IUFRO Research Group 3.08 Small-scale Forestry

Small-scale and Community Forestry and the Changing Nature of Forest Landscapes

11 – 15 October 2015

Sunshine Coast, Australia

Book of Abstracts

Edited by Stephen Harrison, John Meadows and John Herbohn

ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Professor John Herbohn Dr John Meadows

Professor Steve Harrison Grahame Applegate

Dr Bob Fisher Professor Mark Brown

Anne Steward Dr Huong Ngyuen

Philipp Kilham

SCIENTIFIC PANEL

Professor Steve Harrison (Chair, Australia) Professor John Bliss (USA)

Dr Brett Butler (USA) Professor Robin Chazdon (USA) Dr Aine Ni Dhubhain (Ireland)

Dr Wolfram Dressler (Australia) Professor Vera Engel (Brazil) Dr Monica Gabay (Argentina)

Dr Christoph Hartebrodt (Germany) Professor John Herbohn (Australia)

Professor Heimo Karppinen (Finland) Professor David Lamb (Australia)

Dr Rodel Lasco (Philippines) Dr Jessica Leahy (USA)

Professor Gun Lidestav (Sweden) Dr Jim Roshetko (Indonesia)

Dr Noriko Sato (Japan)

VOLUNTEERS

Dr Jack Baynes

Jing Hu Kurt von Kleist Sharif A. Mukul

Liz Ota Shawkat Sohel

Jarrah Wills

Cover photograph: View from Mt Coolum to Mt Ninderry and Yandina Station.

(Photo: John Herbohn)

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Foreword

Welcome to the IUFRO Group 3.08 Conference on Small-scale and Community Forestry and the Changing Nature of Forest Landscapes. Small-scale and community forests are important – but often overlooked – aspects of forest landscapes. Both community and small-scale forestry play an important role in the way that existing forest landscapes develop and evolve over time and in the reforestation of former forested areas. Small-scale and community forestry is however often overlooked in the rapidly developing forest transition literature, despite being the dominant form of forest management in many countries. On a global scale, FAO statistics indicate that small-scale farm forestry plantations (50 million ha) nearly match the area planted by state forestry agencies (77.3 million ha) and are almost double the area of plantations established by corporate groups (27.2 million ha). Most reforestation projects undertaken on public land, for instance, are larger projects which have community livelihood and environmental benefits as key objectives, and therefore success is dependent on community support and external funding. However, a substantial area of reforestation in the tropics is implemented by farmers on private smallholdings of less than 5 ha. For instance, in 2001 farm forestry accounted for 43% of the total forest plantation area in Indonesia, with 3.43 million households involved in managing 4.2 million ha. And in Vietnam, 80 000 ha have been reforested annually through farm forestry since 1998. In Europe, in recent years there has been a substantial shift in the management of secondary forests with devolution of management of these forests from centralised State control to that of management by community groups as part of community-based forest management programs. About 60 % of the forests in Europe are now in the hands of 16 M private forest owners. The share of private forests ranges from a minor percentage in the eastern parts of Europe to regions like Scandinavia where private forests dominate. A common characteristic in all European countries is that there is no one ‘typical’ forest owner, in that owners have a wide variety of individual objectives. The role that community and small-scale forestry plays in the transition and evolution of forest landscapes is complex. Forest landscapes are dynamic and their trajectories (e.g. reforestation, degradation, transition to a different forest type, deforestation) are influenced by both ecological processes and anthropocentric factors. For instance, in some European countries, changes in forest structure and ecology have been influenced by the inheritance laws which resulted in forest areas being continually divided into increasingly smaller parcels. This, combined with the relocation of many owners from rural areas to larger cities, means that forests (and sometimes open farmland) that had previously been maintained have now been effectively abandoned. Valuable insights can be obtained from many disciplines including economics, anthropology, ecology, forest science and policy. In many cases, a multidisciplinary approach is needed to unravel the complex factors that influence forest landscapes. Small-scale and community forestry are the principle forms of management in many forested landscapes. Over 90 presentations will be made during the conference, exploring in detail many of the issues raised above. Delegates are coming from 21 countries from Europe, Asia, the Pacific, Africa and the Americas. The resulting mix of people provides an exciting opportunity to explore different ideas and draw from a diverse range of experiences and perspectives. Steve Harrison, John Meadows and John Herbohn On behalf of the Organising Committee

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Brief note on the booklet In the following pages are the abstracts for over 90 papers to be presented at the IUFRO Group 3.08 Small-scale Forestry conference titled Small-scale and Community Forestry and the Changing Nature of Forest Landscapes hosted by the University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia from 11 to 15 October, 2015. Abstracts have been edited so they are in a consistent style, and based on the information provided by the authors. While some editing of text has been undertaken, the final content rests solely with the authors. The book of abstracts is designed to allow conference delegates to gain an idea of the topic of papers prior to conference sessions, and also to help delegates make choices of what sessions to attend during split session presentation times. Full papers, subject to meeting minimum standards and following formatting guidelines, will be placed on the conference website. Papers will be uploaded without editing. The Editor-in-Chief (Brett Butler) and a number of Associate Editors of Small-scale Forestry will be present at the conference and are happy to discuss potential suitability of papers for publication within the journal.

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Table of Contents Author Page Alamgir, M and Turton, S, Ecosystem Services Supply from Small-scale Forestry: A Comparative Analysis 11 Amatya, S, Nuberg, I, Cedamon E and Pandit BH, Removing Barriers to the Commercialisation of Agroforestry Trees in Nepal 11 Andrew, V, Andasua, W and Baynes, J, Why Can’t a Country with So Many Trees Grow Enough Firewood: Challenges Facing Forest Extension Officers in Goroka, Papua New Guinea 12 Annandale, M, Community Forestry, Mining and Indigenous community development in Northern Australia 12 Banjade, MR, Herawati, T and Liswanti, N, Combining Collective and Individual Tenure Rights in Smallholder Forestry: The Case of Community Forestry in Indonesia 13 Baynes, J,, Herbohn, J and Dressler, W, Governance and Power Relationships: Their Effect on Community Forestry Organisations and Local People in the Philippines 14 Butler, B, Hewes, J, Butler, S, Lindsay, M and Kittredge, D, The New Face of America’s Family Forest Owners 14 Carías Vega, D, Understanding Alternatives for Organizing Timber Production and Processing in Community Forestry Enterprises: Experiences from Quintana Roo, Mexico 15 Cedamon, E, Nuberg, I, Lusiana, B, Mulia, R, Pandit, B, Subedi, YR and Shrestha, K, EnLiFT Model 1.0: A Livelihood and Food Security Model of a Forest-Farm System 15 Chazdon, RL, and Guariguata, MR, Promoting Natural Regeneration in Forest Landscape Restoration: Overcoming the Tree-planting Bias 16 Estoria, E, Improving the Implementation of Community-based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) in Ratanakiri Province, Cambodia 17 Ferraren, A, Gregorio, N, Agne, L, Avela, M and Pasa, A, The Effects of Rice Hull Potting Mix, Chemical Fertilizer and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Inoculation on the Quality of Albizia falcataria Seedlings in the Nursery 17 Ficko, A and Boncina, A, Social Representations of Forest Management: a Harvesting Behaviour Factor? 18 Follo, G, Lidestav, G, Ludvig, A, Vilkriste, L, Huijala, T, Karppinen, H, Didolot, F and Mizaraite, D, Towards a Better Understanding the Positions of Women in European Smallholder Forestry 19

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Ghaffariyan, MR, Jenkin, B, Mitchell, R and Brown, M, Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment of Timber Harvesting Residues: A Case Study of a Balsa Plantation in Papua New Guinea 19 Gilmour, D, 40 years of community based forestry: A review of extent and effectiveness 20 Gilmour, D, Unlocking the Wealth of Forests for Community Development: Commercializing Products from Community Forests 21 Golman, M, Community Forestry Potential and What is Ahead for PNG 22 Grant, V and McGill, D, Future Management Directions of Farmland and Woodland Owners of the Greenbrier River Landscape in Southeastern West Virginia 22 Greenhill, M and Walker, I, Institutional Support for Small-scale Tree Growers in Gunung Kidul, Indonesia 23 Gregorio, N, Herbohn, J, Harrison, S, Pasa, A, and Almendras-Ferraren, A, Challenges in Implementing a National Policy to Regulate the Quality of Seedlings for Reforestation Programs in the Philippines 23 Gregorio, N, Herbohn, J, Harrison, S, Pasa, A, Ferraren, A, Fernandez, J, and Tripoli, R, Improving Reforestation Outcomes by Putting Research Findings into Practice - the Case of Biliran, Philippines 24 Harrison, S and Harrison, R, Financial Modelling of Mixed-species Agroforestry Systems in Fiji and Vanuatu, Based on Traditional Tree Species 25 He, J and Xu, J, Is There Decentralization in North Korea? Emerging Small-scale Agroforestry in Sloping Land Management 25 Hu, J, Herbohn, J, Baynes, J, Vanclay, J, Wills, J, Meadows, J and Sohel, S, Effects of Silvicultural Treatments on Growth and Species Composition of a Tropical Forest in Australia 45 Years after Logging 26 Jashimuddin, M, Do Village Common Forests Correspond to Sustainable Forest Management? A Case of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh 26 Jones, WD, Natural Resource Enterprises: Enhancing Landowner Incomes and Conservation in Forests in the USA 27 Karki, S, Gilani, H, Karki, B and Kotru, R, How REDD+ and PES Programs Implemented at Landscape Level Help Reduce Deforestation and Forest Degradation 28 Karppinen, H, Paaja, P and Hänninen, H, Does Gender Count: Female Forest Ownership in Finland 29 Kasieng, D, Andrew, V, Faiteli, A, Andasua, W, Fisher, R, Baynes, J, and Miskaram, N, An Assessment of the Success of the Papua New Guinea Forest Authority’s Seedling

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Distribution Program in Eastern Highlands Province PNG and Factors Affecting Adoption by Farmers 29 Kilham, P, Hercher, W and Hartebrodt, C, Deriving a Typology of the Swiss Forest Enterprise Accountancy Data Network 30 Kittredge, DB, Private Landowner Awareness of Their Conservation Alternatives: an Important Factor Affecting the Management of Small-scale and Community Forests 30 Krasi, B, Comparing Multi-clan and Single-clan Nurseries which Provide Seedlings for Community-based Reforestation in the Ramu-Markham Valley of Papua New Guinea 31 Kronholm, T and Wästerlund, DS, The Increasing Need for Swedish Forest Owner Associations to Protect and Serve Members’ Forest Management Activities 31 Lamb, D, Constraints and Opportunities for Future Small-scale Reforestation 32 Lambert, J and Reid, R, Expanding the Australian Master TreeGrower model into the Developing World 33 Lata, A, Kulang, S, Howcroft, N and Page, T, Clonal Capture of Mature Teak (Tectona grandis) for Improved Germplasm Deployment in Papua New Guinea 33 Lee, D, Huth, J, Burridge, A, Oostenbrink, J and Page, T, Breathing Life Into Cape York Sandalwood 34 Lidestav, G, Lind, T, Westin, K and Wilhelmsson, E, Why Do Forest Owners Not Grow Trees? Three Decades of Swedish Non-industrial Forestry Research 35 Lindsay, A, African Mahogany in Northern Australia: Some Observations 35 Loewe, V and Delard, C, Stone Pine (Pinus pinea L.): an Interesting Species for Agroforestry in Chile 36 Maeda, C, Naitoh, S, Konoshima, M, Nakama, Y and Ichwandi, I, A Study on the Agroforestry System of the National Forest and its Contribution to Farm Incomes in Indonesia 37 Maraseni, T and Mitchell, C, An Assessment of the Carbon Sequestration Potential of the Condamine Catchment Riparian Zone, Queensland, Australia 37 Meadows, J, Coote, D and Brown, M, Characteristics of the Hardwood Plantations in the Sunshine Coast Region of South-East Queensland and Their Potential to Supply Biomass for Energy 38 Mitchell, R and Mitchell, J, ‘Forest Farming’ Empowers Small Landholders with Commercial Sustainable Forestry 39

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Mukul, S, Herbohn, J and Firn, J, Co-benefits of Biodiversity and Carbon from Degraded Secondary Forests following Shifting Cultivation: Implications for Community Development and Forest Restoration 39 Munro, P and van der Horst, G, Institutional Bricolage and Community Forestry: Sifting through the Governance History of Sierra Leone’s Kambui Hills Forest Reserve 40 Nawir, A, Maryudi, A, Syafii, S, Nomeni, Y, Putro, W, Kian, A, Sumardamto, P, Amirah, Y, Manalu, P, Julmansyah and Danayasa, P, Policy Framework for Complementary Management of Timber and Non-timber Forest Products to Enhance Local Livelihoods in Indonesia 40 Neal, C and Bennett, D, Does Forest Certification Work for Small Growers? A Case Study Examining the Costs and Benefits of Forest Certification for Small Rainforest Cabinet Timber Growers on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland 42 Nguyen, H, Herbohn, J and Vanclay, J, Growth and Harvest Preferences for Specific Tree Species in a Species-rich- Plantation Based on Both Abiotic and Biotic Factors 42 Nichols, JD and Streed, E, When Farm Forestry Does Not Make Sense: Examples from Costa Rica, Australia and Vanuatu 43 Nikles, DG, Bristow, M, Dickinson, G and Lee, D, Inventories and Significance of the Genetic Resources of African Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis (Desr) A. Juss.) Assembled and Further Developed in Australia 44 Oktalina, SN and Race, D, Exploring the Implications for Community Forestry of Socio-economic Diversity in Rural Indonesia 45 Oliveira, R, Engel, V, Ota, L and Ré, D, Climatic Extremes and the Risk of “Putting all Eggs in Only One Basket”: a Case Study in Brazil 45 Ota, I and Kamakura, M, Obstacles to the Adoption of Forest Certification Schemes in Small-scale Forestry in Japan 46 Ota, L, Herbohn, J, Harrison, S and Palermo, D, Experiences and Attitudes to ‘Rainforestation Farming’ on Leyte Island, Philippines: Assessing Socioeconomic Aspects after Two Decades of the Project 46 Page, T, Jenkin, B, Rollinson, S, Rabbie, S and Vinarut, I, A Participatory Approach to Inventory and Extension to Improve the Management and Quality of Smallholder Woodlots in Papua New Guinea 47 Pasa, A, Gregorio, N, Herbohn, J, Gravoso, R, Goltiano, H, Ferarren, A, Polinar, B, Fernandez, J and Tripoli, R, Engaging Communities in Forest Landscape Restoration: Experiences from Biliran Province, Philippines 48 Paudel, G, Cedamon, E, Nuberg, I, Paudel, N and Shrestha, K, Why Community Forest Management in Nepal is not Active and Equitable 48

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Paudel, G, Shrestha, K, Nuberg, I, and Khatri, DB, Institutionalizing community-based enterprise in Nepalese community forestry 49 Permadi, D, Burton, M, Pandit, R, Walker, I and Race, D, Farmers’ Preferences for Accepting Reforestation Contracts for Pulpwood: Evidence from a Choice Experiment on the Company-Community Partnership Scheme in Indonesia 50 Phan, S, Lamb, D and Schmidt, S, Constraints on Smallholder Plantation Forestry in Vietnam 51 Pramanik, M, Ueki, T, Saito, M and Zaman, S, Socio-economic Impact of the Roadside Social Forestry Program of Bangladesh: A Case Study of Shaghata Upazilla in Gaibandha District 51 Race, D, Irawanti, S, Prawestisuka, A, Bisjoe, A, van de Fliert, E, Reid, R, Rohadi, D and Oktalina, SN, Optimising Community Forestry: Learning from the Farmers and Forests of Indonesia 52 Rana, E, Thwaites, R and Luck, G, Implications of REDD+ for Carbon, Biodiversity and Non-carbon Ecosystem Services: a Case Study from Community Forestry in Nepal 53 Reid, R, Engaging Farmers in Agroforestry Development and Extension 53 Robiglio, V, Smallholder Timber Production along the Forest Transition Curve: Options for Smallholders in the New Peruvian Forest Law 54 Robiglio, V, A Landscape Approach in Designing Climate Change Mitigation Options for Smallholders in the Peruvian Amazon 54 Rohadi, D, Stewart, H, Herawati, T and Race, D, The Value Chain for Teak Grown by Smallholders: Lessons from Indonesia 55 Roshetko, J, Dawson, I, Ureta, J, Lasco, R, Leimona, B and Jamnadass, R, Tree Genetic Resources and Carbon: Considering Seed Sources to Improve Sequestration 55 Rueda, C, Estimating the Reserves of Aboveground Carbon Biomass in a Plantation of Inga edulis in the Community of Campo Verde, Ucayali, Peru 56 Ryan, S, Can Incentives Trigger Management in Private Native Forests where education alone fails? 57 Sabastian, G, Yumn, A, Roshetko, J, Manalu, P, Perdana, A, Martini, E and Adiwinata, A, Factors Affecting Adoption of Smallholder Timber and NTFP Management Practices by Farmers in Three Regions in Indonesia 57 Sandström, P, Lidestav, G, Svensson, J and Andersson, J, Forest and Landscape in Transition: Impacts along the Modern Forestry Frontier in Northern Sweden 58 Sato, N and Kohroki, K, Communities and Landscapes Created by Small-scale Self-employed Timber Harvesting in Japan 58

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Schulke, B, Private Native Forests and Grazing: A sustainable, Viable and Logical Land-use Combination 59 Scudder, M, Review of Institutional Frameworks to Support Eco-forestry: What Might Work in Papua New Guinea 59 Sears, R, Cronkleton, P, Pérez-Ojeda del Arco, M, Menton, M, Cromberg, M and Putzel, L, Regulating Smallholder Forestry: Do Forest Policy Reforms Help or Hinder Smallholder Engagement in Forestry? 60 Smith, RG, Glencross, K, Nichols, JD, Palmer, G and Viranamangga, R, Effect of Initial Spacing on First Thinning Product Recovery, and Financial Outcomes in Whitewood (Endospermum medullosum) Plantations in Vanuatu 61 Smorfitt, D, Baynes, J, Fisher, R, Harrison, S, Herbohn, J and Winai, M Making Informed Financial Decisions in Community-owned Native Forests 61 Sohel, S and Herbohn, J, A Synthesis of Tree Water-use Research in the Tropics in Relation to Plant Functional Traits, Research Biasness and the Way Forward 62 Spong, B and McGill, D, Family Forest Harvesting Experiences during Good, Poor and Improving Economic Conditions 63 Stjernström, O, Lidestav, G and Sandström, S Towards a Common Understanding of Differences in the Performance of Swedish Forest Commons 63 Tikkanen, J, Kähkönen, T and Laakkonen, A, Finnish Non-Industrial Private Forest Owners and Climate Change: Learnings from “Forest Walks” 64 Ugarte-Guerra, J, Page, T, Cornelius, J, Rabbie, J and Vinarut, I, Feasibility of Smallholder Nursery Microenterprises as Sustainable Germplasm Delivery Mechanisms in Papua New Guinea 65 Unsworth, W and Golman, M, Identifying Factors Limiting Reforestation in the Ramu-Markham Valley, Papua New Guinea 66 Venn, T, Katuwal, H, Prato, T and Paveglio, T, Wildfire Risk Mitigation Preferences among Small Forest Landholders in Montana, USA 66 von Kleist, K, Neill, D and Herbohn, J, Native Tree Seed Germination for Restoration in Ecuadorian Amazonia 67 Wästerlund, D and Kronholm, T, A Market Analysis of the Harvesting Services Engaged by Private Forest Owners in Sweden. 67 Wills, J, Firn, J, Herbohn, J, Moreno, M and Avela, M, Species and Functional Trait Diversity beneath Mahogany Monocultures, Mixed-species Plantations and Secondary Forest on Leyte Island, Philippines 68

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Winai, M, Fisher, R and Naus, D, Living Custom: The Relevance of Customary Beliefs in Forest Management in Madang Province, PNG 69 Zhang, K, Hogarth, N, Xie, C, Artati, Y and Putzel, L, Large-scale Implementation of Smallholder Forest Landscape Restoration in China: Interplays between National Goals and Local Agency in a Changing Social Landscape 69 Zobrist, K and Grand, L, Changing Extension Education Technology for a Changing Landscape in Washington State, USA 70

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Ecosystem Services Supply from Small-scale Forestry: a Comparative Analysis Mohammed Alamgir* and Stephen Turton

Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science, College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia *Corresponding author: mohammed.alamgir@my.jcu.edu.au and alamgirmds@gmail.com Ecosystem services are the benefits community derive from ecosystems. Uninterrupted supply of ecosystem services is an essential requirement for sustainable development, strong linkages between community wellbeing and ecosystem services having been identified. Although a growing number of research papers on ecosystem services assessment can be found, most of them focus on natural forests ecosystems. The capacity of small-scale forestry to supply ecosystem services has largely been ignored. This paper spatially assesses the capacity of small-scale forest restoration plantations to supply ecosystem services, and compares these with rainforests and sclerophyll forests in the Wet Tropics of Far North Queensland, Australia. The Wet Tropics consists of a landscape dominating by rainforests and sclerophyll forests, including the world largest rainforests World Heritage Area. Small-scale restoration plantations are designed to establishing ecological connectivity. Data on forest vegetation have been collected from 66 plots of 0.05 ha area distributed over rainforests, sclerophyll forests and restoration plantations, and spatially analysed. The supply of some ecosystem services including global climate regulation, air quality regulation and habitat provision from small-scale forests is found to be comparable with rainforests and sclerophyll forests. This study has policy implications for environmental decision-making focusing on ecosystem service supply from small-scale forestry. Removing Barriers to the Commercialisation of Agroforestry Trees in Nepal Swoyambhu Amatya1*, Ian Nuberg2, Edwin Cedamon2 and Bishnu Hari Pandit1 1 Nepal Agroforestry Foundation, Amarawati Marga-35, Koteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal, PO

Box 9594 2 School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, Urrbrae, 5063 South

Australia *Corresponding author: swoyambhu_amatya@yahoo.com Agroforestry has evolved as a part of the traditional subsistence farming systems in the mid-hills of Nepal. These farming systems are undergoing major changes brought about by the outmigration of male labour and resulting feminisation of the rural labour force. There has been inadequate agronomic development, and serious food insecurity is a problem in Nepal. Of 75 districts, 42 have a food deficit. Most of these districts are in the mid-hills and mountain region of Nepal. Fortunately, the productive functions of trees in these agroforestry systems perform important subsistence functions of supplying firewood and fodder, and also present a resource that can be utilised to redress the trade imbalance of Nepal’s timber products. However, there are many barriers to getting these trees into the market. This paper presents two agroforestry case studies of differing situations with respect to market integration of agroforestry products. It then analyses the barriers for advancing agroforestry, and draws practical policy implications for promoting commercial agroforestry, in Nepal. The first case study describes subsistence-

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level agroforestry systems including: fuel and fodder trees on terrace risers sustaining a few livestock; agropastoral systems on fallow land; and silvo-fishery, apiculture and sericulture. In most areas of Nepal agroforestry has not made major advances and all these practices by and large provide productive services at subsistence level only. There are however instances where agroforestry trees are well linked into industrial wood flows. The Government of Nepal is promoting small-scale woodlots or private forests as part of an agroforestry system. Adoption of private forestry in Nepal remains very low with only about 2458 registered private forests covering an area of 2333 ha. Despite this low registration, volume of timber extracted from private land is twice that from from other sources (community forest and government forest). The second case study describes a situation where trees from private land are well linked into commercial wood flows and highlights the specific institutional arrangements that have facilitated this development. Why Can’t a Country with So Many Trees Grow Enough Firewood: Challenges Facing Forest Extension Officers in Goroka, Papua New Guinea Vincianna Andrew1, Warea Andasua1 and Jack Baynes2 1 Papua New Guinea Forest Authority, Goroka, Eastern Highlands 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia Corresponding author vandrew004@gmail.com The Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea are experiencing a severe shortage of firewood. Residual native forest and some plantation forestry are insufficient to supply this need. In response, in October 2014, the Papua New Guinea Forest Authority (PNG-FA) undertook a three-day training program in the township of Goroka. Farmers received training in nursery techniques including seed collection, preparing nursery beds, germinating seedlings and outplanting seedlings. Farmers were supplied with seed, shadecloth and polybags to start their own home nurseries. Follow-up interviews found that nine of 13 participants had raised seedlings. However, for those farmers living outside of the Goroka environs, problems have emerged. A severe shortage of seed has resulted in farmers using inappropriate Pinus species. In PNG, land is often community-owned but managed by individual farmers. Long-term tenure is therefore subject to negotiation between clan members. Technology sharing is also not common between clans. In the grasslands, fire is always a problem. These findings indicate a need for an approach to forest extension which accommodates a low rate of technology diffusion between clans and in which farmers in remote locations receive almost one-to-one follow-up extension assistance and access to seed, and guidance to inter-crop planting patterns which provide protection from fire. Community Forestry, Mining and Indigenous community development in Northern Australia Mark Annandale Landroc Pty Ltd, GPO Box 2955, Brisbane QLD 4001 m.annandale@usc.edu.au

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The Australian mining sector provides an opportunity for Indigenous communities, in support of sustainable community forestry development including natural forest salvage harvest prior to mine clearing and post-mining mine-rehabilitation-based forestry plantations. Wider community benefits may be gained through forestry-based regional economic development and diversification. Pre-mining Indigenous community forestry development opportunities on mining leases include compliance with mine management requirements and regulatory commitments, management of mining lease natural forest areas and salvage of timber and non-timber forest products prior to mine clearing. The bauxite mining leases of Western Cape York Peninsula include tropical savannah woodland, one of the largest areas of intact forest landscapes in Australia. Cape York Peninsula is approximately the same size as Victoria, and about 84% of the area is covered by forests and woodlands. These forests include some of the world’s most versatile woods which have been subject to a number of studies aimed at quantifying the resource, provision of technical data and assessment of other important forest and timber characteristics. Evaluation of the key species – Darwin stringybark (Eucalyptus tetradonta), Cooktown ironwood (Erythrophleum chlorostachys) and Melville Island bloodwood (Corymbia nesophila) – as well as forest salvage operations and commercial viability of timber and non-timber forestry products and operational constraints are discussed. Post-mining Indigenous community forestry development opportunities include establishment of target species that provide timber and non-timber forest products. Forestry trials were established in bauxite mine rehabilitation areas at Weipa from the early 1960s to 1980s and during 2000-07 in order to assess establishment and growth rates of over 35 forestry species, together with their silvicultural requirements and suitability for the post-mine environment. The results confirm the biophysical and silvicultural requirements for African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) and Sandalwood (Santalum album and S. lanceolatum) for commercial-scale community forestry plantations. Future research questions have been identified to address the socioeconomic, political and cultural issues required to support Indigenous community forestry in the post-mine environment, a critical component of mine closure planning. Combining Collective and Individual Tenure Rights in Smallholder Forestry: The Case of Community Forestry in Indonesia Mani Ram Banjade, Tuti Herawati and Nining Liswanti Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia, m.banjade@cgiar.org Forest tenure reform in Indonesia is a contested policy domain that emerged in the late 1990s but has since evolved as a strong model of forest sector governance. Many communities are engaged in the community forestry schemes and are implementing them with variable success. Based on empirical material collected through focus group discussion, key informant interviews and documents analysis of four community forestry (Hutan Kemasyarakatan) groups, this paper shows how the combination of collective as well as individual tenure over forestland and resources can serve as an effective tenure system to achieve both livelihoods and conservation goals. While individual rights provide security for each household for investment in forest development activities leading to increased economic benefits, collective tenure is instrumental in securing collective accountability for ensuring conservation safeguards. Parcels of land allocated to the individual households are used for cultivating perennial cash crops, while ecologically and culturally critical areas and species are conserved collectively by the people as part of their commitment to environmental conservation.

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Governance and Power Relationships: Their Effect on Community Forestry Organisations and Local People in the Philippines Jack Baynes1, John Herbohn2 and Wolfram Dressler3 1 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia 4558, corresponding author jbaynes@usc.edu.au 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Qld, Australia 3 School of Geography, University of Melbourne, VIC, Australia. This paper examines the effectiveness of partially devolved forest governance on the success of timber tree establishment and harvesting for community forestry in the Philippines. Devolution of power has long been considered to be a 'magic bullet' in the governance of community forestry organisations (CFOs). However, poor governance which involves unequal power relationships between state agencies, forest user groups and rural people, produces unequal access in decision-making, sharing of authority and responsibility. This engenders local resistance from those who feel excluded and marginalised in the process. Drawing on Bourdieu’s notion of ‘symbolic violence’, this paper examines how unequal power relationships between State and local agencies have facilitated destruction of mature and newly planted timber plantations. Studies of a harvesting and a reforestation project found that the adverse effects of poor governance occurred at two tiers, first at an upper level between the government and CFOs, and second, at a lower level between CFOs and local people. Poor governance at upper levels has triggered both symbolic and physical violence on and from community members who remained marginal to the benefits of harvesting and reforestation. It is concluded that a key requirement for sustainable management of community-managed forests is to expand benefit sharing to non-CFO local people. These findings highlight the importance of lower-tier levels of governance within CFOs and between CFOs and local people. The New Face of America’s Family Forest Owners Brett Butler*, Jake Hewes, Sarah Butler, Marla Lindsay and David Kittredge USDA Forest Service-University of Massachusetts Amherst Family Forest Research Center, 160 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, MA 01003 USA *Corresponding author bbutler@eco.umass.edu Across the United States, no other groups own more forestland than families, individuals, trusts, and estates – collectively referred to as family forest owners. In total this group owns 117 million ha of forestland, or 36% of the US forestland. Understanding the attitudes, behaviour and general characteristics of this group of owners is necessary for understanding not just the current state of the forests, but also their future. Data from the latest iteration of the USDA Forest Service’s National Woodland Owner Survey (NWOS, www.fia.fs.fed.us/nwos) are used to explore differences between new and established forest owners in the US. Nearly 20% of America’s forest owners have acquired their land within the last 10 years. These new owners have a number of characteristics that are similar to more established owners and a number of characteristics that are different. The size of forest holdings is substantially lower for the newer

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owners. The new owners are more likely to be absentee owners, but their ownership objectives are not substantively different than those of the more established owners. The activities on the land are similar between the two groups, but the new owners are more likely to participate in forestry programs, particularly receiving advice. Not surprisingly, the new owners tend be substantially younger. These changes, and constants, have important implications for forest policies in the USA. Understanding Alternatives for Organizing Timber Production and Processing in Community Forestry Enterprises: Experiences from Quintana Roo, Mexico Dora Carías Vega, School of Forestry and Ecosystem Science, University of Melbourne, Australia, doracv@student.unimelb.edu.au Mexico has a long and rich experience in community management of forests. The Mexican Revolution of the early 20th century set the foundation that would support the development of this decentralized mode of forest governance. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Mexican community forestry took on a commercial dimension with the development of community-owned enterprises engaging in the production of timber and non-timber forest products. Mexico presents an interesting opportunity to take a more detailed look at the economic organization of community forestry enterprises. Rural communities (ejidos) in Mexico that are the legal owners of forest resources are constantly experimenting with ways of organizing forest management and timber production activities. Using fieldwork from Quintana Roo in south-eastern Mexico, this paper delves deeper into how economic organization of community forestry in Mexico continues to move between ‘collective’ and private solutions. Although some ejidos continue to organize all levels of timber production collectively, many have decided to semi-privatise parts of the value-adding chain, as a way of addressing social and political issues that hindered what they considered was true appropriation of forest benefits. This partially privatised form of forest benefit appropriation – known as ‘work groups’ – has had tangible benefits for ejido members but also presented challenges in terms of collective bargaining power and coordination of production, both necessary for further development and improvement of production. Work groups have also exposed vulnerable groups including women and low-income individuals to predatory practices both within and outside the ejidos. EnLiFT Model 1.0: A Livelihood and Food Security Model of a Forest-Farm System Edwin Cedamon1*, Ian Nuberg1, Betha Lusiana2, Rachmat Mulia2, Bishnu Pandit3, Yuba Raj Subedi4 and Krishna Shrestha5 1 The University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, Urrbrae, South Australia 2 World Agroforestry Centre, South East Asia-Bogor, CIFOR Campus, Bogor 3 Nepal Agroforestry Foundation, Kowteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal 4 Forest Action Nepal, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal 5 The University of New South Wales, School of Social Sciences, Sydney Australia * Corresponding author, edwin.cedamon@adelaide.edu.au

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This paper presents the concept, specification and calibration of a systems model for temporal simulation of a forest-farm livelihood system. The model has been developed to examine the level of food security of the forest-farm livelihood system in Nepal and to identify interventions to increase household income and food security. The model framework consists of five modules: annual crops, tree and understorey, livestock, community forest and Food Security Index. The household activities are categorized into the four aspects of food security: availability, access, use, and stability of supply. The model can be applied over 6 household types based on caste and wealth. This typology was derived from cluster analysis of data from a survey of 668 households in 6 villages in 2 mid-hill districts. An example is presented from simulation runs of one type of household – a capital-rich Janajati household – for the baseline scenario. The simulation experiment reveals strong relative significance of the tree-understory module on household food security and the crucial importance of off-farm income and remittances from overseas. Promoting Natural Regeneration in Forest Landscape Restoration: Overcoming the Tree-planting Bias Robin L. Chazdon1 and Manuel R. Guariguata2

1 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT USA, robin.chazdon@uconn.edu 2 Center for International Forestry Research, Lima, Perú Reforestation is synonymous with tree planting, and forest restoration approaches have also adopted this bias. But tree planting is expensive, requires considerable labour and financial investment, and often has a high rate of failure. Under appropriate conditions, natural regeneration can be a better restoration option from both ecological and economic perspectives, because the native species that colonize naturally are best adapted to local site conditions and to each other, and these species reflect local genetic, taxonomic and functional biodiversity, and support conservation of local wildlife. These advantages are particularly important for restoration at large spatial scales. Defining, assessing and mapping conditions that favour successful natural regeneration and providing economic incentives and logistical and social support to smallholders are important steps toward expanding the role of natural regeneration in reversing degradation and biotic impoverishment in tropical landscapes. Clarifying local norms and regulations so that naturally regenerating forests remain as important components of the landscape is also essential. Based on long-term case studies of natural regeneration in lowland neotropical forests, this paper documents the potential for large-scale natural regeneration for recovery of vegetation structure, functional diversity, species composition, and ecosystem services including carbon mitigation. The premises supporting the need for tree planting is examined, and conditions that favour natural regeneration as a low-cost method for large-scale natural regeneration in tropical regions are described. Tree planting is not always required for forest restoration or ecosystem service provision, and is not always cost-effective. Natural regeneration can provide critically important leverage for promoting large-scale restoration efforts in may tropical regions.

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Improving the Implementation of Community-based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) in Ratanakiri Province, Cambodia Estela Estoria, PO Box 3021, Toowoomba City, Qld. Australia 4350, estela.estoria@uqconnect.edu.au Community-based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) was adopted by the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) as an approach for confronting social and environmental issues, including the mismanagement of forest resources that threaten the country’s forests and the lives and livelihoods of the people who are heavily reliant on those resources, including indigenous people particularly those living in Ratanakiri province. CBNRM was identified as a suitable approach for addressing indigenous peoples’ problems relating to loss of access, control and management of their traditional territories. These issues were largely the result of increasing development investment in the province, including agro-industrial farming (e.g. cashew nut plantations), granted to local and foreign business interests, and illicit acquisition of indigenous peoples’ land by rich and powerful people in the country. In the province of Ratanakiri and Cambodia as a whole, hierarchical and top-down governance systems are practiced, which present a major challenge to the implementation of CBNRM, in which participation and cooperation are key elements. The fundamental concept of a CBNRM is that it promotes local peoples’ empowerment, and participation in decision-making, and gives local people a central role, responsibilities and control in the management of the natural resources in their localities. This study establishes that there are opportunities and leverage points for the implementation of participatory CBNRM within hierarchical and top-down governance systems. The key strategies for achieving this include: (i) gaining the support of key decision-makers and engaging, consulting and keeping them informed in all stages of all processes; (ii) understanding the context and adopting a range of roles, to respond to multiple realities which, in turn, improve the ability to relate and respond to complex situations and diverse project stakeholders interests; and (iii) promoting local capacity-building through employing a range of strategies. The basis of this study was an Action Research project designed to answer the question ‘How can the implementation of the CBNRM project in Ratanakiri province be improved?’. Action research methodology is an emergent yet critical process for engaging with a complex problem that has no clear solution. It was found that despite opportunities and leverage points, CBNRM is at odds with the hierarchical and top-down governance system. The government of Cambodia was found to be not ready for CBNRM. In fact, they are part of the problem and therefore need to be part of the solution to improve the implementation of CBNRM. For CBNRM to succeed in Ratanakiri province the government needs to first recognise indigenous peoples’ rights over their traditional lands, to enables them to become equal partners in the implementation of CBNRM. The Effects of Rice Hull Potting Mix, Chemical Fertilizer and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Inoculation on the Quality of Albizia falcataria Seedlings in the Nursery Angela Ferraren1*, Nestor Gregorio2, Lourdes Agne3, Mayet Avela1 and Arturo Pasa1

1 Visayas State University, Visca, Baybay City, Philippines 2 Forest Industries Resource Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC Maroochydore, 4558 Australia 3 Forest and Timber Resources Research Center, Malaybalay, Bukidnon, Philippines

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*Corresponding author, asalmendras@gmail.com Achieving the goal of National Greening Program (NGP) of the Philippine government to rehabilitate 1.5 million hectares of denuded forestlands by 2016 hinges on the application of mycorrhizal fungi-based root inoculants. A factorial experiment was conducted to determine: a) which has the strongest effect (potting medium, fertilizer or AMF) on the growth, total dry matter production, photosynthetic rate, nutrient concentration and mycorrhizal infection of Albizia falcataria seedlings in the nursery, and b) whether addition of a small amount of chemical fertilizer can improve the effectiveness of AMF inoculation in nursery seedlings with less fertile potting medium. Seedlings in a soil plus rice hull potting mix had faster photosynthetic rate, better nodulation, heavier root dry weight and higher nitrogen and phosphorus uptake by shoots and roots than those grown in a pure soil medium. Application of 8 mg N, 6 mg P and 6 mg K per seedling also improved nodulation, biomass production, shoot and root potassium uptake and mycorrhizal infection. Twice as many nodules were formed in the fertilized soil plus rice hull potting mix but there was only a slight improvement in nodulation relative to fertilized pure soil medium. Except for faster photosynthetic rate of inoculated seedlings grown in the soil plus rice hull potting mix, AMF inoculation failed to influence positively the above-mentioned parameters. AMF inoculation even resulted in reduced photosynthetic rate in seedlings grown in pure soil alone. It can be inferred that AMF inoculation sometimes does not improve seedling growth, nutrient uptake and mycorrhizal colonization, particularly when the potting medium has low fertility and poor physical property.The introduced AMF may suffer about inconsistent competitive performance against native AMF due to lack of adaptability to the new ecosystem, particularly under stressful situations. Hence, a blanket recommendation of AMF inoculation of seedlings in the nursery for the NGP in lieu of fertilizer application needs to be revisited. Social Representations of Forest Management: a Harvesting Behaviour Factor? Andrej Ficko* and Andrej Boncina Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources, University of Ljubljana, Vecna pot 83, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia * Corresponding author, andrej.ficko@bf.uni-lj.si In contrast to the continual decline of forests globally, European forests have been expanding since the middle of the 20th century. Their expansion can be attributed to underuse of non-industrial private forests. Some case studies from Western Europe and the USA indicate correlation between harvesting behaviour of forest owners and the specific conceptualization of appropriate forest management described as ‘non-intervention’. However, such a correlation has not been quantified satisfactorily, nor are there any in-depth studies of forest-owner representations of forest management in Europe. A national study (random sampling, n = 3099) of forest owner conceptualization of forest management was conducted in Slovenia in Central Europe to investigate what forest owners understood by ‘forest management’ and to estimate by a series of structural equation models how these mental constructs correlate to forest-owners’ perceptions of resource efficiency. None of the representations of forest management could be considered as a factor preventing forest owners from harvesting. The difference between these findings and conclusions by other researchers that non-intervention is a consequence of a deep-

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seated philosophical objection to harvesting is primarily explained by historical differences in forestland ownership in different parts of Europe and the USA. Towards a Better Understanding the Positions of Women in European Smallholder Forestry Gro Follo1, Gun Lidestav2, Alice Ludvig3, Lelde Vilkriste 4 , Teppo Huijala 5, Heimo Karppinen 6, Francois Didolot 7 and Diana Mizaraite 8 1 Centre for Rural Research, University Centre Dragvoll, 7491 Trondheim, Norway 2 Dept of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden, corresponding author, Gun.Lidestav@slu.se 3 University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU)/EFICEEC 4 Latvian State Forest Research Institue "Silava" 5 Teppo Huijala, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, PO Box 18 FI-01301 VANTAA, FINLAND 6 Heimo Karppinen, Dept. of Forest Sciences P.O. Box 27, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland 7 French National Centre for Forest Ownership, France 8 Institute of Forestry, LRCAF, Liepu str. 1, LT-53101 Girionys, Kaunas District Lithuania Due to changes in heritage practices and other societal changes, the number of female forest owner has increased across Europe. Therefore the authors, a team of researchers involved in the Cost Action FP 1201 FACESMAP, argue that female forest ownership should be investigated and problematized. What are women’s positions in smallholder forestry and do their positions differ from the positions of male forest owners? If so, what do such differences suggest for future forestry research and policy-making? Using a gender perspective across three different research approaches, this paper shows that gender matters in forest ownership as well as in management and operations, and the understandings of these three aspects. More specifically, how gender manifests as an empirical variable in forest ownership statistics is explored. Based on the initial findings an elaboration is made of what these numbers tell in terms of gender implications and vice versa. Then, what impact gender has on the ways forest ownership is enacted and presented in these figures is assessed. Policy implications are that i) fellow researchers in the field should assume that gender matters and design their empirical studies accordingly, and ii) policy-makers should guarantee access to gender-disaggregated data in official registers and statistics. Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment of Timber Harvesting Residues: A Case Study of a Balsa Plantation in Papua New Guinea Mohammad Reza Ghaffariyan1, Braden Jenkin2, Rick Mitchell3 and Mark Brown3

