one another

ANSWER: biological community

WHAT IS?

A community of organisms and their non living environment

WHAT IS?

A community of organisms and their non living environment

ANSWER: Ecosystem

WHAT IS?

A group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area and can interbreed

WHAT IS?

A group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area and can interbreed

ANSWER: Population

WHAT IS?

All of the world and its atmosphere that supports life is

WHAT IS?

All of the world and its atmosphere that supports life is

ANSWER: biosphere

it’s the final countdown!!! keystone review. module 2 cell growth and reproduction genetics theory...

Documents

meiosis slide

mitosis slide

dna standard

dna strand

strand dna

meiosis standard

filament slide

process of meiosis