1 Forest Industries Research Centre (FIRC), University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, corresponding author ghafari901@yahoo.com 2 Sylva Systems Pty Ltd., Warragul, Victoria 3 Forest Industry Research Centre (FIRC), University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland

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This paper evaluates the quantity and quality of the harvesting residues in a balsa plantation in East New Britain Province of Papua New Guinea. The plantation was harvested manually with a chainsaw and man-power used to extract the industrial wood at age six years. A modified standard harvesting residue assessment method was applied using line transects. The total weight of the remaining harvest residues on the site after wood extraction was 211.7 tGREEN/ha and the major components were unmerchantable stem wood (121.3 tGREEN/ha; 57.3%) and bark (59.3 tGREEN/ha; 28.0%). The level of remaining harvest residues in this study area was relatively higher than reported in other studies, which reflects the combination of the log specification applied and the nature of the stem defects in balsa trees. The level of residue indicated the possibility of additional woody materials recovery for bioenergy, after consideration of sustainability issues. The average moisture content of the wood components of the harvest residue in the case study area was determined. The average moisture content after harvesting on the first day was 50% while the average for the day following harvest operations was about 48%. The elemental content of the harvest residues was estimated based on published data for eucalypts in the absence of data for balsa and indicated that calcium was the largest component while phosphorous was the lowest quantity component of the harvest residues. Forty Years of Community-based Forestry: A Review of Extent and Effectiveness

Don Gilmour 42 Mindarie Cres, Wellington Point, Queensland, 4160, Australia, don.gil@bigpond.com

Community Based Forestry (CBF) has steadily extended its reach during the past 40 years, moving from an experimental and ill-defined modality in the early 1980s to a form of forest management that has reached into many countries across all regions. These regimes can be categorized according to levels of rights enjoyed by key stakeholders and consequently levels of empowerment. The best estimates suggest that CBF regimes encompass about 689 million ha, which equates to about 26% of the forest land in the 62 countries assessed across all regions of the globe. Smallholder forestry is the main type of CBF regime in the global North, but is expanding rapidly in countries in the global South, particularly China and Viet Nam. In some countries, particularly in Europe, more than 50% of forest land is held by smallholders. By contrast, smallholders at the farm-forest interface in some Latin American countries operate outside the mainstream market and are largely ignored by policy-makers and development planners. CBF regimes that require collaborative decision-making for the management of forest commons predominate in the global South, although there is a latent emergence of a range of such regimes in Western Europe, Canada and the USA. CBF has the potential to contribute to SFM and improve local livelihoods. However, its full potential has yet to be realized in most countries and there are many hurdles in the way of effective implementation. As a generalization, it is fair to say that CBF is grossly underperforming. Decentralization and devolution have only been partially realized and many governments retain significant authority over forest management, with the result that major restrictions are applied. Without real devolution of power, the objectives of CBF will be difficult to achieve because they are premised on this transfer. There is now a significant body of knowledge available that can be drawn on to inform both implementation and policy processes. However, there has been less focus on the extent to which CBF has built natural, social, human and financial capital that together contribute to livelihood improvements. In general, there is also a substantial gap between science, policy and practice, and this inhibits the widespread application of new knowledge to improve field practice and inform policy discourse. Six conditionalities have

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been identified, all of which need to be met, to enable CBF to reach its potential and deliver fully on its objectives. These are: (i) secure property rights (tenure); (ii) an enabling regulatory framework (with a reasonable balance between rights and responsibilities); (iii) strong governance; (iv) viable technology to establish and maintain productive forests; (v) adequate market access for marketable goods and services, and (vi) supportive bureaucratic mandate and culture. There are three clear conclusions that come from this review. The first is that there are many examples across a range of scales (pilot project to national) and in all regions, where CBF has demonstrated that it can be a potent vehicle to move towards SFM and make significant improvements to local livelihoods. The second is that while CBF regimes are now a major modality of forest management throughout the world, by and large they are grossly underperforming and could do much better. The third is that there is a lack of solid data on the extent and effectiveness of CBF at national scales that can be used for informed discussion and decision-making. Unlocking the Wealth of Forests for Community Development: Commercializing Products from Community Forests Don Gilmour 42 Mindarie Cres, Wellington Point, Queensland, 4160, Australia, don.gil@bigpond.com Community and smallholder forestry regimes now encompass more than 689 million ha and comprise about 26% of the world’s forests. It has long been argued that community forestry has the potential to deliver major livelihood benefits for local communities. However, to do so, it needs to move beyond providing mainly subsistence goods and become a vehicle for the development of forest enterprises that can contribute to a genuine new forest economy. Most effort in community forestry to date has been devoted to implementing the initial stages of the community forestry process, i.e. the establishment and formal recognition of community forests and their membership groups – the first generation stage of community forestry. However, a growing number of countries are now facing a new set of issues associated with moving to a second generation stage of community forestry, i.e. one involving the commercialization of forest products. This paper reviews experience in commercializing products from community forests in several countries. Overall, community forestry is grossly underperforming, particularly in delivering financial benefits to community members. In most countries, even when community rights are secure, multiple and complex bureaucratic procedures imposed by public forest and other government agencies place significant impediments in the path of communities that effectively prevent them from managing their forests to deliver their economic potential. Other constraints also apply, including a lack of entrepreneurial and business management skills in communities (and remote rural areas generally) plus a range of legal and market-related issues. A consensus is emerging that commercialization will not progress in most countries without addressing two major policy issues: (1) providing communities with the rights to harvest high-value forest resources, including timber, and (2) improving the enabling environment for small enterprises so that forest communities can register businesses, access financial services, negotiate partnerships and attract sustainable investment to enable them to increase the benefits from the sustainable management of their forests. The ultimate challenge for policy-makers is to look beyond the forests and trees to the markets and facilitate the development of enterprises-based on the sustainable management of community forests, while avoiding low value-added forest exploitation, but still allowing traditional forest uses to continue.

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Community Forestry Potential and What is Ahead for PNG Martin Golman Papua New Guinea Forest Research Institute, mgolman@fri.pngfa.gov.pg There is potential for developing community-based forest management in PNG. Communities have been able to plant trees at small scale and generated some income after trees were harvested and marketed as wood products. The extent to which the tree farming can expand will depend partly on the decisions of the key community landowners and on the actions of the stakeholders who will be partnering in the process of community tree farming, as land on which trees are grown is 97% customarily owned by local landowners. The decisions and actions of the landowners can primarily be recognized when there is identification of whom the decision-makers are, with whom will they have trust to work, and whether they will fully benefit financially from the contribution of their land to grow trees in the long run. These three factors will influence the extent to which landowners aspire to plant trees on a larger scale in PNG, whilst other factors are not entirely ruled out. This paper draws some experiences from the current work of the ACIAR Community forestry Project FSTY 2011/058 and the author’s previous work, which reveals that despite the potential of developing community forestry in respect to the variety of levels, there are some underlying issues about integrating community, natural resources and environment, and benefit-sharing issues. The basic denominator is how landowners are best involved so that they become full partners in community forestry activities in PNG. The paper demonstrates that at the end of all these complexities, there are processes by which issues can be identified in a participatory approach and a model approach integrated for transparent, equitable and fair benefit-sharing, which could reduce disputes and mistrusts and create greater opportunities for increased community participation in tree farming. Future Management Directions of Farmland and Woodland Owners of the Greenbrier River Landscape in Southeastern West Virginia Valerie Grant and David McGill* West Virginia University, PO Box 6125, Morgantown, WV 26506 * Corresponding author dmcgill@wvu.edu The Greenbrier River watershed features some of the most productive agriculture and timberlands, critical habitat and extensive recreational opportunities in the central Appalachian Mountains. A recent statewide forest resources assessment identified this watershed as an area of concern for land preservation due to trends in increasing second and vacation home development, and land-use impacts from parcelization and fragmentation. A survey was carried out of landowners in the watershed counties to describe their future land-use plans and willingness to work across boundaries. Just over 20% of the respondents claimed they expected use of timber and firewood to increase over the next 10 years. Cross-boundary practices, assumed to be a key part of new federal landscape-scale conservation projects, were found to be related to socioeconomic and demographic variables. One consistently recurring association found among proposed cross-boundary activities was ‘contact with agricultural or forestry professionals’. Landowners who had been in contact with professionals were more likely to

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respond favourably to the ideas of working with neighbours for wildlife habitat, leasing access for hunting and recreation, and working on joint conservation easements. Professional contact was also related to the direction of communication across boundaries where both sharing information with neighbours and neighbours sharing with the respondent were increased among those who had been in contact with professionals. These findings of increased willingness to participate in conservation highlight yet another benefit of incentive programs designed to promote woodland and agricultural planning on private land, namely getting landowners together with professionals Institutional Support for Small-scale Tree Growers in Gunung Kidul, Indonesia Murni Greenhill* and Iain Walker

CSIRO Land and Water, Private Bag 5, Wembley, WA 6913. * Corresponding author murni.greenhill@csiro.au Understanding institutional pathways is crucial to direct support and aid programs effectively. The present study was conducted to explore the institutional framework which currently exists in Indonesia to assist small landholders to improve their capacities to grow trees. Past research has consistently emphasised the importance of trees in supporting large household expenses amongst small landholders in Indonesia. With 50% of the Indonesian rural population considered extremely vulnerable to unexpected emergencies, the financial value of trees needs to be maximised to act as a safety net for these small landholders. The current study used desktop reviews and the institutional mapping technique to analyse the support farmers receive. The institutional mapping technique was applied to Indonesian social researchers, frontline farmer support officers and rural farmers in Gunung Kidul, Indonesia to understand the networks of institutions that work together to support farmers. The resulting institution map was used to highlight the critical role of each institution and the needs of tree farmers. In particular, seven institutions were found to work closely with farmers. Of these, field extension support staff were found to be have provided the most consistent contact with farmers. Even as farmers now place greater value on the input of science and technology, they were found to still be unable to obtain assistance because they did not know how to navigate through the institutional maze to request assistance. Challenges in Implementing a National Policy to Regulate the Quality of Seedlings for Reforestation Programs in the Philippines Nestor Gregorio1*, John Herbohn2, Steve Harrison1,2, Arturo Pasa3 and Angela Almendras-Ferraren3

1 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, 4072 Australia 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC, Maroochydore, 4558 Australia 3 ACIAR Smallholder Forestry Project, Visayas State University, Leyte 6521-A, Philippines * Corresponding author, n.gregorio@uq.edu.au

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The use of low quality seedlings is one of the major reasons for the mixed results of past watershed rehabilitation programs in the Philippines. Since 2010, a national policy on forest nursery accreditation has been implemented to regulate the quality of forest reproductive materials. Implementers of forest rehabilitation programs are directed to use high quality seedlings from accredited seedling suppliers. Despite this requirement, low quality seedlings are still largely planted in tree farming, agroforestry and reforestation projects. Surveys of the forest nursery sector in Eastern Visayas and Northern Mindanao regions were carried out to determine the effectiveness of forest nursery accreditation policy in regulating the quality of seedlings for tree farming and reforestation programs in the country. The limited information of seedling producers on the attributes of high quality planting materials, insufficient knowledge on high quality seedling production technologies, limited sources of high quality germplasm, insufficient period for annual seedling production schedule, need for more robust criteria for seedling quality assessment, lack of appropriate auditing and monitoring on the quality of seedlings and of the seedling production system in accredited nurseries, and absence of incentives to producers of high quality seedlings are some of the major issues which hinder the success of regulating the quality of forest reproductive materials. Nursery accreditation represents a huge leap in promoting the success of watershed rehabilitation nationally. However, considerable improvement of the implementation system and establishment of support mechanisms is necessary. Improving Reforestation Outcomes by Putting Research Findings into Practice - the Case of Biliran, Philippines N. Gregorio1,2*, J. Herbohn1,2, S.Harrison1,2, A. Pasa3, Angela Ferraren3, Jufamar Fernandez3 and Roger Tripoli3 1 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC 2 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, 4072 Australia, 3ACIAR Smallholder Forestry Project, Visayas State University, Leyte 6521-A Philippines *Corresponding author n.gregorio@uq.edu.au One of the major challenges in community-based reforestation programs in the Philippines is fulfilling its objectives of alleviating poverty and managing the forest resources in a sustainable way. The problems that limit its success are widely reported and apparently recurring. However, very little attempt has been made to design and implement community-based reforestation programs which take into account the multitude of lessons from reforestation failures. A case study to pilot-test an improved community-based reforestation program has been implemented in Biliran Province, Philippines since the second quarter of 2014. The program was developed using the systems approach with significant inputs from stakeholders. The design and implementation incorporates findings of past research activities and experience from previous reforestation projects. It was found that the success of community-based forestry implementation can be improved when the following requisites are satisfied: appropriate project design; adequate social preparation; strong leadership in the organisation; transparency in handling project funds; sustainable livelihood and food security measures; sufficient financial support and timely disbursement; adequate institutional arrangements and supportive policy environment; security of land tenure; presence of extension workers; and significant involvement of women in implementing the program. The factors contributing to mixed results

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of community-based forestry are complicated and designing and implementing interventions is equally difficult. A systems approach of understanding the causalities of reforestation failures and designing intervention measures proved to be essential in improving reforestation outcomes. The application of a genuine participatory process at all levels of the program and use of evidence and learning from past forest landscape restoration interventions and research undertakings are also paramount. Financial Modelling of Mixed-species Agroforestry Systems in Fiji and Vanuatu, Based on Traditional Tree Species Steve Harrison1 and Robert Harrison2 1 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, and Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia, corresponding author, s.harrison@uq.edu.au 2 Environment and Heritage Protection, Queensland Government, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Agroforestry development is seen to have many attractive features in Pacific Island countries, including promotion of agricultural development, reduction in land degradation, import replacement, and improved community health. Two ACIAR small-research activities (SRAs) are being undertaken in both Fiji and Vanuatu, to examine measures to promote agroforestry, using Pacific Island tree species not generally used in industrial forestry (including timber, fruit and nut species) together with food crops. Financial, social, environmental and policy analyses were conducted to assess agroforestry and silvopastoral systems in areas of declining sugar production and senile coconut plantations. Applying financial analyses to potential mixed-species agroforestry plantations based on traditional tree species presents major challenges in terms of data collection and of model formulation and validation. The approach adopted has been to collect data from field visits, small-scale surveys and literature search, to initially model individual species, and then to adapt and integrate the single species models into agroforestry systems models. This paper reports findings on the modelling approach and financial performance estimates for a number of agroforestry systems judged suitable for particular site conditions. Is There Decentralization in North Korea? Emerging Small-scale Agroforestry in Sloping Land Management Jun He* and Jianchu Xu World Agroforestry Centre, ICRAF East and Central Asia program，Heilongtan, Kunming 650204, China * Corresponding author, h.jun@cgiar.org North Korea suffered from food shortage and large-scale deforestation in the 1990s, which triggered a stage of rural reform. With the support by donor agencies, the Ministry of Land and Environmental Protection in 2004 commenced a Sloping Land Management Project, which mainly helped to establish a Sloping Land User Group and grant them the use-right of marginal

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land for agroforestry development. It has now expanded to over eight counties with thousands of household involved. This paper documents the process and effects of this decentralization initiative and argues that the decentralization reform effectively contributed to increased food production and forest recovery on degraded sloping land. The research also reveals that institutional challenges and technical constraints limited the possibility of further scaling-up of decentralization across the countries. The policy implication is the need for increasing international investment and national policy reform to promote decentralization in sloping land management by securing rights of more sloping land user groups. Effects of Silvicultural Treatments on Growth and Species Composition of a Tropical Forest in Australia 45 Years after Logging Jing Hu1, John Herbohn1,2*, Jack Baynes2, Jerome Vanclay3, Jarrah Wills1, John Meadows2 and Shawkat Sohel1

1 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of Sunshine Coast, 90 Sippy Downs Drive, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia * Corresponding author, jherbohn@usc.edu.au Well managed tropical forests can be an important livelihood resource for communities. Reduced impact logging (RIL) offers benefits of timber production while preserving many of the ecological and social functions of forests. However, little data exists on the long-term impacts of RIL. This paper reports the initial results of an assessment of a RIL study established in north Queensland in 1967. The study comprised a forest area divided into four sections. Each section was logged using reduced impact guidelines in place at the time, with three sections subsequently treated with differing silvicultural prescriptions. All trees above 10 cm diameter were tagged, mapped, identified and measured before logging, and after logging in 1969, 1972, 1981, 1989 and 1997. The historic data include species information, mortality, recruitment, diameter and logging damage history. The historical data from the experiment have not been analysed to any substantial degree. Currently, the research team is relocating and remeasuring these trees to investigate their growth response in the tropical forests to various silvicultural treatments. Basal area increment will be linked to stand basal area, size class and the position of the tree within the canopy strata. This paper presents preliminary results from the 2015 remeasure of the experiment and offers some initial insights into the implications for management of tropical forests and on which silvicultural treatment is better for the regrowth after logging. Do Village Common Forests Correspond to Sustainable Forest Management? A Case of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh Mohammed Jashimuddin Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh, mjashimuddin2001@yahoo.co.uk

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Village common forests (VCFs) represent a system of sustainable community-initiated common forest management that harbour rare plant and animal species and secure the livelihood needs of the indigenous communities. Twelve indigenous communities living in Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) are the important stakeholders of the rich bio-cultural system that has survived many centuries as a model system of natural resource management and socio-cultural harmony with nature. These communities consider forests not only as common property but also as the locus of ancestral spirit, and utmost care is taken for their conservation. The present study is based on an extensive review of available information on historical development of VCFs in Bangladesh and identifying the management regimes and related problems for the sustainability of these forests through field survey from four randomly selected VCFs in Khagrachari district of CHT. Historically, VCFs arose as a direct consequence of resource constraints caused by deforestation and forest degradation that negatively affected local agriculture due to loss of soil fertility, erratic rainfall and drying-up of streams. The prevention of entry into and use of the resources of the newly acquired reserved forests by the state government since the British colonial period also forced the indigenous communities to maintain VCFs to support their lives. The result was an innovation based upon traditional resource management patterns to retain forest cover for long-term use and with the potential to conserve biodiversity and forests, and sustain life of indigenous communities that qualifies as a community-based adaptation strategy to climate change and resource constraints. The management of VCF is an excellent example of collective action under the leadership of mauza headmen or village karbaris under particular traditional rules and regulations so that community members are not allowed to cut trees or bamboos without prior permission and are punished if rules are violated. Traditional jhum (shifting cultivation) and any type of burning are not allowed under any circumstances in the VCFs. Restriction of access and regulations of use are the major management prescriptions. Use and extraction of produce from VCFs is needs-based, in order not to deplete the natural resources of these forests which exist for the benefit of the entire community. VCFs are the source of fuelwood, herbs, roots, bamboo shoots, wild fruit, and vines or leaves for cooking or medicinal use, necessary to sustain the lives of the indigenous communities in the CHT. VCFs are also rich in biodiversity which are not usually found in the state-owned reserved forests or the unclassed state forests due to continued deforestation and land degradation. An exploratory field study recorded 162 plant species from 60 families that are not usually observed in reserved forests or unclassed state forests. There is no exact count of the number of VCFs but it is assumed that there are about 700 to 800 VCFs of widely varying sizes from 20 to 120 ha in the CHT that can be an effective carbon sink if properly managed. Formal recognition to secure use, access and tenure regimes are believed to be crucial for long-term sustenance of these common village forests. Existing norms, social capital, and extent of dependence on forest and effective leadership are some other factors that influence sustainable collective action in resource management. Natural Resource Enterprises: Enhancing Landowner Incomes and Conservation in Forests in the USA W. Daryl Jones Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture, Box 9690, Mississippi State University, MS, United States of America, daryl.jones@msstate.edu

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Mississippi landowners were found to diversify incomes from forests through fee-access outdoor recreation, including hunting, angling, wildlife watching and other nature-based tourism activities. The Natural Resource Enterprises (NRE) program at Mississippi State University Extension Service educates private landowners, state and federal natural resource agencies and local communities about recreational enterprises, conservation, and integration of these activities with sustainable forestry through educational workshops. Since 2005 nearly 100 landowner educational workshops have been conducted in 11 US states and Sweden and an estimated 4,500 landowners and community leaders have been trained in outdoor recreational business development and associated natural resource conservation practices. At events, participants learn how to start NRE businesses and ways to implement forest management and land and water conservation on their properties. Survey results revealed that outreach programming has initiated over 1,000 new outdoor recreational businesses on privately-owned land and generated an estimated $12.6 million in supplemental annual family incomes on an estimated 4,700 ha in the US. NRE development on rural land benefits landowners and local rural communities through income diversification on working forests and agricultural land while simultaneously enhancing ecosystem conservation and sustainability in the US. How REDD+ and PES Programs Implemented at Landscape Level Help Reduce Deforestation and Forest Degradation Seema Karki*, Hammad Gilani, Bhaskar Karki and Rajan Kotru

International Centre for integrated Mountain Development, GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal * Corresponding author seema.karki@icimod.org

Deforestation and forest degradation (D&D) in developing countries are identified as one of the main forestry sector drivers in exacerbating the impact of climate change. To reverse this phenomenon, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) has been identified as a performance-based incentive mechanism. To comprehend how the incentive mechanism facilitates REDD+ activities, ICIMOD with its partners implemented a pilot project “Design and setting up of a payment system for Nepal’s community forest (CF) management under REDD+”. This pioneering effort was implemented in Charnawati, Kayarkhola and Ludikhola watersheds of Nepal from 2009 to 2013. Focusing on yearly forest carbon measurement and changes in carbon stock, this project rewarded communities as a motivation so that they can better manage their forest. Communities reflected a feeling of incentives received as a result of sustainable forest management. Using tree cover as a parameter, the researchers also compared crown projection area (CPA) estimated from remote sensing high-resolution maps from 2009 and 2012. The greater value of CPA, in REDD-implemented CF against the neighbouring community forests that were not the part of the pilot, also showed that the incentives stimulated forest conservation. This poster explains what could be the focus of REDD and payments for ecosystem services implemented at landscape level to reduce D&D.

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Does Gender Count: Female Forest Ownership in Finland Heimo Karppinen1*, Pipsa Paaja1 and Harri Hänninen2 1 Dept. of Forest Sciences, and Natural Resources Institute, Finland, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland, 2 Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Viikinkaari 4, 00790 Helsinki Finland * Corresponding author heimo.karppinen@helsinki.fi Female forest owners’ demographics and their forest management behaviour were studied using Finnish national survey data (n= 6318). New estimates were made for the proportion of female forest owners. The behavioral analysis was focused especially on female forest owners’ use of forestry extension services, using OLS and logit models. Female forest owners’ share of all owners according the new and more reliable estimate was 44%. Female forest owners were, on average, older and better educated than their male counterparts. They also owned smaller forest holdings and were more often absentee owners than men. Silvicultural measures and harvests took place less frequently on female owners’ holdings than on the forest estates owned by men. Female owners were also more passive users of extension services than men. For female owners, some demographic characteristics and ownership objectives were more powerful determinants of utilization of extension services than for men. One approach to activate female owners could be gender-specific extension activities, such as various networks for women and peer-to-peer learning. An Assessment of the Success of the Papua New Guinea Forest Authority’s Seedling Distribution Program in Eastern Highlands Province PNG and Factors Affecting Adoption by Farmers Dinger Kasieng1, Vincianna Andrew2, Alfred Faiteli 1, Warea Andasua2, Robert Fisher3*, Jack Baynes3 and Norlie Miskaram1 1 Environmental Science and Geography, School of Natural and Physical Sciences, University of Papua New Guinea, PO Box 320, University Post Office, National Capital District, PNG 2 Papua New Guinea Forest Authority, Goroka, Eastern Highlands, PNG 3 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia * Corresponding author rfisher1@usc.edu.au The Papua New Guinea Forest Authority (PNGFA) has been implementing a program of seedling distribution to farmers to encourage reforestation of grasslands in Eastern Highlands Province. This paper reports on a survey in 2014 of recipients (farmers, NGOs, churches and schools) in order to assess the success of the distribution in terms of planting and survival of seedlings. It also reports on motivations for planting trees, species preferences in comparison to species provided, constraints affecting survival of seedlings (including fire, disease, inappropriate species and site selection) and social conflicts. The underlying purpose of the survey was to provide the PNGFA with information to enable it to adjust its extension activities

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to better meet farmers’ needs. The results include confirmation of high seedling mortality, the tendency of the existing program to benefit more wealthy farmers, a degree of reluctance of many farmers to look after trees even after accepting them, and mixed motives and enthusiasm for planting. The survey did not address the broader interest of highlands residents in tree planting (that is, those who did not receive seedlings), but deals only with farmers who accepted seedlings. Nevertheless it provides insights that will enable better directed extension services in future. Deriving a Typology of the Swiss Forest Enterprise Accountancy Data Network Philipp Kilham*, Wolfgang Hercher and Christoph Hartebrodt Forest Research Institute Baden-Württemberg, Wonnhaldestraße 4, 79100 Freiburg, Germany * Corresponding author philipp.kilham@forst.bwl.de Various requirements and policies affect the silvicultural and economic results of individual forest enterprises. These individual circumstances should be taken into consideration to develop functioning management and advisory mechanisms. However, in practice incorporating all the influencing factors is not feasible. A multivariate typology provides the ability to use a variety of indicators as a basis for the formation of the various types of forest enterprises. Using principal component and cluster analyses, 208 forest holdings from the Swiss Forestry Enterprise Accountancy Data Network (AND) were divided into four clusters. Nineteen key variables from years 2008 to 2010 constituted the base of this analysis. The clusters differ significantly from each other in most of the key variables. The results of this multivariate typology analysis can be mapped in part by the forest zones of Switzerland. It should be noted that the variable “forest zone” also acts as a multivariate criterion, reflecting both in the physical and structural requirements of the enterprises. Based on the results of the analysis, several recommendations concerning an optimization of the existing forest zones could be made. Private Landowner Awareness of Their Conservation Alternatives: an Important Factor Affecting the Management of Small-scale and Community Forests David Kittredge Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA, and Harvard Forest, dbkitt@gmail.com In landscapes where forests are predominantly owned by private families and individuals, the aggregate effect of management decisions over time can have a profound and lasting effect on land cover and the ecosystem services that result from a wooded condition. Previous research on family forest ownership in the USA shows that most owners do not have a professionally prepared management plan for their land guiding management over a long-term timeframe, nor do they utilize the professional services or capacity of foresters when they sell timber at a discrete point in time. The result is often reactive decisions about their land, made in the absence of relevant forestry information or knowledge of their alternatives. An important precursor to making informed decisions about forest management is awareness about

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alternatives and knowledge of conservation programs and opportunities. The Conservation Awareness Index (CAI) is a rapid assessment survey tool to estimate landowner awareness and experience with four distinct conservation choices they commonly face in the northeastern USA, namely timber harvesting, property taxation, sale or donation of development rights, and estate planning for the next generation of owners. Analysis suggests landowners have relatively poor awareness of their conservation alternatives, and awareness varies significantly by community. This paper reviews the results of six applications of this index with hundreds of private woodland owners, and provides insight into relevance for small-scale and community forestry at the landscape level. Comparing Multi-clan and Single-clan Nurseries which Provide Seedlings for Community-based Reforestation in the Ramu-Markham Valley of Papua New Guinea Bonti Krasi Papua New Guinea Forest Research Institute, Po Box 314 Lae, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea, bonti_krasi@yahoo.com.au This paper compares the success of two forest nurseries which were instituted as part of two successive Australian Centre for Industrial and Agricultural Research (ACIAR) forest extension projects in the Ramu-Markham valleys in Papua New Guinea. The success of a semi-industrial forest nursery was compared with that of a small-scale low-cost ‘clan’ nursery. Through personal dialogue, a survey using semi-structured questionnaires and visual observations, it was found that the semi-industrial nursery successfully produces high quality seedlings, but mainly distributes them to members of only one clan. Dissemination of nursery technology and seedlings to other clans is minimal. The major contributing factor for this lack of success are the tradition in which knowledge and material goods are shared only within clans or family members. It was also found that the low-cost clan-based nursery produces fewer seedlings of lower quality, but enthusiasm to grow seedlings for clan-based reforestation was high. It is concluded that while cross-clan technology transfer may be low, small but cost-effective clan nurseries offer the best chance of disseminating tree growing technology in rural PNG. The Increasing Need for Swedish Forest Owner Associations to Protect and Serve Members’ Forest Management Activities Thomas Kronholm and Dianne Staal Wästerlund Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-90 183 Umeå, Sweden, thomas.kronholm@slu.se Half of Sweden’s forest land is owned by 330,000 family forest owners and their management activity is thus of huge importance for both industry and the development of the forest landscape. One third of the forest owners are members of a forest owners’ association and a major challenge for these co-operative organizations is to adapt to members’ changing characteristics and needs. To explore how the associations are dealing with this situation 8

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semi-structured, face-to-face interviews with chairmen and senior managers from three associations and the Federation of Swedish Farmers were performed. It was found that associations have identified an increasing need for management-support activities among members due to their decreasing familiarity with forestry. Help is increasingly needed both for setting up goals and objectives for their forest ownership, and for practical property management. The associations’ education programs are also improved and adapted to suit members’ varying understanding of forestry by introduction of A-, B- and C-level courses. Education campaigns have proved to be a successful tool for affecting members’ management objectives. Further, the associations are increasing their political activity as a response to the calls for stricter management regulations made by politicians, media and organizations in favour of nature conservation. The successfulness of the associations’ work and strategies may thus have significant long-term implications on the management activities undertaken by family forest owners. Member relationships are also likely to be affected in the associations’ development process because members more often will come to act as customers of service rather than suppliers of roundwood in their interaction with the organizations. Constraints and Opportunities for Future Small-scale Reforestation David Lamb Tropical Forests and People Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Qld 4556, Australia, david.lamb@uq.edu.au Around the world there is increased interest in reforesting cleared land. This can be seen in the discussions underway in various international fora as well as in the policy initiatives being undertaken by many national governments. At the same time, there are a number of constraints on actually implementing any changes. For example, will reforestation compete with the need to use land to produce food for a growing world population? Likewise, how will reforestation be done when we are still learning how to adapt to a changing climate? But there are also new opportunities emerging. These include a growing interest in protecting biodiversity as well as in implementing forms of reforestation that increase the supply of ecosystem services. Small-scale reforestation has a role to play in the national and international efforts to grapple with these challenges and opportunities. Rather than being a competitor for land, small-scale reforestation may be a way of ensuring that future food production systems are sustainable. Similarly, small-scale reforestation may help generate many of the ecosystem services lost when natural forests were cleared. But there are three questions that must be resolved if these benefits are to be achieved. Firstly, what type of reforestation should be implemented – will the traditional forms of plantation forestry be sufficient or must new methods be developed? Secondly, how much reforestation should be carried out in a particular landscape – are there ecological or economic thresholds that must be exceeded if various ecosystem services are to be generated? And, thirdly, where in that landscape should any reforestation be done – just how should current agricultural landscapes be redesigned to balance food production and ecosystem service generation? Further silvicultural and ecological research will help answer some of these questions but appropriate policy and institutional arrangements will also have to be developed to take full advantage of future opportunities.

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Expanding the Australian Master TreeGrower Model into the Developing World Jon Lambert1 and Rowan Reid2,3 1 Beyond Subsistence, PO Box 1076, Warragul, Victoria, Australia, 3820, corresponding author jlambert@beyondsubsistence.org.au 2 Australian Agroforestry Foundation, 55 Main Street, Birregurra, 3242 The Australian Agroforestry Foundation (AAF), in partnership with Beyond Subsistence (BS) (an Australian NGO) and the World Agroforestry Centre, ran a Master TreeGrower (MTG) training course in Australia in 2012 for visiting African extension agents with the view to adapting the Australian MTG program for application in developing countries. The first international Master TreeGrower course was then delivered in Kabale, Uganda, in May 2013. The course structure was adapted from the Australian MTG model to allow it to be delivered within one week to reduce travel time and costs for participants and presenters. The content was also adapted to reflect local aspirations, opportunities and resources. In 2014, an additional 10 international MTG courses were conducted across Africa and South East Asia with various partners and sponsors (Niger (BS), Uganda (BS), Indonesia (ACIAR and local agencies) and East Timor (WithOneSeed). A number of tools have been used to assess the value and impact of the courses including participant surveys, interviews and participant and partner behaviour observations. Participants were clearly enthusiastic about MTG and made commitments to implementing agroforestry interventions on their own farms. They were also keen to share their knowledge with others within their community. Partners expressed great satisfaction and are keen to continue delivering the courses. Some participants and partners have since been involved in supporting the development or rejuvenation of local farmer groups and have supported subsequent MTG courses. Although the long-term impact of the MTG on land management practices is more difficult to assess there are some positive signs emerging for each region that suggest the MTG represents a novel and worthy approach to engaging developing country farmers in agroforestry Clonal Capture of Mature Teak (Tectona grandis) for Improved Germplasm Deployment in Papua New Guinea Anton Lata1, Sylvester Kulang2, Neville Howcroft2 and Tony Page3

1 Papua New Guinea Forest Research Institute, P O Box 314, Lae 114, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea, corresponding author: alata@fri.pngfa.gov.pg 2 University of Natural Resources and Environment, PO Box 30, Keravat, East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea 3. Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558 Australia Teak is a priority species for plantation development in Papua New Guinea (PNG), although expansion of the planted area is constrained by a lack of high quality seed sources. To address this problem, clonal methods were used for capturing selected plus trees within existing plantations (9 candidates) and an existing clonal seed orchard (20 candidates). Truncheon cuttings were collected from the lower branches of each of the 29 candidate trees. Truncheons were cool-stored for 5 days during transportation before being planted in a mixture of coarse sand and forest soil medium (at ratio 1:1 by volume) and placed under intermittent mist.

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Adventitious root development in the truncheons occurred over a period of 5 to 6 months, and successfully rooted truncheons were planted in a hedge garden and used as a further source for cuttings. Subsequent cutting experiments using softwood single-node cuttings evaluated the effects of (i) rooting media (coarse sand vs a mixture of coarse sand and coconut husk) in the non-mist propagators, and in the mist system, coarse sand, fine sand jiffypot (coco pellets) and a mixture of perlite and coconut husk, (ii) cutting length (6, 8, 10 and 12 cm), and (iii) rooting ability of clones. After 12 weeks significantly greater rooting percentage was recorded in a mixture of coarse sand and coconut husk (78% ± 3.95se) compared to coarse sand alone (52.3% ± 2.85se) in non-mist propagators. Rooting percentage variation did not differ significantly across the rooting media in the mist propagation system. However, greater rooting percentage was attained in jiffypots (85% ± 0.05se), compared to in coarse (64.6% ± 0.07se) and fine sand (65.3% ± 0.06se). For the cutting length experiment, significantly greater rooting percentage (94% ± 0.04se) was recorded with cutting length of 10 cm compared with 6 cm (50% ± 0.09se) and 8 cm (53.1% ± 0.09se) cutting lengths. At week 12 after insertion of cuttings in jiffypots no significant variations in rooting percentages were found among the clones. Low rooting percentages were recorded across all clones. Nevertheless, cuttings survival of these clones was significantly higher without producing roots at week 12 after insertion in jiffypots in the mist house. Clones obtained from leafy stem cuttings were successfully acclimatized and would be used in teak clonal seed orchard (CSO) establishment to become a source of high quality germplasm for planting in PNG. Breathing Life into Cape York Sandalwood David Lee1,2*, John Huth2, Anthony Burridge2, John Oostenbrink2 and Tony Page1

1 Forest Industries Research Centre and Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC Qld 4558 2 Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1 Cartwright Road, Gympie 4570 * Corresponding author, dlee@usc.edu.au Queensland sandalwood (Santalum lanceolatum R.Br.) has been commercially harvested from the wild since 1860. In Cape York Peninsula (CYP), there was a major industry exporting sandalwood timber to China. However, this industry collapsed about 1940, due to over-harvesting. Currently the remaining trees in the region occur in isolated pockets, which are likely to comprise families or clones from root coppice and hence have limited genetic diversity. A previous study by one of the authors found that some northern CYP provenances of S. lanceolatum had similar oil qualities to S. album. If domesticated this species could underpin development of small-scale forestry activities for indigenous communities in the region. The species is however under continued threat from fire and grazing, with 19% of the 31 wild trees previously tested for sandalwood oil, in the northern CYP, killed by fire during the last five years. Hence, protecting and conserving the species is an important first step, if the potential of the species is to be realised. This paper discusses the work undertaken to capture a diverse range of sandalwood germplasm from these high oil-content provenances, in grafted clonal seed orchards, to establish the elements of a genetic improvement and testing program for the species. The authors captured 17 wild sandalwood trees, as grafted clones, from the Northern Peninsula Area Regional Council (NPARC). Ten of these trees were selected based on their moderate to high α- and β-santalol concentration (identified in a previous ACIAR project). The remaining trees were selected based on their location, to ensure a broad genetic base of the species across the region was captured. All work was undertaken with informed verbal and

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written consent, from traditional owners of the Adupthamu Land Trust. The work was supported by ACIAR project FST/2008/010. The impact of season, semi-lignified and lignified scion material and species of rootstock (S. album, S. leptocladum and S. lanceolatum) was investigated to evaluate the impact of each component on grafting success. Based on this study, collection of semi-lignified scion material during the middle wet season, along with use of S. lanceolatum rootstock, was found to be optimal for this species. Once graft unions had formed, no incompatibility problems were detected, irrespective of the species of rootstock used. The grafted clones have now been established in two clonal seed orchards. One is on is on the Senior Campus of the Northern Peninsula Area College at Bamaga. This clonal seed orchard was planted with assistance from year 8 students, who are now monitoring and watering the trees to ensure their survival. The other location is on Department of Agriculture and Fisheries land near Mareeba, to ensure survival of the germplasm in an ex situ conservation stand. Seed production has commenced in both clonal seed orchards and plans have been developed to test this material, in common garden experiments, to check if the species can be developed for the benefit of the indigenous peoples of the CYP. Why Do Forest Owners Not Grow Trees? Three Decades of Swedish Non-industrial Forestry Research Gun Lidestav1, Torgny Lind1, Kerstin Westin2 and Erik Wilhelmsson1

1. Dept of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden, corresponding author, Gun.Lidestav@slu.se 2. Dept. of Geography and Economic History, SE 901 87 Umeå, Sweden A growing body of literature reports that non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners in Sweden, and many parts of Europe and North America, have less and less interest in timber production, while other goods are becoming more important. These changes are attributed to structural changes in the European agricultural sector in general and the family farming system in particular. The previously close connection between the farm households and forests is gradually dissolving, and replaced by ownership characterized by fragmentation alienation. However, when considering the development of NIPF in Sweden, the level of timber harvesting and silvícultural undertakings demonstrate a continuously high level of activity, and increasing felling volume, while the working hours in self-employment has halved from what it was 30 years ago. The net value oscillated from 118 SEK/m3 in 1982 to 240 in 1995, but there is no time trend, the average is 176 SEK/m3. This calls for a systematic review of the literature in order to make a critical analysis of the assumptions and conclusions presented. More precisely, based on existing literature on Swedish NIPF, this paper presents evidence to explain the still high activity in non-industrial forest management for timber production. African Mahogany in Northern Australia: Some Observations Alex Lindsay, Forsite Forestry, PO Box 350, Innisfail Qld 4860 alexlindsayforestry@hotmail.com

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Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. has been grown in the dry tropics of northern Australia as a small-scale forestry species for nearly two decades. This paper presents observations and results from a range of privately-owned plantations and woodlots in the monsoonal rainfall zone of tropical Queensland and the Northern Territory. African mahogany withstands the extreme aridity of the annual dry season, and is able to grow rapidly when soil moisture permits. Seasonal fluctuations of nutrient levels in foliar samples are reported. The results of two replicated trials demonstrate the strong responsiveness to thinning. Weed competition, cattle grazing and fire were observed to adversely affect young trees. African mahogany suffers minimal damage from insect pests, and although some diseases have been detected, mortality is rare. Severe tropical cyclones Ida and Yasi directly struck several plantations but caused remarkably little damage, in contrast with open-planted street trees which are regarded as wind-susceptible. The species has been identified as a potential environmental weed, but there is little evidence of invasiveness. African mahogany has performed the best of all trialled timber species in the monsoonal tropics of northern Australia, and is highly suited for providing shade to livestock. There is clear potential to improve the value of the species through genetic selection, with significant variation observed in bole length, straightness and proportion of biomass relative to the crown. Promising clones, families and individual trees identified from collaborative breeding trials initiated last decade could serve as a partial base for further tree improvement. Stone Pine (Pinus pinea L.): an Interesting Species for Agroforestry in Chile Verónica Loewe and Claudia Delard Instituto Forestal (INFOR), Chile, Sucre 2397, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile. Tel. +56 2 23667120, Fax +56 2 23667131. Corresponding author vloewe@infor.cl Pinus pinea is native to the Mediterranean basin and is important for its edible seeds, the pine nuts. The species was introduced to Chile more than a century ago by European migrants, who used it for dune stabilization, soil improvement and livestock shading. Stone pine has multiple uses of environmental and financial importance. In two experimental plots located in El Carmen, Biobío region (533 m a.s.l.), agroforestry systems including stone pine and agricultural crops (oats and potatoes) and sheep grazing for mutton production were trialed. Tree spacing was 5 x 5 m and 7 x 7 m. Agricultural crops and tree growth were assessed five years after planting. Crop yields were lower than the average in the country, reaching close to 46% of forage oat national average yields and 30% of potato country-level yield. Forage production in these plantations is not enough to sustain permanent grazing, but farm livestock graze the trial site in regulated periods, contributing to mutton production. Periodic grazing reduces weed and shrubs growth, fire risk and the cost of periodic mechanical cleaning. Regarding stone pine, annual growth of height and diameter at collar height (ground level) were on average 50 cm and 2.5 cm, respectively. Pine nut productivity was evaluated in spite of the short age of the plantation. Stone pine was found to be a species suitable for establishment in productive systems growing trees for both nuts and timber, intercropped with agricultural crops and animal breeding. Therefore, stone pine is a highly interesting species due to its high-value pine nuts (prices between €20-45/kg), for its ability to adapt to differing environment and growth conditions, and for its fast growth, which facilitates its management. The species has excellent phytosanitary performance in Chile, without any diseases or pests.

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Agroforestry systems can be designed to take into account the planting site, capital availability, landholders’ goals and management skills. Production of pine nuts makes a contribution to the local and national economy, and the nuts are expected to become a valuable export good. A Study on the Agroforestry System of the National Forest and its Contribution to Farm Incomes in Indonesia Chiharu Maeda¹, Shigeyuki Naitoh², Masashi Konoshima², Yuei Nakama² and Iin Ichwandi³ 1 The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan, corresponding author, chiharu.maeda.21@gmail.com 2 Faculty of Agriculture, University of the Ryukyus, 1 Senbaru Nishihara Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan 3 Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University, Kampus IPB Darmaga Bogor, 16680, Indonesia Since 2001, the Indonesian State Forest Company (Perum Perhutani) has cooperated with local community groups for managing National Forests in Java, Indonesia. This management program is known as the Community Collaboration Forest Management System (Pengelolaan Hutan Bersama Masyarakat, PHBM). The authors conducted a research project to assess the impacts of the agroforestry management system of PHBM on local farm incomes in Sukabumi district of West Java. An interview survey was conducted on the Indonesian State Forest Company staff, and 10 households randomly chosen from farmer groups in each of three villages (30 households in total). It was found that PHBM was introduced in 2007 in this region and local farmers have been allowed to cultivate the land between the rows of teak trees (Tectona grandis) to grow agricultural crops for two years. The average income from crop production including upland rice and some beans using a taungya agroforestry systems was Rp37 million (US$2,880) for year 2013. However, annual incomes differed significantly between the three groups. The annual average incomes per hectare of these three groups (LMDH) were Rp53 million, Rp20 million, and Rp14 million respectively. The local farmers in the group with high annual income have managed their land more efficiently by utilizing three layers of the land, growing teak as the upper layer, bananas in the middle, and agricultural crops on the ground. An Assessment of the Carbon Sequestration Potential of the Condamine Catchment Riparian Zone, Queensland, Australia Tek Maraseni1 and Carl Mitchell2

1 Institute of Agriculture and Environment, University of Southern Queensland (USQ), Toowoomba, Queensland, 4350, Australia, corresponding author, maraseni@usq.edu.au

2 Condamine Alliance, Toowoomba, Queensland, 4350, Australia

Riparian vegetation is crucial for providing a diverse range of ecosystem services. Also, the role of riparian vegetation in storing carbon has recently being realised. This study aims to estimate carbon sequestration potential from riparian vegetation and coarse-woody debris

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(CWD) along the Condamine River and its tributaries in Queensland, Australia. Trees, shrubs and CWD from 17 sample plots were inventoried using a standard protocol and were converted into biomass and carbon mass. The average quantities of total carbon for poor, good and excellent plots were 4.3 t/ha, 134.8 t/ha and 291.7 t/ha, respectively. The average of excellent sites is much higher than the average for world’s richest “warm temperate moist forest” biome, largely due to the relatively fertile soils and abundant soil moisture of the Condamine catchment. It was found that up to 700 tC/ha is achievable in this site, where the edaphic, topographic and climatic factors are favourable for Eucalyptus camaldulensis. The findings of this study can help landholders and policy-makers to understand the carbon sequestration potential of riparian zones, and promote current government mixed-species environmental planting (MSEP) activities under the Emissions Reduction Fund, which ultimately promotes more resilient, economically viable and environmentally sustainable land-use practices on a landscape level. Characteristics of the Hardwood Plantations in the Sunshine Coast Region of South-East Queensland and Their Potential to Supply Biomass for Energy John Meadows1*, David Coote2 and Mark Brown1 1 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, and Forest Industries Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia, 4558. 2 Department of Forest and Ecosystem Science, The University of Melbourne, Burnley Campus, Richmond, Victoria, Australia, 3121. * Corresponding author jmeadows@usc.edu.au An audit was conducted of the native hardwood (eucalypt) plantations located within the Sunshine Coast Council region of south-east Queensland, Australia. Multiple data sources were used, including: literature review; discussions with local forestry industry professionals, private consultants and farm forestry practitioners; analysis of existing plantation databases; and targeted plantation inventories. The audit determined the types, extent, locations, age-classes, management histories and productivity of the Sunshine Coast’s hardwood plantation resource. Identified characteristic differences between the region’s private farm forestry, corporate-owned and joint-venture hardwood plantations, and the implications for the current and future health and productivity of these plantations were explained. It was found many of the region’s small-scale private farm-based hardwood plantations that were established with a commercial timber production intent require improved silviculture, and new local markets for hardwood thinnings and other harvest residues are required to underpin this. Small, community-based biomass energy systems are proposed as a potential new local market outlet for these materials. Socio-economic and environmental features and benefits of these distributed small-scale bioenergy systems and a 20-year forecast of potential biomass yields from a suggested harvest schedule for the region’s hardwood plantations are outlined. The forecast annually available biomass supply is highly variable and mostly of small quantities. Biomass energy plants seeking a sustainable supply of feedstock must therefore access additional locally-available waste biomass. Further research is required to identify and quantify these sources.

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‘Forest Farming’ Empowers Small Landholders with Commercial Sustainable Forestry Ron Mitchell1 and Jack Mitchell2 1 Multicultural Council of the Northern Territory, PO Box 299, Karama, Northern Territory, corresponding author, ron.mitchell@mcnt.org.au 2 Jack Mitchell, Mitchell Forest Farming System, 19 Betts Road, Samford, Queensland. Over the past 30 years, Jack Mitchell and his team of skilled practitioners have developed and refined the ‘Forest Farming System’ based on years of study and observation of the natural growth patterns and compatibility of sub-tropical and tropical timber species. Innovative site preparation, plantation management and pruning techniques result in fast growth and the production of high value, high quality timber. The ‘Forest Farming System’ is based on ecologically sustainable and naturalistic mixed-species plantations that are compatible with existing natural landscapes. Site specific plantation design and informed species selection ensure that ‘forest farms’ restore and enhance ecological services in degraded landscapes, including carbon dioxide sequestration, creation of viable fauna habitats, soil conservation, and the maintenance of biodiversity and water quality. Mixed species ‘forest farm’ plantations, designed for selective and sequential harvest, are established on areas of already cleared land and maintained using best practice sustainable farming methods. The ‘Forest Farming System’ empowers small landholders and rural communities from Northern New South Wales to North Queensland to become involved in commercial sustainable forestry. This paper draws on extensive field research and reports on the results of plantings at various sites in southern Queensland. Co-benefits of Biodiversity and Carbon from Degraded Secondary Forests following Shifting Cultivation: Implications for Community Development and Forest Restoration Sharif Mukul1,*, John Herbohn1,2 and Jennifer Firn3

1 Tropical Forestry Group, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD 4558, Australia 3 School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia *Corresponding author s.mukul@uq.edu.au Shifting cultivation is a widespread land use in the tropical forest and agriculture frontier, and regarded as one of the key drivers of deforestation and forest degradation. It is commonly believed that degraded landscapes following shifting cultivation are not suitable for conservation of biodiversity and retention of biomass carbon. Drawing on a case study in the upland Philippines this study demonstrates that recovering secondary forests have potential for inclusion in programs for biodiversity conservation and carbon retention. It is argued that these regenerating secondary forests could potentially be used as a cost-effective landscape restoration strategy throughout the tropics. Mechanisms are suggested through which regenerating secondary forests can be incorporated into REDD+ and other voluntary carbon

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offset projects. These suggestions are based on the literature related to forest transitions, community forestry and REDD+ implementation in the tropics. It is also argued that involvement of smallholder farmers with clearly defined rights and responsibilities is critical, and their inclusion could further enhance the conservation of declining tropical forests. Institutional Bricolage and Community Forestry: Sifting through the Governance History of Sierra Leone’s Kambui Hills Forest Reserve Paul Munro1* and Greg van der Horst2 1 School of Humanities and Languages, University of New South Wales, Morven Brown Building, Level 3, Kensington, Sydney, NSW 2052. Corresponding author, paul.munro@unsw.edu.au 2 School of Geography, University of Melbourne, Level 1, 221 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria, 3053 The Kambui Hills Forest Reserve in eastern Sierra Leone has long been an important source of ecological services and timber supply, and has recently served as a site for experimentation with community forestry. Like many such initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa, however, community forestry has proved a complex proposition, encountering resistance from local communities and engendering conflict with government officials. Aiming to support the improvement of such interventions in the West African context, this paper analyses historical and recent dynamics in the governance of the reserve, finding that these are best understood through the lens of an institutional bricolage approach. Such a frame accepts that real-world governance is produced in practice through a process in which people consciously and unconsciously draw on existing social structures including norms, formal legislation and power relationships to piece together institutions in response to continuing resource management needs and situations. Drawing upon extensive field research in the Kambui Hills area including interviews with key stakeholders and landcover analysis, this paper maps out the processes of institutional bricolage that have formed the realities of governance-in-practice in the Kambui Hills area. Based on these data, it is argued that improvements in the Reserve’s management will require gradual institutional evolution and is not amenable to shorter-term project-based interventions. Policy Framework for Complementary Management of Timber and Non-timber Forest Products to Enhance Local Livelihoods in Indonesia Ani Nawir1*, Ahmad Maryudi2, Syafrudin Syafii3, Yeni Nomeni3, Widodo Putro4, Antonius Kian5, Purnomo Sumardamto6, Yumn Amirah1, Philip Manalu1, Julmansyah7 and Putu Danayasa8 1 CIFOR (Center for International Forestry Research) Jl. CIFOR, Situgede Sindangbarang, Bogor Barat 16115, West-Java, Indonesia 2 Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Agro No.1 Bulaksumur 55281, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 3 WWF (World Wildlife Fund), Jl. Arif Rachman Hakim No. 43A, Punia Mataram Barat 83126, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia

4 Faculty of Law, Mataram University

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Jl. Majapahit No. 62 Mataram 83125, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia 5 Faculty of Law, Nusa Cendana University Jl. Adisucipto Penfui, PO Box 104, Kupang 85001, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia 6 Farm Forestry Consortium, Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Jl. Taman Bakti 2B, Wonosari, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 7 Forest Management Unit, West Nusa Tenggara Jl. Airlangga, Mataram 83126, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia 8 Forestry District Agency, Timor Tengah Selatan Jl. Tuwa Sonbai, Soe, Timor Tengah Selatan, Indonesia * Corresponding author a.nawir@cgiar.org Understanding how to implement complementary management of timber and non-timber forest products (NTFP) is particularly important for poorer households in Indonesia for two main reasons. First, landscape heterogeneity from plot level upwards offers resilience and diverse options in the face of climate variability. Second, the diverse range of forestry and agroforestry systems at various scales, sometime being integrated with crops and livestock, is an important feature of many smallholders’ production systems, as is the production of timber and NTFP in smallholders’ systems in Java, and in eastern Indonesia. Such integration, however, faces major impediments, including an unfavourable policy framework governing farm and landscape management. This has prevented value chains from effectively providing fair profit margins for local community. Since 2013, the research team has conducted a study on how to improve policy frameworks to facilitate smallholders’ production and integrated marketing of timber and NTFPs for improvement of their livelihoods. The study used a participatory action research approach supported by the analysis of household-surveyed baseline data in three case study sites in Java and eastern parts of Indonesia. Several implications of ineffective current policies and regulation frameworks were identified, including: (1) disincentives in production systems; (2) little cost-effective value-added processing industry; (3) high transaction costs; and (4) opportunities for middlemen and brokers to enjoy significant shares of the profit margins and hence suppress the farm gate prices. However, in several cases, middlemen and brokers play an important role in bringing together farmers and processing companies, and this helps support local livelihoods. Further, the study revealed that there are inter-relationships between: (1) complementary incomes coming from timber and NTFP at the household level; (2) forest land rights; and (3) the landscape type of nature reserve or protected forest surrounding the villages. Formal legislation and regulations applied at the local level have affected how local communities make decisions in relation to their livelihood strategies. Interestingly, beyond state-based legislation and regulations applied in limiting community access, informal customary norms and rules as practiced in one case study district are more effective in guiding day-to-day communal forestry management practices for NTFP collection. Also, these governance measures have helped maintain the surrounding nature reserve. Policy implications include developing an overall strategy for integrated timber and NTFP management at district level led by regional planning agencies, and using this as the basis for designing complementary programs across relevant technical agencies.

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Does Forest Certification Work for Small Growers? A Case Study Examining the Costs and Benefits of Forest Certification for Small Rainforest Cabinet Timber Growers on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland Carol Neal1* and David Bennett2 1 Forest Management Services Qld, PO Box 49. Dayboro Qld, 4521 2 PF Olsen (Aus) Pty Ltd, Suite 10, 55 Grey St, Traralgon, Vic, 3840 * Corresponding author carolneal@bordernet.com.au In order to access niche high-value markets a group of small-scale tree growers scattered along the Sunshine Coast of Queensland have come together to work cooperatively to market their timber. The plantings in the main are sub-tropical rainforest plantations dominated by silver quandong (Elaeocarpus grandis). As part of its marketing strategy the group identified the need to target niche markets for their timber products. This included seeking forest certification, researching the timber qualities of the species it was growing, conducting harvesting and sawing trials, developing prototype products for sale and seeking strategic opportunities for placing their products in front of their target group of customers, and then actively and assertively seeking new markets for thinnings from their plantations. The first step in this process was to attain Forest Stewardship Council® Group Certification under the PF Olsen Australia’s ForestSmart Group Certification Scheme. At this point in time the growers have carried the costs of certification but have not been able to locate a market that is willing to pay prices sufficient to recover these costs. However, the process of obtaining certification has provided the growers with a greater clarity about their management objectives. Following three years of work the group reassessed its initial strategy and have decided to try to improve its market presence by establishing its own brand. This experience provides an opportunity to examine costs and benefits of forest certification to small growers. A more formal marketing plan has been prepared in which the group has examined the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats it faces in developing a sustainable market for its members. Growth and Harvest Preferences for Specific Tree Species in a Species-rich- Plantation Based on Both Abiotic and Biotic Factors Huong Nguyen1,2*, John Herbohn12 and Jerry Vanclay3 1 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore QLD 4558 Australia 2 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia 3 School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW 2480 Australia * Corresponding author h.nguyen22@uq.edu.au While mixed-species plantations have been promoted as providing a range of products for smallholders and communities, little quantitative data have been published relating to the factors affecting growth or loss of trees within mixed-species plantations. Little if any data exists on the harvest of trees from mixed-species plantations by smallholders and communities.

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This paper reports research conducted into the Rainforestation Farming (RF) plantations in Philippines. RF is a complex system that used numerous native species and a limited number of exotics to develop a form of farm forestry suitable for smallholders. The aim of this study has been to identify the factors predicting growth and harvest probability of some common species in rainforestation plantations. Trees in 18 sites aged from 6 to 11 years in 2006 were measured on three occasions – 2006, 2008 and 2012. Data from the first collection period (2006-08) was used to develop models to predict growth and harvest probability in the second period (2008-12). No evidence was found that tree species diversity had an effect on tree growth or tree death at the community level. However, the high density of trees in stands at age 10 or more (more than 1000 trees/ha with diameter exceeding 5cm) had a long-term detrimental impact on tree growth of several species. Tree size and some species’ properties were found to be reliable predictors of tree growth whereas stand basal area could predict status of trees (i.e. dead, harvested or surviving) in the second period. While a number of species had high probability in being harvested, there was no sign of harvesting for some other species in this period. Larger trees tended to grow faster than small trees and had a greater chance of being harvested and a lower likelihood of mortality. Shade-tolerant species grew faster than shade-intolerant species and had a greater chance of being alive in the subsequent period than shade-intolerant individuals. No difference was found in tree growth or harvesting probability between native and exotic species. At ages of over 10 years, larger trees of shade-intolerant species were most preferred for harvesting. It is suggested that a much lower planting density (about 1000 trees/ha) could reduce both inter- and intra-specific competition, and enhance growth of individuals in mixed-species stands whereas species traits (e.g. shade tolerance) could be used in designing species composition for this type of polyculture plantation. Adding some shade-intolerant and fast-growing species could generate early income for farmers in plantations where some products may take many years to be ready for harvest. When Farm Forestry Does Not Make Sense: Examples from Costa Rica, Australia and Vanuatu J. Doland Nichols1 and Erik Streed2 1 Forest Science and Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW Australia 2480, corresponding author doland.nichols@scu.edu.au 2 US Agency for International Development, Jakarta, Indonesia. It is indisputable that farm forestry, defined here as the growing and processing of trees for products on farms, can be a successful and viable business. But it is necessary for a series of conditions to be met for this to be the case, and those conditions do not exist everywhere. This paper examines several factors that can make growing trees on farms unprofitable. These include lack of markets for particular products, notably wood chip and small-diameter trees, high labour costs, and a restrictive government policy environment. In Vanuatu the silviculture of Endospermum medullosum (whitewood) in plantations has been well developed over the last three decades and growth of 15-20m3/ha/yr can be achieved over 15 to 25 years. Nevertheless, establishment and maintenance costs are high, given the presence of the vine Merremia peltata. Further, there are few buyers of standing trees and they offer a low price, and techniques for value-adding by landholders are not yet operational. In 1990, three former Peace Corps forestry volunteers began to plant a 24 ha property in Costa Rica. Projected revenue at 30 years of age will cover costs only. Economies of scale, the challenges of thinning and harvesting on steep

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slopes and difficulties of small-scale processing are discussed. In NSW in 2003 the Native Vegetation Act was passed. It included a Code of Practice which requires property owners to file Property Vegetation Plans. The Code prohibits the harvesting of some of the most valuable trees in some native forests on private land. In 2013 a legally approved harvesting operation in regrowth forest of E. pilularis on a property at Whian Whian NSW attracted a large public protest. Inventories and Significance of the Genetic Resources of African Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss.) Assembled and Further Developed in Australia D Garth Nikles1, Mila Bristow2, Geoff Dickinson3 and David Lee4 1 Volunteer, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (QDAF), Brisbane 4001, Australia, corresponding author garth.nikles@daf.qld.gov.au 2 Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Darwin 0801, Australia 3 QDAF, Mareeba 4880, Australia 4 QDAF, Gympie 4570, Australia and University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Australia African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss.) occurs naturally across 20 countries of Africa from Senegal-Guinea to Sudan-Uganda. It is a highly important resource in the region where it is listed as endangered due to over-exploitation. In northern Australia, vast tracts of land are climatically suitable for the species. Since introduction in 1965, it has been planted widely for amenity, research, rehabilitation of mined areas, woodlots and industrial plantations. Plantation trees yield high-value wood products. Industrial plantations include more than13,000 ha established in the Northern Territory (NT) since 2006. New commercial plantings in the NT and Queensland (Qld) are proposed. Collaborative conservation and tree improvement of African mahogany by governments began in the NT and Qld in 2001. The program was based on above-average trees selected in small stands planted in the NT in the 1960s and1970s representing 23 provenances from 11 African countries. Small clonal seed orchards were established in the NT and Qld beginning in 2001 and 2003 respectively. These and other resources have enabled establishment of clone and progeny trials since 2005, some on private sector land. Commercial growers have introduced large numbers of new provenances since the mid-2000s used to establish industrial plantations and provenance trials, several of the latter in collaboration with the Queensland Government. Approximately 140 provenances from 17 African countries are now established in Australia, the largest genetic base of the species outside Africa. The strategic importance in tree improvement of a broad base of genetic resources is well known. Hence the wide range of germplasm established in northern Australia, including second-generation lines, that is documented in this paper, provides a sound basis for further domestication and industrial plantation and woodlot expansion, when investment conditions are right.

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Exploring the Implications for Community Forestry of Socio-economic Diversity in Rural Indonesia Silvi Nur Oktalina1 and Digby Race2 1 Faculty of Forestry, University of Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 2 The Fenner School for Environment and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, corresponding author digby.race@anu.edu.au While the importance of community forestry to the livelihoods of rural communities is generally accepted, there can often be a vague understanding of how it contributes to the lives of poor farmers. Recent research by a multi-disciplinary team in Indonesia has revealed that there is often wide variation in the socio-economic and physical assets of smallholders, even within a single village. The research team measured the human, social, financial, natural and physical capital of 300 rural families involved in Community-based Commercial Forestry CBCF across 10 villages, and analysed the data based on three ‘wealth’ categories. This presentation outlines the results from the research and discusses the implications for the development of community forestry. A high proportion of ‘poor’ and ‘wealthy’ farmers in the 10 villages (across five provinces) were found to derive considerable income from community forestry, yet programs that encourage community forestry with long-rotation timber production favour ‘wealthy’ farmers. Even when planting long-term timber species (notably teak), ‘poor’ farmers tend to use silvicultural practices that do not optimise the commercial value of timber, instead choosing to pursue other objectives (e.g. regular pruning for fuelwood, maximising the intercropping with agricultural and cash crops). Government policies and programs that seek to support community-based commercial forestry often fail to account for the socio-economic heterogeneity within rural communities, leading to the mixed success of programs seeking to increase the area of commercial forestry managed by smallholders. Climatic Extremes and the Risk of ‘Putting all Eggs in Only One Basket’: a Case Study in Brazil Rodrigo de Oliveira1, Vera Engel2, Liz Ota3 and Danilo Ré4

1 Sao Paulo State University, Brazil, Postal Code 18610-307, corresponding author rodrigo.minici@florestal.eng.br 2 Sao Paulo State University, Brazil, Postal Code 18610-307 3 University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia 4 Sao Paulo State University, Brazil, Postal Code 18610-307

Jussara palm (Euterpe edulis Martius – Arecaceae) has a high potential for small-scale forestry projects in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, generating revenue by providing non-timber forest products as well as food resources for wildlife. However, the optimal distribution range includes relatively wet habitats, and water deficit can constrain successful enrichment plantings in seasonally dry forests. In order to get a more widespread use of the Jussara palm, the obstacles for its establishment must be overcome. It was hypothesized that seedling developmental stage, reforestation system and soil type may affect plant performance in enrichment plantings. An experiment was conducted, with factorial design, in which two-year-

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old seedlings and four-year-old saplings were planted in two reforestation systems (agroforestry and mixed timber and firewood woody-species plantation) in two contrasting soil types. The study coincided with an unusually dry summer, hindering the growth and survival of outplanted seedlings. The mortality risk was 2.1 times as high for seedlings as for saplings, 1.6 times as high for agroforestry compared to the mixed plantations, and 3.5 times as high for sandy soil compared to clayey soil. The hypotheses were all confirmed. Nevertheless, survival rates after one year were very low for all treatments, indicating that extreme environmental conditions can surpass the capacity of the species to survive and adapt in seasonally dry forests. Relying on only one reforestation technique or species can be risky, especially for smallholders. Given more recurrent extreme climatic events due to global climate change are predicted in many tropical regions, adaptive management and a set of drought-resistant species must be considered. Obstacles to the Adoption of Forest Certification Schemes in Small-scale Forestry in Japan Ikuo Ota1 and Masumi Kamakura2 1 Faculty of Agriculture, University of the Ryukyus, 1 Senbaru Nishihara Okinawa 903-0213, Japan, corresponding author Ikuota@u-ryukyu.ac.jp 2 Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, 3-5-7 Tarumi Matsuyama Ehime 790-8566, Japan Forest certification is not yet popular in Japan even though 15 years have passed since the first FSC forest certification was introduced in this country. The area of FSC-certified forest in Japan is about 400,000 ha or 1.6% of the total forest area, and that of SGEC (Sustainable Green Ecosysytem Council), a Japanese certification scheme, is about 1.25 million ha or 5.0%. The authors conducted a survey about forest certification with employees and forest workers in nine forest owners’ cooperatives in Shikoku Region (total number of the respondents 178), and an opinion survey of consumers about wood products and forest certification (total number of the respondents 228). Lack of short-term economic benefits was found to be the most important reason why many forest owners are not interested in forest certification. On the other hand, there are positive reactions by consumers about the impact of forest certification on sustainability of forest productivity. Showing future prospects as well as providing facilitative policy measures by local governments would be the key to spread the forest certification by small-scale forest owners in Japan. Experiences and Attitudes to ‘Rainforestation Farming’ on Leyte Island, Philippines: Assessing Socioeconomic Aspects after Two Decades of the Project Liz Ota1, John Herbohn2, Steve Harrison2 and Dazzilyn Palermo3 1 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia, corresponding author liz.ota@research.usc.edu.au 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, and The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia 3 ACIAR Smallholder Forestry Project, Visayas State University, Leyte, Philippines

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In response to the need to improve natural resource management and local livelihoods in rural areas in the Philippines, an agroforestry and forestry conservation concept known as Rainforestation Farming (RF) was developed in the early 1990s. RF involves planting a mixture of relatively slow-growing indigenous and fast-growing exotic tree species, as well as fruit trees, intercropped with food or other plants for human use. Several research efforts have assessed implementation and outcomes of RF plantings; however, little attention has been paid to the socioeconomic aspects. Hence this study has been designed to carry out a socioeconomic evaluation of the RF program. Twenty seven of the 28 implementers of the project were personally interviewed about their experiences and views of the program with the use of a questionnaire with mostly open-ended questions. Key informants and non-implementers of RF farms were also interviewed with a semi-structured questionnaire to understand the broader context and the reasons for not adopting the program. Although financial outcomes of the plantations have so far been poor, implementers were generally satisfied with the RF project. Participation in the project enhanced socioeconomic resilience. Participants believe RF had a great influence in reforestation efforts in the region and influenced further tree planting. About 77% of the implementers and non-implementers would join a similar future project. Results of this study may have considerable application for the National Greening Program currently underway in the Philippines, and for other reforestation activities with smallholders in tropical developing countries. A Participatory Approach to Inventory and Extension to Improve the Management and Quality of Smallholder Woodlots in Papua New Guinea Tony Page1, Braden Jenkin2, Simon Rollinson3, John Rabbie4 and Inter Vinarut5 1. Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558 Australia, corresponding author, tpage@usc.edu.au 2. Sylva Systems P/L, PO Box 1175, Warragul Victoria 3820 3. Pacific Island Projects, PO Box 50, New Rabaul, East New Britain, PNG 611. 4. Organisation for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement, PO Box 426, Kokopo, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea Smallholder and community interest in planting trees to supply essential products and services is high in areas where local forest resources have been depleted or access is limited. Smallholders are commercially focused hence the species of interest are often those with high market value so they can be used for local as well as commercial purposes. The market value of the trees from these woodlots will depend on the quality of the end-products, which in turn is dependent on effects of woodlot management on tree growth and form. Inadequate establishment and silvicultural management of these woodlots is widespread and leads to low quality trees and low yields. The effect is two-fold, namely a reduction in the products available for local use and sale and diminished interest in continuing tree planting. Many of the practical issues of woodlot management can be addressed through targeted extension, although in PNG and many other developing countries extension services are severely limited. This paper reports a study of the use of a participatory approach to extension by engaging with lead smallholder farmers, becoming known locally as enumerators. The approach has included targeted training and participatory demonstration plantings, but also smallholder engagement in inventory operations. The engagement in inventory activities has provided the enumerators with insight into the outcomes of various woodlot management approaches. This paper explores the

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variation in effectiveness of enumerators in performing inventory activities, the utility of the inventory data to quantify woodlot performance, and the effect of the participatory inventory approach on enumerators’ understanding of the outcomes of management methods and their capacity to play an informal extension role within their communities. Engaging Communities in Forest Landscape Restoration: Experiences from Biliran Province, Philippines Arturo Pasa*1, Nestor Gregorio2, John Herbohn2, Rotacio Gravoso1, Henry Goltiano1, Angela Ferarren1, Bonifacio Polinar3, Jufamar Fernandez1 and Roger Tripoli1 1 Visayas State University, Baybay City, Leyte, Philippines 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of Sunshine Coast and The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld., Australia 3 Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office, Biliran Province, Philippines * Corresponding author artpasa@yahoo.com Engaging communities in forest landscape restoration is indeed a great challenge. The forest landscape in Barangay Kawayanon has been a recipient to several reforestation programs in the early 1980, but illegal logging, fuelwood gathering, grazing, frequent forest fires and the lukewarm involvement of local people have kept the area as permanent grassland for more than three decades. Community people do not engage in forest restoration activities out of interest but rather due to the cash incentive they have from their involvement. After reforestation project implementation, their participation greatly declines. In support of the National Greening Program of the Philippine Government, a pilot reforestation project was implemented in May 2014 in Kawayanon by the ACIAR Watershed Rehabilitation Project team. A series of meetings, consultations with the stakeholders and an information campaign were undertaken by the team prior to the implementation of the project. Consequently, community members have been actively engaged in this project. They planted and are maintaining nearly 20 ha of trees which are growing vigorously and have not been damaged by forest fires or grazing. This research has identified a number of keys to successful engagement of communities in forest landscape restoration. These include social preparation, deployment of community organizers, encouraging cooperation among stakeholders, an information and education campaign, and capacity building. Responsive leadership, weekly meetings with the community organizers and the people’s organization, transparent financial accounting, and support for livelihoods (i.e. payments for seedling production, and plantation and agroforestry system establishment) likewise enhanced community engagement. Why Community Forest Management in Nepal is not Active and Equitable Govinda Paudel1, Edwin Cedamon2, Ian Nuberg2, Naya Paudel1, Krishna Shrestha3

1 Forest Action Nepal, Satdobato, Lalitpur, Nepal 2 School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Urrbrae, South Australia 3 School of Social Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia *Corresponding author paudelg@gmail.com

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Nepal’s community forestry (CF), despite celebrated success in achieving environmental outcomes, has not been performing well in optimizing economic benefit and addressing the issue of inequality. Firstly, community forests remained seriously underutilized because of protection-oriented management. Secondly, the achievement of CFs on equity and livelihood has been questioned because of persistent inequitable benefit-sharing and elite control. Forest management becomes active and equitable when it enhances forest productivity, and promotes optimal use of forest products and equitable benefit distribution. This paper explores underlying drivers of inactive and inequitable management of CFs and examines local politics that shapes forest management decisions. The study drawns on a research project being implemented in six community forest user groups (CFUGs) in Kavre and Lamjung districts of Nepal. Operational plans of CFUGs were examined for information on total resource potential and benefit-sharing provisions. Informed observation of CFUG activities aided understanding of local politics of resource governance. Previous decisions of communities related to forest product utilization and benefit-sharing mechanisms were also reviewed. Additionally, the analysis was informed by interviews with relevant stakeholders. It was found that community forests in Nepal are not actively managed and community harvesting of forest products far less than full potential. The reasons for inactive and inequitable management include inadequate silvicultural knowledge in communities, inequitable distribution of benefits favouring well-off households, and local elites shaping management decisions that restrict access of poor and marginalized people. It is concluded that institutional transformation is required for active and equitable forest management which is responsive to the needs of poor and marginalized people, and pathways for such transformation are suggested. The study contributes to literature on politics of access on common forest resources. Institutionalizing Community-based Enterprises in Nepalese Community Forestry Govinda Paudel*1, Krishna Shrestha2, Hemant Ojha2, Ian Nuberg3, Naya Paudel1 and Dil Khatri4

1 ForestAction, Satdobato, Lalitpur, Nepal 2 School of Social Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia 3 School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, Waite Campus Urrbrae, South Australia 4 Department of Rural Development, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden * Corresponding author: paudelg@gmail.com Establishing community forestry enterprises has emerged as one of the strategies to address poverty in natural-resource-dependent communities. It is assumed that benefits from such enterprises help develop communities and protect environment. This assumptions is however only partially valid, mainly due to insufficient or inappropriate institutional arrangements of these enterprises leading to failure to deliver desired outputs and sustain entrepreneurial enthusiasm. This paper investigates why such failures occur and persist, and how these enterprises can better respond to market opportunities available locally and nationally. The article draws on a case study of Chaubas-Bhamlu Community Sawmill in Kavre district of Nepal. It analyses institutional modality of the sawmill and provides insights into how local institutions evolved over time with promise of better resource management and enhanced economic and environmental outcomes. The history of the sawmill is examined to understand

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initial ambitions and institutional arrangements, factors contributing to mill’s success and reasons for its recurrent closure. Unstructured interviews with founder members, government authorities and local leaders helped to understand institutional lapses and prospects of the mill’s revival and sustenance for maximizing benefits. Review of internal documents including meeting minutes, transaction reports and payroll records provided data to understand the sawmill’s prospects and limitations in generating income and employment. The result suggests that community enterprises, though capable of addressing social inequality, are not institutionally prepared and capable in responding to emerging markets. It is argued that institutional innovation to reconfigure partnership and institutional networks and linkages is necessary to help such enterprises become competitive in the market place. Farmers’ Preferences for Accepting Reforestation Contracts for Pulpwood: Evidence from a Choice Experiment on the Company-Community Partnership Scheme in Indonesia Dwiko Permadi1,2, Michael Burton1, Ram Pandit1, Iain Walker3,5 and Digby Race4

1 School of Agricultural and Resources Economics, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia, corresponding author, dwiko.permadi@student.uwa.edu.au 2 Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia 3 CSIRO, Canberra, Australia 4 The Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia 5 School of Psychology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia. Reforestation contracts through company-community partnership (CCP) schemes are commonly used in the commercial forestry sector in developing countries to secure future timber supplies for companies and create an alternate source of income for rural families. Intended secondary benefits from CCPs include increasing the forest cover and adding to the viability of local economies through a range of allied forestry services (e.g. sub-contractors involved in harvesting and transportation). This article reports on the results of a choice experiment study to explore farmers’ preferences for growing pulpwood with large-scale timber companies in Indonesia. A survey was conducted by interviewing 287 respondents both familiar and unfamiliar with CCP schemes for pulpwood plantations and a conditional logit model was used to estimate the results. Despite the fact that the scheme might be constrained by one third of respondents always rejecting the options, the farmers were found prefer to accept the ‘bundled’ contract that has shorter contract length, higher production insurance, better roading in both forests and villages, and higher expected income. Also, the farmers value contract mechanisms in private land considerably higher than in communal land, especially contract duration and infrastructure development. Because the probability to accept revised contract mechanisms is not automatically increased by just maximizing incentive payments, a combination of policy instruments is preferable. The so-called ‘win-win’ and ‘community development’ contract mechanisms can increase farmers’ acceptance of the scheme.

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Constraints on Smallholder Plantation Forestry in Vietnam Phan Minh Sang1, 2, David Lamb1 and Susanne Schmidt1 1 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia 2 Silviculture Research Institute, Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Ha Noi, Vietnam Corresponding author sang.phan@uq.edu.au Vietnam has successfully implemented reforestation of mountain areas across the country by developing smallholder timber plantations. The most important factors behind this success have been land allocation to smallholders, tree improvement (especially hybrids of Acacia mangium x A. auriculiformis, A. mangium and various eucalypt species) and the development of easy-to-implement silviculture techniques that enable smallholders to manage plantations. The development of international markets has allowed a steady increase of Vietnam’s woodchip export over the past decade. Vietnam has become the world’s largest woodchip exporter in the last three years, and timber plantations are now a major source of income for millions of smallholder farming households and a key for poverty alleviation in communities across Vietnam. This success is however being challenged by emerging problems. One issue is the government’s aim to increase the value of timber products by encouraging the furniture industry by limiting woodchip exports through increased taxation. A flip-side to this policy is that it may reduce domestic timber prices and hence the attractiveness of timber plantations for smallholders. A second problem concerns emerging pests and diseases of acacia species (the most widely grown and most productive plantation tree in Vietnam), notably fungal root rots. Acacia plantations in neighbouring countries are increasingly affected, and the problem may be exacerbated in Vietnam if trees are grown for sawlogs rather than short-rotation woodchip production. Thirdly, increasing labour costs may make timber production for woodchip less competitive in the near future, and may hasten the move towards sawn timber production, but the transition may be difficult because new silvicultural techniques have to be implemented. A further consideration is that growing sawn timber requires 9 to 15 years rather than the 4 to 6 years for woodchip timber, which poses financial strain on small-scale farmers unable to make such longer-term investments. Options for small-scale plantation forestry as a significant livelihood resource for smallholders as well as providing ecosystem services in Vietnam are examined. These experiences may be valuable for other tropical countries in the region. Socio-economic Impact of the Roadside Social Forestry Program of Bangladesh: A Case Study of Shaghata Upazilla in Gaibandha District Md Mahfuzur Pramanik1*, Tatsuhito Ueki1, Masashi Saito1 and Sourovi Zaman2 1 Faculty of Agriculture, Shinshu University, 8304 Minamiminowa,Nagano,399-4598, Japan 2 Shaheed Akbar Ali College, Baliadangi, Thakurgaon, Bangladesh * Corresponding author mahfuzur.rp@gmail.com A roadside social forestry program was introduced at Shaghata Upazilla involving community people in 2000-01. A total 54 km of various types of road was planted by 270 participants through Bangladesh Forest Department (BFD). Data on tree performance were collected in February and March, 2013. The purpose of this study was to estimate the financial achievement

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of the roadside social forestry program from the viewpoint of the implementing agency (BFD) and participants, and to evaluate the impact the program on socio-economic conditions of the participants. A total of 70 participants were randomly selected and interviewed to collect data on income from the roadside tree plantation program and other activities, family expenditure, and change of asset holdings (e.g. livestock, water access and furniture). It was estimated that the net present value (NPV) and benefit-cost ratio were US$ 5,264 and 1.92 respectively. Per participant average annual additional income from the roadside social forestry program was US$ 156 and the annual increment in income was 11.73%. From a socio-economic point of view, the additional income of the roadside social forestry program makes a significant contribution to the rural poor and improves the socio-economic condition of the participants. Optimising Community Forestry: Learning from the Farmers and Forests of Indonesia Digby Race1,2, Setiasih Irawanti3, Aneka Prawestisuka3, Achmad Bisjoe4, Elske van de Fliert5, Rowan Reid6, Dede Rohadi7 and Silvi Nur Oktalina2 1 The Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, corresponding author, digby.race@anu.edu.au 2 Faculty of Forestry, The University of Gadjah Mada, Indonesia 3 Forestry Research and Development Agency, Bogor, Indonesia 4 Forestry Research and Development Agency, Makassar, Indonesia 5 School of Communication and Arts, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia 6 Australian Agroforestry Foundation, Birregurra, Australia 7 Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia Indonesia is grappling with two pressing dilemmas – an increasing rate of deforestation and persistent rural poverty, with many people dependent of forests for their daily livelihood. The concept of community forestry is being variously developed throughout this diverse archipelago in an attempt to create a viable community-based commercial forestry (CBCF) sector. The Indonesian government has introduced an array of policy and administrative mechanisms to promote CBCF, yet few have achieved the government’s ambition. This presentation reports research that has explored the socio-economic dimensions of CBCF in Indonesia since 2005, and presents findings on: the contribution of forestry to rural livelihoods; the link between silvicultural options and commercial returns; and the implications for advisory and support services for farm families when men focus on forest silviculture and women manage the commercial transactions. A multi-disciplinary research team has been working collaboratively with various local partners in five districts in Indonesia to collect and analyse quantitative and qualitative data. The research team used several data collection methods (including household surveys, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and community meetings) to explore the socio-economic context of CBCF and how it may enhance the livelihoods of small-scale farmers. Results from this research are informing local strategies to enhance the appeal of CBCF to more of Indonesia’s farmers.

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Implications of REDD+ for Carbon, Biodiversity and Non-carbon Ecosystem Services: a Case Study from Community Forestry in Nepal Eak Rana*, Rik Thwaites and Gary Luck School of Environmental Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW 2640 * Corresponding author, erana@csu.edu.au Current debates on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation, Forest Degradation and Enhancement of carbon stocks (REDD+) through community-managed forests are marked by considerable ambiguities in generating multiple benefits for local livelihoods and forest biodiversity, while also reducing carbon emissions. Using data from forest inventory and forest group records, an assessment is made of changes in carbon stocks, plant species diversity and forest resources use in 19 community forests managed under pilot REDD+ schemes in Nepal. It is found that carbon stocks have increased, while plant diversity and extraction of some forest resources including fuelwood and fodder have decreased, in the later years of the pilot REDD+. This suggests that an increase in carbon stocks may coincide with lower plant diversity and restricted use of other forest resources. Incentive mechanisms under REDD+ are required for maintaining plant diversity and resource access for local communities, together with carbon stocks enhancement to promote REDD+ co-benefits in community forestry. Engaging Farmers in Agroforestry Development and Extension Rowan Reid Australian Agroforestry Foundation, 55 Main Street Birregurra, Victoria 3242, AUSTRALIA, rowan.reid@agroforestry.net.au Agroforestry is the establishment and management of trees on farms by farmers for the reasons that are important to them. Whatever their interests, farmers with access to better knowledge, practical skills and well-informed support networks will make better decisions regarding what to plant, where to plant, and how to manage their trees to best address their needs and aspirations. The Australian Agroforestry Foundation (AAF) invests in building the capacity of rural people to strengthen and build resilience for their families, communities and their agricultural landscape. Programs include the award winning Master TreeGrower course (MTG) initiated by The University of Melbourne and the Peer Group Mentoring (PGM) concept developed by the Otway Agroforestry Network. Since 1996, more than 105 MTG programs have been run across Australia involving over 2000 landholders. The program encourages farmers to truly aspire to be ‘master tree growers’ by providing some of the knowledge, skills and support required to launch them on that lifetime journey. Post course participant surveys and telephone interviews suggest that participants enthusiastically support the program, increase the area of tree cover on their land, adopt more intensive or purposeful management practices, are more inclined to want to grow trees for a mix of both public and private good outcomes, and actively encourage others in their community to do the same. The PGM concept builds on the MTG program by training, then paying, participants to support other landholders as they design and develop their own agroforestry projects. Evaluation of the PGM in the Otway region of Victoria, using the Most Significant Change methodology, showed that the PGM not only increases adoption and investment in tree growing but also increases farmer

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involvement in the design process and results in a greater the diversity of agroforestry designs. With Australian Government support the combined MTG and PGM model is currently being trialled in four regions across Australia. The first international MTG course was run in Uganda in 2013. Then, in 2014, an additional 10 international MTG courses were conducted in Uganda, Niger, Indonesia and Timor-Leste. Smallholder Timber Production along the Forest Transition Curve: Options for Smallholders in the New Peruvian Forest Law Valentina Robiglio World Agroforestry Centre, Latin Amercia Office, Lima Peru v.robiglio@cgiar.org This study compares and contrasts smallholder natural resource management strategies in 15 communities of Ucayali Region in Peru, at various stages of the forest transition curve. It examines the relationship between agriculture and timber production, particularly of ‘bolaina’ (Guazuma crinita), a native fast growing tree species, the market for which is expanding rapidly. Demographic, agricultural, forest and market statistics, as well as government plans are analysed to characterize local development patterns and assess how far smallholders can benefit from incentives introduced by the new Peruvian forestry law. Primary data at community and household levels on livelihood strategies, agricultural production systems and the management of bolaina in naturally regenerated or planted systems have been analysed to understand how they interact within each development context and to identify leverage variables to support smallholder timber production. An assortment of locally fine-tuned alternatives of standard development models and technologies is discussed in relation to the smallholders typologies identified and to the opportunities specified by the new forest law. A Landscape Approach in Designing Climate Change Mitigation Options for Smallholders in the Peruvian Amazon Valentina Robiglio World Agroforestry Centre, Latin Amercia Office, Lima Peru v.robiglio@cgiar.org In the Peruvian Amazon, much of emissions-causing land-use change derives from farming. Consequently, smallholder farmers are at the core of land-use-based mitigation strategies and policies in the region. The present study, focusing on Ucayali Department, examines multiple options to reduce emissions within smallholders’ livelihood strategies, particularly those of colonist farmers attracted to the Amazon by land availability and government support for commercial crop expansion. It considers (a) the economic, legal and social context that frames the trajectories of land-use systems in the agricultural frontiers of Ucayali, and (b) possible leverage points to reverse current trends through a combination of public sector intervention and private investments. Combinations of interventions in terms of land allocation to enriched cacao systems, establishment of silvopastoral systems, and forest conservation within smallholdings are identified and their combined impact in terms of emission reduction is assessed through modeling their contributions to reducing emissions across time. The minimization of loss in carbon stock due to farm establishment and the enhancement of carbon

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stock by maintaining shade trees in cacao gardens can offer significant opportunities for carbon-neutral cacao production. The study concludes that combined interventions are needed to offset deforestation and forest degradation and maximize mitigation potential. However, due to the lack of integrated policies and incentive tools the institutional and legal design for the adoption of a landscape approach, benefit-sharing, and for the overall implementation and management of bundle schemes at the landscape level remain a challenge. The Value Chain for Teak Grown by Smallholders: Lessons from Indonesia Dede Rohadi1, Hugh Stewart2, Tuti Herawati3 and Digby Race2

1 Forest and Livelihood Research Portfolio, Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia, corresponding author, d.rohadi@cgiar.org 2 The Fenner School, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia. 3 Forest and Governance Research Portfolio, Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia The paper presents some key findings of a recent research project on community-based commercial forestry in Indonesia. The focus of the study was timber production practices and marketing strategies used by smallholders. The study collected value-chain data on teak grown and sold by smallholders in five districts in Indonesia through in-depth interviews with some actors engaged in the value chains. It was found that the value chain for teak grown by smallholders involves many actors including middlemen, timber depots, furniture manufacturers and exporters. Teak from smallholders was generally undervalued by furniture manufacturers because the logs were commonly of small size and inferior quality. However, the supply of teak from smallholders had been instrumental in the development of the furniture industry in Indonesia. Smallholders could increase the value of timber they produce by changing their market orientation, production techniques and marketing strategy. Strengthening farmer’s ability to apply better silvicultural techniques, engage in collective marketing, and develop stronger business links between farmers’ groups and furniture manufacturers, together with simplified trade regulations, are some of the suggested improvements. Tree Genetic Resources and Carbon: Considering Seed Sources to Improve Sequestration James Roshetko*, Ian Dawson, Joan Ureta, Rodel Lasco, Beria Leimona and Ramni Jamnadass World Agroforestry Centre, Bogor, Indonesia * Corresponding author j.roshetko@cgiar.org Tree planting to sequester carbon dioxide is vital to mitigate climate change. The authors contend that greater carbon stocks would result from sequestration projects if more attention was given to the quality of the trees planted, to the means by which germplasm is sourced and to the methods of delivery of germplasm to planters. To understand current practices and

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limitations of germplasm sourcing and delivery, 38 Clean Development Mechanism Project Design Documents (PDDs) were reviewed, representing a subset of projects from 17 African, Asian and Latin American nations. A list of all species proposed for planting was compiled and the identified source of germplasm assessed. Most PDDs identified tree species appropriate for planting in local conditions, with a large number of indigenous as well as exotic species chosen, although mean estimates for the former category were biased by high and likely unrealistic numbers of tree species identified for a few projects. Although most PDDs pay some attention to germplasm quality, sourcing and delivery, in most cases this appears cursory. Insufficient attention to germplasm quality represents missed opportunities to maximize genetic gain, as the best germplasm sources are not likely to be chosen by chance. It is recommended that PDDs should require more specific germplasm sourcing and delivery information. Estimating the Reserves of Aboveground Carbon Biomass in a Plantation of Inga edulis in the Community of Campo Verde, Ucayali, Peru Carlos Rueda School of Geography and Environmental Planning, University of Queensland, St. Lucia QLD 4072, carlos.ruedaarana@uq.net.au A study made by the Tyndall Institute in England concluded that Peru, after Honduras and Bangladesh, is the third most vulnerable country to the effects of climate change. The Ministry of the Environment of Peru (MINAM) in its last report ‘National Inventory of Greenhouse Gas emissions 2009’ concluded that 40% of the emissions of the country are associated with the forest sector and specifically to the high rate of deforestation and slash and burn for agriculture purposes. Some strategies to reduce this high percentage of emissions are the Afforestation, Reforestation and Conservation projects for carbon capture and storage, which are considered to have enormous potential to contribute to the transition to sustainable development of the country, focusing especially on rural areas. In Peru little information is available to estimate carbon stocks of the forests or to predict the carbon capture of native plantations. Hence this research is designed to generate information on the amount of carbon fixed in the biomass of planted Inga edulis L trees in the rural community of Campo Verde. To estimate the aboveground biomass component (leaves, stem and branches), a sample of 144 trees was selected from 65 plots distributed across all plantations. For this destructive sampling was approved, the components of each tree were weighed, then subsamples were carried to the laboratory and dried to a constant moisture content, then the biomass of the sample trees was estimated. From these data, allometric equations with variables of height and diameter were tested and the best correlated was selected to estimate the biomass of the plantations. The total aboveground biomass for the 919.3 ha of Inga edulis was estimated as 6,180 tons and the amount of CO2-e stored was 11,330 tons. This research has generated technical-scientific information on carbon stocks of the Inga edulis plantations. These plantations will provide fuelwood and construction materials for local communities. They will also improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizal activity and act as a sunbreak for future commercial tree planting that will take place in the next few years. Poster Presentation.

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Can Incentives Trigger Management in Private Native Forests where Education Alone fails? Sean Ryan Private Forestry Service Queensland, 8 Fraser Road Gympie 4570, pfsq@bigpond.com This paper provides a synopsis of Revegnet, a $4 million project funded under the Australian Government’s Caring for our Country program. The project focus was the rehabilitation of the extensive private native forests of the east coast of Queensland from the NSW Border to the Daintree. The project recognised that the poor condition of regrowth forests was due to the impact of previous clearing or 100 years of ‘high grade harvesting’ practices. Considering the complexity of the issues, the project adopted a multifunctional, stepped approach to achieve long-term management change. Research steps included analysis of current management practices, resources assessment to prioritize hot spots and a multi-level capacity-building program including nine demonstration sites, and ultimately sought to drive management change. A one dollar incentive was provided for every four dollars invested by the landholder. The paper outlines the systems that were specifically developed for each step of the program, including the capacity building activities attended by more than 1600 landholders, the 20,000 ha of regrowth forest thinned under the program and the long-term productivity and environmental gains measured in permanent plots within the demonstration sites. Factors Affecting Adoption of Smallholder Timber and NTFP Management Practices by Farmers in Three Regions in Indonesia Gerhard Sabastian1, Amirah Yumn2, James Roshetko1, Philip Manalu2, Aulia Perdana1, Endri Martini1 and Ani Adiwinata2 1 World Agroforestry Centre, Bogor, Indonesia 2 Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia Corresponding author g.manurung@cgiar.org Many factors influence adoption of smallholder agroforestry systems as part of the farm business. This paper reports farm and household attributes including extension and marketing factors affecting the adoption of timber and non-timber forest product management practices by farmers in Gunungkidul, Sumbawa and Timor Tengah Selatan regions in Indonesia. The research uses logistic regression models to identify the significant factors influencing farmers’ agroforestry adoption and management decisions. When considering in total 16 factors equally, the models confirm that farmers in the regions where they have access to an extension service, farmer group membership and knowledge of government policy have greater likelihood of adopting timber and NTFP production technologies. The probability of adopting management practices increases with area of land farmed due to availability of space for growing more timber and NTFP species. Also, the possibility of adopting timber and NTFP management activities increases as on-farm and off-farm income increases. These findings suggest that these factors should be considered in design of extension programs in the three study regions.

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Forest and Landscape in Transition: Impacts along the Modern Forestry Frontier in Northern Sweden Per Sandström1*, Gun Lidestav1, Johan Svensson2 and Jon Andersson2 1 Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 901 83, Umeå Sweden 2 Department of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 901 83, Umeå, Sweden * Corresponding author per.sandstrom@slu.se Modern stand-oriented and monoculture forestry practices were introduced into northern Sweden in the 20th century. Overall, the most profound effects on forests and landscapes has occurred from the 1950s onwards, with associated biodiversity and ecosystem function affects. To assess landscape changes, vegetation changes were identified based on 25 Landsat satellite image-pairs for the time interval 1973 to 2014 on a 47,000 km2 area across northern Sweden from the coast in the east to the coniferous mountain foothills forest in the west. Each clear-felling event was identified, mapped and dated, and cutting rates as well the amount and spatial distribution of remaining continuous cover forests were calculated for each landowner category, i.e. private forest company (27% of the forest land), State forest company (26%) and private family, community and other forests (47%). A profound transition was found, from a natural forest landscape predominantly with maintained temporal and spatial continuity of natural forest habitat, to a forest landscape where 60% of the forest land has been subject to modern forestry practices. Formulating appropriate future management of the forest landscape depends on an understanding of temporal trajectories along the forestry frontier for the various forest ownership categories and strategies. Furthermore, the network of identified and mapped continuous cover forests can form the foundation for ongoing green infrastructure strategies in the Swedish boreal forest landscape. Communities and Landscapes Created by Small-scale Self-employed Timber Harvesting in Japan Noriko Sato1 and Katsuhisa Kohroki2

1 Kyushu University, 6-10-1, Hakozaki, Higashi, Fukuoka, 812-8581, Japan, corresponding author, sato.noriko.842@m.kyushu-u.ac.jp 2 University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennoudai, Tsukuba, Ibaragi, 305-0006, Japan Logging activities have been increasing in Japan in forests planted in the 1950s and 1960s. In 2012, Japan’s Forest Agency introduced the Forest Management Plan with the aim of coordinating and consolidating the practices of multiple forest owners, in order to promote high-efficiency work systems by large-scale forestry contractors. However, the 2010 agriculture and forestry census showed that in the past five years, family-run businesses have expanded logging more than large forestry companies. Moreover, two Non-profit Organizations (‘Association for the promotion of self-employed harvesting’ and ‘Networking association of wood station projects’) were established in 2014. The self-employed harvesting movement can be regarded as a counter-measure against the large-scale harvesting system. The

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advantages of self-employed timber harvesting, which can promote revitalization of local communities and conservation of forests with ecological landscapes, were insisted upon in the two NPOs’ activities. However, new-generation participants in the movement have not been prominent in terms of socioeconomic background and sustainability of rural areas. Therefore, a survey of organizers of wood station projects and young members of the former NPOs was conducted to observe the effectiveness of the self-employed harvesting movement on rural communities and forests. It was found that 1) many rural communities issued communal coupons to exchange harvested timber and other local products and services within a community in order to boost local economy, 2) almost all of the young members had a strong aspiration for nature-based lifestyle combined with some self-employed business, 3) the small-scale thinning practice used forest roads less than 3 m wide was evaluated from the perspective of not only biodiversity and soil conservation but also sustainable ‘Satoyama’ landscape , and 4) the new trends have been rapidity expanded since March, 2011 when the disaster of the huge earthquake and nuclear accident hit Japan. Private Native Forests and Grazing: A sustainable, Viable and Logical Land-use Combination Bill Schulke Private Forestry Service QLD, The WoodWorks Museum and Interpretive Centre, 8 Fraser Road Gympie, Qld 4570, pfsq@bigpond.com With the bulk of Queensland’s private native forests existing on land managed primarily for extensive grazing, land managers have long benefitted from the dual income stream derived from cattle and timber. The extent to which either of the two enterprises has been favoured in terms of investment varies considerably between landholders and over time, and is influenced by a large array of cultural, environmental, economic and legislative factors. Past management as influenced by these factors has resulted in a private native forest estate that is highly variable and ranges from highly degraded, low yielding stands through to high yielding and ecologically sustainable stands. This paper describes a set of land and forest management regimes for a 1,500 ha property in the Coastal Burnett region of Queensland. The period of tenure extends from the early 1900s to the present. Forest response to management is inferred from historical anecdotal sources, original land surveys, aerial imagery, paired photographs and forest assessment data. Economic impacts of management regimes on both the grazing and forestry components of the enterprise are discussed. The promotion of private native forest investment in Queensland can be enhanced with a suite of validated management regimes. Management regimes need to optimise economic output across complementary enterprises while maintaining enterprise flexibility. Review of Institutional Frameworks to Support Eco-forestry: What Might Work in Papua New Guinea Micah Scudder Bureau of Business and Economics Research, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 59812, USA, micah.scudder@business.umt.edu

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In Papua New Guinea there has been a progressive movement toward eco-forestry as an alternative to large-scale industrial logging. Eco-forestry is different from conventional forestry in that it puts greater emphasis on long-term ecological sustainability while maintaining economic viability. This movement is bases on an increasing interest to improve the livelihoods of indigenous communities through sustainable management of the forest land. Past eco-forestry operations in Papua New Guinea have experienced low production levels due to numerous challenges, the most prominent being attributed to limited training and experience in sawmilling and business management. To address these challenges and scale up existing operations several institutional frameworks have been analysed. These include an export consignment company, multiple agricultural cooperative frameworks, and several social business frameworks. The positive and negative attributes of each framework have been assessed to see how they could address the existing challenges of eco-forestry in Papua New Guinea. Regulating Smallholder Forestry: Do Forest Policy Reforms Help or Hinder Smallholder Engagement in Forestry? Robin Sears1*, Peter Cronkleton1, Matías Pérez-Ojeda del Arco1, Mary Menton2 and Marina Cromberg1, Louis Putzel1

1 CIFOR Latin America, Av La Molina 1885, La Molina, Lima, Peru 2 SEED, 163 Howard St, Oxford, OX4 3BA, UK *Corresponding author r.sears@cgiar.org While community forestry has received much attention in policy reforms, forest certification initiatives, and now REDD+, forestry practiced on family farms (smallholder forestry) has received little support. Recent forest policy reforms in Latin America attempt to encourage smallholder engagement in the forest sector, but they continue to fall short of generating real change for small-scale producers. This paper analyzes the effectiveness of reform processes in Peru and Brazil. Field research on the silvicultural systems employed in family forestry was coupled with an assessment of the value chain for products from smallholder systems and an analysis of the policy reforms. Perceived constraints and opportunities to which the policy reforms seem to respond are identified, and are compared to the social, environmental, and geographical contexts in which smallholders actually practice forestry and engage in the market. It is concluded that little change will be achieved for smallholder forestry if underlying factors are not addressed, including insecure forest tenure and resource access, unequal power relationships among actors, weak institutional capacity, and lack of capitalization of smallholder timber producers. Effort to integrate forestry into poverty reduction strategies for rural producers can produce wins for both forests and livelihoods. In addition to getting the policy right, other strategies and entry points for facilitating smallholder forestry include providing technical capacity building, market and business training for producers, and business support for timber buyers.

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Effect of Initial Spacing on First Thinning Product Recovery, and Financial Outcomes in Whitewood (Endospermum medullosum) Plantations in Vanuatu R. Geoff Smith1, Kevin Glencross2, J. Doland Nichols2, Graeme Palmer2 and Rexon Viranamangga3

1Institute for Rural Futures, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia, corresponding author, Geoff.Smith@une.edu.au 2Forest Research Centre, School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW Australia. 3Department of Forests Vanuatu, Luganville, Santo, Vanuatu. This paper investigates the products from first thinning at age 6 in Endospermum medullosum (whitewood) plantations in Vanuatu at three stocking densities, and the financial outcomes from several silvicultural thinning regimes based on these spacings. Whitewood plantings at Lorum, Santo, Vanuatu, established as part of an ACIAR program, at stockings rates of 417, 625 and 833 stems per hectare (sph), were thinned at age 6 to approximately 45% retained basal area. The thinning products were measured during harvest and value was estimated based on costs of production and appropriate margins and compared to radiata pine products already on the market. Financial modelling for the whole rotation was undertaken for each of the spacing and thinning scenarios in the trial. The volume and size of poles and posts produced at first thinning was related to spacing. Low stocking density produced smaller quantities of larger poles, whereas higher stocking densities produced larger quantities of smaller posts. However, the monetary value of larger products grown under lower stocking rates was less than the value of the greater volume of product at higher stocking rates. This greater volume at higher stockings resulted in higher NPV for regimes with higher initial stockings for modelled scenarios regardless of harvest age. An exception was a scenario where a market for thinnings is not available. A direct silvicultural regime (i.e. one with low planting density and no thinnings) had the highest NPV due to the higher price per cubic metre of larger diameter logs, achieved more rapidly because thinning did not remove basal area. Where thinning products are marketable, higher initial planting densities provide higher returns. Where access to markets for thinning products is difficult or where infrastructure is expected to improve in the future, planting at low stocking and without any thinning provides a high return on investment. Making Informed Financial Decisions in Community-owned Native Forests David Smorfitt1, Jack Baynes2, Robert Fisher2, Steve Harrison2, John Herbohn2 and Mark Winai3

1 College of Business, Law and Governance, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia, corresponding author, david.smorfitt@jcu.edu.au

2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia 3 FPCD Madang, PO Box 1119, Boroko, NCD, Papua New Guinea It is debatable whether many informed financial decisions are achieved in community forestry projects in developing countries. This paper examines some of the issues associated with financial decision-making in forestry in general, and those associated with ACIAR project FST/2011/057 – Enhancing the Implementation of Community Forestry Approaches in Papua

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New Guinea in particular. The paper first examines some of the broader generic issues associated with financial decision-making and modelling in the forestry context and then examines the nature of financial decisions required by resource owners in relation to natural resources. In many instances an important decision for forest resource owners is whether to sell the logging rights, selectively harvest the forest on a sustainable basis themselves or to choose a combination of both. This decision is examined from a financial perspective, but other factors including non-market benefits are highlighted. The 2014-15 financial analysis is based on forest resource owners located in the greater Madang area in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Financial analysis, using the calculation of net present values (NPV), is conducted for two alternatives, namely the selling of clearfell logging rights, and small-scale sustainable harvest of the resource by the resource owners themselves. Transparency along the value-adding chain from the selling of the logging rights in receipt of payments, lack of policing of regulations, the recognised high levels of corruption within the country, and factors limiting exports by small community groups are all important elements in this area. It is concluded that these factors work against choice of the appropriate setting for transparency and informed financial decision inputs and consequent financial decisions for community forestry in PNG. The importance of other factors including cultural and environmental factors in the decision are highlighted because many resource owners’ decisions extend beyond the NPV. A Synthesis of Tree Water-use Research in the Tropics in Relation to Plant Functional Traits, Research Biasness and the Way Forward Md Shawkat Sohel1* and John Herbohn1,2

1Tropical Forestry Group, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Australia, corresponding author, m.sohel@uq.edu.au 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, 4558 Australia This review examines for first time the spatial and temporal patterns of water use of tropical forest trees. A systematic review of peer reviewed journals published between 1980 and 2013 was performed using ISI Web of Science to understand the research trend and focus as well as influence of tree architecture on tree water use. Research output was found to be distributed unequally among geopolitical regions and species groups. There was clear bias in respect to both geographic area of research and tree species group selection. Most of the studies focused on Australia, with most other tropical countries being substantially underrepresented. In addition, most species groups were from the Myrtaceae family (48% of total species), while most other species from other families were severely underrepresented. A clear trend was found between tree architecture and water use. With the increase of tree size (DBH and sapwood area), water use was found to increase for the tropical tree species. Water use was also positively correlated with seed mass. On the other hand, tree water use was found to have a negative relation with wood density. The findings have implications for the design of forestry systems suited to smallholder and community forestry. It is argued that tree traits and their relationships to water use can provide a tool for scaling ecohydrological processes and are potentially helpful indicators for design and management of tree plantations.

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Family Forest Harvesting Experiences during Good, Poor and Improving Economic Conditions Ben Spong* and David McGill Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, PO Box 6125 Morgantown, WV 26505 USA * Corresponding author ben.spong@mail.wvu.edu The 2008 global financial crisis saw demand for forest products and ultimately for wood from non-industrial landowners in the United States shrink to some of the lowest levels in modern times. Landowners needing to harvest to meet income or other management goals found fewer loggers, fewer interested timber purchasers, and consequently lower overall timber values. As markets have improved, the number of timber harvests has rebounded and landowners are finding improved economic and operational environments for commercially harvesting their forests. Using the West Virginia State Division of Forestry timbering notification data on all harvest within the state between 2005 and 2015, an analysis was conducted of trends in harvest size, harvest type (including thinning and regeneration.), and use of professional foresters for planning and implementing the harvest activity. This paper describes a study designed to identify and compare these trends in logging statistics with future survey-based responses of family forest owners’ forest harvesting and sale experiences through this same period. The logging trends identification and analysis results show precipitous decline in both the number of harvesting activities and the total acres harvested from family forest land during the financial crisis time period. Industrial landowner harvests and total acres have also declined over this time period, but at a much smaller magnitude. Recovery for family forest landowners has been very slow, but steady, while industrial forest landowners have seen little change in number of harvests or total acres harvested. Continuing research efforts will eventually match the key timber harvesting indicators with landowner satisfaction of timbering outcomes to develop a guide future forestry educational material and outreach activities. Towards a Common Understanding of Differences in the Performance of Swedish Forest Commons Olof Stjernström1, Gun Lidestav2 and Stefan Sandström2 1 Department of Geography and Economic History, Umeå University, SE-901 87 UMEÅ, Sweden, corresponding author, olle.stjernstrom@geography.umu.se 2. Department of Forest Resource Management, Division of Forest Resource Analysis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 UMEÅ, Sweden Despite similar ecological and geographical environments, aims and legal regulations, the development and performance of the 33 Swedish Forest Commons established 100 years ago differ greatly. There are differences in perceptions of the benefits of FC membership of individuals and the community, as well as in the size and use of the dividend. In this paper it is hypothesized that the differences in perceived legitimacy of the forest commons is explained by the cultural settings in which the FCs were established, and the intentions and use of the dividend. In this study the forest commons were first categorized by management performance.

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Then for each category, one or more FC was selected for further analysis regarding the aspects mentioned, using annual reports and structured interviews with administrators and board members in selected forest commons. The results are discussed in relation to the increasing interest in forest commons and the prospects that commons will become increasingly important. The results are also put in a theoretical context from two related perspectives, the planning perspective where the concept of governance has become increasingly important, and property regimes and the influence of the local users. Finnish Non-Industrial Private Forest Owners and Climate Change: Learnings from “Forest Walks” Jukka Tikkanen1,2*, Tanja Kähkönen1,2 and Anu Laakkonen2 1 University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences & Institute for Natural Resources, Environment and Society, Yliopistokatu 2, PL 111, FI-80101 Joensuu 2 Oulu University of Applied Sciences, School of Engineering and Natural resources, Kotkantie 1, FI-90250 Oulu * Corresponding author Jukka.tikkanen@uef.fi Non-industrial private forest owners own a major share of forest land in Nordic countries, and their management decisions have a decisive role on how forests contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation in this region. In general there is lack of theoretical and practical information on forest owners’ readiness to apply new measures to build resilient, climate-change-responsive forestry. For example, forest owners are expected to consider the selection of tree species to increase adaptability of their forests, and will face new types of policy interventions such carbon emission reduction trading. This paper builds on two types of data: a summary of previous climate-change-related forest-owner studies and a qualitative interview study conducted for the TESS (Towards European Societal Sustainability) project. First, Nordic forest owner studies are summarized from the viewpoint of climate change. As this exploratory study is meant for designing a future nationwide survey in Finland, special attention is paid to the methodology used in reviewed forest-owner studies. Second, results of a qualitative interview study on mapping forest owners’ conceptions related to change in management practices are presented. Qualitative data were collected by organizing ‘forest walks’ with 20 non-industrial private forest owners, who were encouraged to explain their notions, beliefs and worries towards change processes that they have observed in the context of their own forests. Discussion focused particularly on forest owners’ conceptions related to climate change. Climate change and forest owners’ perceptions about it have received increasing attention as a research topic, particularly in other European and Northern American countries. In the literature review, 62 scientific papers were found for years 2000 to 2015, with search words ‘forest owners’, ‘perceptions’, ‘attitudes’ and ‘climate change’. This paper presents some numerical description on the papers found, and focuses more specifically on 15 empirical studies that are particularly focused on forest owners and climate change. Only six of these papers are based on data collected in Nordic countries, and all of them from Sweden. Preliminary results of forest walks from summer 2015 show that half of the participating forest owners intuitively included climate-change-related issues in their discourse about change in their forest (“the undisturbed forests discourse”). When discussion was steered towards climate change forest owners’ reactions were mainly neutral or dismissive. Many considered that they have minimal ability to influence climate change by their own actions. Also, a deep trust in advice from forest professionals was a typical reaction. Information related to climate change

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and forest management were widely seen as impractical ‘scientific jargon’. The results indicate that there is a need for concrete, context-specific policies and integrative educational programs targeted both forest professionals and forest owners. Feasibility of Smallholder Nursery Microenterprises as Sustainable Germplasm Delivery Mechanisms in Papua New Guinea Julio Ugarte-Guerra1,*, Tony Page2, Jonathan Cornelius3, John Rabbie4 and Inter Vinarut4 1 College of Marine and Environmental Science, and Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Sciences, James Cook University, PO Box 6811, Cairns, 4870, Australia. 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558 Australia. 3 World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Regional Office for Latin America, CIPPO Box 1558Lima 12, Peru 4 Organisation for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement, PO Box 426, Kokopo, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea * Corresponding author, Leonciojulio.ugarteguerra@my.jcu.edu.au The availability of high quality tree germplasm is often a primary constraint for communities seeking to produce tree-based resources from planted rather than natural timber stands. The germplasm shortage results both from a lack of accessible, high quality parent trees (often the result of past logging) and from ineffective mechanisms for delivery from source to end-user. This study assesses the feasibility of commercial nursery microenterprises as sustainable germplasm supply mechanisms. A number of organizational nursery models through market and socio-economic research in East New Britain Province in Papua New Guinea were examined. A survey was conducted in which 114 farmers were interviewed, and data were collected from 5 micro-nurseries (producing less than 1000 seedlings/year), 26 smallholder nurseries (1-10,000 seedlings/year) and 2 commercial nurseries across the Gazelle Peninsula, to determine levels of supply and demand for tree seedlings. Local demand for seedlings of timber species (including Tectona grandis and eucalypts) and canarium nut (Canarium indica) were found to be well in excess of current supply. The cost of seedling production for these species within the micro-nurseries currently exceeds market price, although minor changes to production systems could improve the financial viability of these nurseries. The smallholder and commercial nurseries represent a more likely avenue for sustainable delivery of tree germplasm to smallholders. Labour input is the most important component for plant production in micro-nurseries, representing between 33% and 94% of total production cost. Seed collection is, on average, the highest percentage of investment for micro-nurseries and smallholder nurseries, representing more than 50% of total labour requirement. Seed collection cost is on average higher in nurseries that produce smaller batches. The internal rate of return (IRR) increases in nurseries that produce a limited number of species with high local demand. Production cost per plant falls dramatically when the production size reaches more than 5,000 seedling per year. The use of clonal propagation improves financial performances but availability to tree nursery managers is limited. Labour availability, limited market size and inadequate funds are the most prevalent constrains to sustainable production for micro-nurseries and smallholder nurseries.

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Identifying Factors Limiting Reforestation in the Ramu-Markham Valley, Papua New Guinea William Unsworth1 and Martin Golman2 1 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, 4558 Australia and New Britain Palm Oil Limited, PO Box 2183, Lae 411, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea, corresponding author, wunsworth@rai.com.pg 2 PNG Forest Research Institute, P.O Box 314, Lae 411, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea Reforestation in the Ramu Markham Valley of Papua New Guinea has been identified as a solution to multiple goals in a fire-maintained grassland area, including restoring riparian habitats, enhancing the availability of forest resources, and providing livelihood activities through community forestry. Despite the recognised benefits, there has been little progress to date with forest planting in the valley, with low tree survival most commonly attributed to wildfire. Recent experience has shown that fire damage is relatively simple to address, but underlying challenges to successful reforestation bear further investigation. Using the research outputs of two ACIAR-funded forestry projects (one complete, one in-progress), a literature review of related projects, as well as on-site experience, fundamental limitations to forestry in the valley are identified. Based on these limitations, research programs relating to species-site matching, germplasm availability, understanding local perceptions towards tree planting and community landuse planning are proposed to address the identified gaps, with the goal of promoting community forestry as a productive component of the Ramu-Markham Valley landscape Wildfire Risk Mitigation Preferences among Small Forest Landholders in Montana, USA Tyron Venn1, Hari Katuwal2, Tony Prato3 and Travis Paveglio4 1. School of Business, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs QLD 4556, Australi, corresponding author tvenn@usc.edu.au 2. College of Forestry and Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula MT 59803, USA. 3. College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia MO 65211, USA. 4. Department of Conservation Social Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow ID 83844, USA. In the United States, the suppression, damage and human life costs of wildfire are principally driven by fires burning proximate to residential communities. Expert opinion and wildfire simulation studies suggest that proactive fuel reduction by mechanical thinning or prescribed fire can effectively decrease the aggregate cost of wildfire by reducing wildfire risk to residential communities though reducing burn probability and increasing suppression effectiveness. There is an emerging consensus that fuel reduction proximate to assets at risk can more efficiently mitigate wildfire risk than broadscale fuel reduction. In many parts of the

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wildland-urban interface (WUI) in the western United States, implementing such a strategy would require more risk mitigation treatments on or immediately adjacent to private land. This paper reports findings from a contingent valuation survey of residents in the WUI of Flathead County, Montana. The survey collected information about the residential property, attitudes towards wildfire risk, risk mitigation activities performed, and willingness to pay for wildfire risk mitigation. The analysis focusses on small-scale forest landholders, a subset of WUI residents, who have much greater potential than other residents to unilaterally modify their own exposure to wildfire risk, as well as the risk faced by neighbours. Policy implications for wildfire risk mitigation are explored. Native Tree Seed Germination for Restoration in Ecuadorian Amazonia Kurt von Kleist1, 2*, David Neill2 and John Herbohn1 1 Tropical Forest and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, DC QLD 4558, Australia 2 Universidad Estatal Amazónica, vía a Napo k½ Paso Lateral, Puyo, Pastaza, Ecuador *Corresponding author, kurtvk3@gmail.com Lack of diverse nursery stock in tropical reforestation programs is a persistent problem, arising in part from insufficient seed source, germination data and cultivation information. Little information exists in relation to the capacity and mechanisms required to increase the diversity of nursery seedling supply for small-scale restoration projects. This paper reports a pilot study to collect, germinate, and raise to out-planting stage, a group of relatively unknown native trees from Ecuador’s upper Amazon basin. More than 14,000 native seeds were obtained by intensely monitoring intact forests at Amazon State University’s CIPCA agricultural research station. Germination trials in a simple, low-cost nursery resulted in 10,000 seedlings from 15 families; germination data on 33 species are presented. Number of seeds per species ranged from 13 for Browneopsis ucayalina (Fabaceae) to several hundred for Inga ruiziana (Fabaceae). Germination rates per species varied from 29% to 94%. These results indicate that supporting restoration with a wide range of species that contribute a variety of ecosystem services may not be difficult. A Market Analysis of the Harvesting Services Engaged by Private Forest Owners in Sweden Dianne Wästerlund* and Thomas Kronholm Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Department of Forest Resource Management, 90183 Umeå, Sweden * Corresponding author dianne.wasterlund@slu.se The Swedish forest industry is heavily dependent on the supply of timber by private forest owners. Extensive research has been conducted on the factors affecting the forest owners’ willingness to perform a harvesting operation, but few have studied how satisfied forest owners are with the harvesting services provided or how forest owners choose their business partner.

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A forest owner survey was conducted in which a questionnaire was sent to 973 forest owners that in 2011 submitted a notification for a final harvesting operation to the Swedish Forest Agency through a company representative. The questionnaire was satisfactorily completed by 418 forest owners. About 79% of the forest owners were male and 21% were female. The age distribution of these owners who had carried out timber harvesting was similar to the general age distribution of forest owners. Large properties were more frequent in the sample than in the general distribution of forest properties according to size. A majority were single owners (60%) as well as resident owners (78%) and were experienced in making timber deals. Half of the respondents had previously made timber deals with other timber procuring companies. Reasons for changing were mainly economic (17%), dissatisfaction with the way the timber deal turned out (11%) or better service offered by the new timber procuring company (10%). Forest owners who made their deal with a forest owner organization were less inclined to change company, although 38% of association members had made timber deals with another company. About 24% of the forest owners had experienced problems with the timber deal and only 55% were of the opinion that those problems had been satisfactorily solved. The problems concerned mainly the way the operation had been performed. Female forest owners and absentee forest owners experienced significantly more problems than male owners and resident owners. For the future it seems relevant for timber procuring companies to reflect on how new owners define quality in a timber deal. Species and Functional Trait Diversity beneath Mahogany Monocultures, Mixed-species Plantations and Secondary Forest on Leyte Island, Philippines Jarrah Wills1,*, Jennifer Firn2, John Herbohn1, 3, Maria Moreno4 and Mayet Avela4 1 University of Queensland, School of Agriculture and Food Science, St Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia 2 School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane Australia 3 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Qld 4558, Australia 4 Visayas State University, Visca, Baybay City, Leyte, Philippines * Corresponding author jarrah.wills@uq.net.au In tropical countries including the Philippines where little natural forest remains, smallholder monocultures and mixed species plantations potentially provide conservation values by recruiting diverse understory species and providing habitat for local fauna. However, little information exists as to whether simple monocultures offer a framework to kick-start understory species recruitment and how they compare relative to species mixtures. In this study, species and trait diversity were measured within the understories of three forest types on Leyte Island, Philippines, namely mixed-species forests (under the local ‘Rainforestation Farming’ model), Swietenia macrophylla monocultures and secondary forests. All plants less than 2 m in height were identified, and dispersal type, fruit type, and seed and fruit size were extracted from literature and online databases. It was found that overall seedling richness and diversity were lower within the monoculture forests than the secondary forests, with the Rainforestation Farming having intermediate seedling diversity. Using community analyses and trait diversity, no significant difference was found in understory diversity between forest types. Monoculture understories had a higher proportion of large fruited domesticated species that are probably dispersed by people and significantly lower wind-dispersed native seedlings than the other

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forest types. These results confirm that mixed-species plantations and secondary forests recruit higher species diversity, but also suggest that monocultures can recruit diverse species in the understory. However, monoculture understories were depauperate of native wind dispersed groups that are often key emergent species in tropical rainforests. Overall, just having some trees in a cleared landscape can provide conservation value, but if monocultures are used as less costly and technically simpler solutions for initiating recruitment then wind dispersed native species in addition to other limited functional groups (e.g. large seeded species) need to be planted to ensure long-term term survival of native tree populations. Living Custom: The Relevance of Customary Beliefs in Forest Management in Madang Province, PNG Mark Winai1, Robert Fisher2 and Dege Naus3 1 Foundation for People and Community Development, Madang, PO Box 1119, Boroko, NCD, Papua New Guinea, corresponding author winaimark@yahoo.com 2 Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD 4558, Australia 3 Foundation for People and Community Development, Madang This paper analyses the case of a small clan engaged in forest management in Madang Province in Papua New Guinea, focusing on the dynamics of decision-making about forest use within the group and interactions with nearby clans. Within the clan there have been differing opinions as to whether their land should be harvested on a small scale through ‘ecoforestry’ (a form of community forestry) or through an agreement with a commercial logging company. This paper examines beliefs about forest spirits and how these affect decisions about forest use. It stresses the idea of ‘living custom’ because the beliefs have a continuing relevance to behaviour and decision-making about forests. The process of negotiation of forest land disputes is also examined. The research was carried out using a combination of ethnographic research and informal interviews carried out over a number of years. Large-scale Implementation of Smallholder Forest Landscape Restoration in China: Interplays between National Goals and Local Agency in a Changing Social Landscape Kun Zhang1, Nick Hogarth2, Chen Xie1, Yustina Artati2 and Louis Putzel2* 1 China National Forestry Economics and Development Research Center, State Forestry Administration, Hepingli Dongjie No. 18, Beijing 100714, China 2 Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede, Sindang Barang, Bogor 16115, Barat, Indonesia * Corresponding author l.putzel@cgiar.org After devastating flooding and drought in the late 1990s, the Chinese government implemented the Conversion of Cropland to Forest Program (CCFP), a mega-project to restore forest over 25 million ha in hilly and mountainous landscapes in 22 provinces. About 32 million rural smallholder families enrolled in the program, receiving subsidies in return for retiring 9 million

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ha of cropland and to manage additional forestland allocated to them through new forest tenure certificates. As part of an assessment of a 15-year socio-economic monitoring program, field surveys were performed in 8 CCFP counties located in 4 southwestern provinces. Widely divergent local responses to national policy were observed, relating to choices of forest use (ecological, economic and hybrid), species selection (from fast-growing exotic timbers and commercially valuable fruits to endemic forest trees), and management frameworks (from family silviculture to commercial production). The diversity of local responses indicates a highly variable socio-ecological substrate in which national policy is applied flexibly, interacting with broader patterns of demographic and agrarian change, and challenging perceptions of the nature of top-down implementation in China. This paper summarizes these findings, and argues that the current reorganization of upland rural landscapes features some pathways to long-term socioecological diversification. However, major questions remain as to the future of Chinese smallholder systems and the identity of beneficiaries – both upstream and downstream – of the resurgent forest patrimony. Changing Extension Education Technology for a Changing Landscape in Washington State, USA Kevin Zobrist* and Lauren Grand Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA * Corresponding author kevin.zobrist@wsu.edu The small-scale forestry landscape in Washington State of the USA has become highly fragmented, with shrinking parcel sizes and a corresponding large number of individual owners who are geographically and demographically diverse. With shrinking budgets, extension landowner education and outreach programs have less resources to meet the education needs of this broad audience. Travel time and distance to limited in-person class locations exclude many landowners, including busy professionals and those outside the major population areas, from participation in traditional face-to-face extension classes and programs. In 2012, Washington State University Extension Forestry began offering an online version of its flagship multi-week Forest Stewardship Coached Planning course in an effort to engage otherwise unreached population segments. The regular Coached Planning course includes weekly classroom sessions, a field trip, and an individual on-site consultation with a state service forester for each participant. The online course was structured similarly, but instead of weekly classroom sessions, live webinars were offered using the same instructors and curriculum. Online participants still received on-site consultations, thus offering a hybrid of online and face-to-face interaction. An online class was offered annually for the period of 2012-2014. A mail survey was conducted one year following each class to assess the one-year impacts of the program. The same survey was conducted for the regular face-to-face courses offered during the same period. A chi-squared test was conducted to test whether any key impact variables were dependent on which type of class was taken. No significant relationship (α = 0.5) was found between the type of class taken and the proportion of participants who reported that, due to the program, they: implemented new on-the-ground stewardship practices; shared knowledge with others; increased enjoyment of their property; increased their understanding of the ecological importance of their property; increased their likelihood of using the services of a professional forester; and increased their likelihood of keeping their land in forest use. The only metric found to be dependent on the type of class taken was whether

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participants completed a written forest stewardship plan as part of the course. In this case, participants in the face-to-face course were more likely to complete a plan (70% vs. 48%). The results suggest that offering existing extension programs in an online format can largely achieve the same impact objectives such as getting stewardship practices implemented on the ground and motivating increased retention of forestland. There are some things, though, like including writing a stewardship plan, that may not be as effectively achieved with an online program. This is possibly due to less accountability for “homework” when not in weekly face-to-face contact with instructors. As a matter of policy, written forest stewardship plans are a key metric of interest in the United States. It may be prudent to consider whether the written plan is the objective itself, or results better on-the-ground stewardship and forest retention. If the latter is the case, investing in more online programs may be an efficient way to meet those objectives.