iv results and discussion determination of glycemic index...

Results and Discussion

Determination of Glycemic Index of Selected Foods and Formulation of Low Glycemic Index Food Products1

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the study “Determination of Glycemic Index of Selected

Foods and Formulation of Low Glycemic Index Food Products”, are

discussed under the following phases:

4.1.PHASE A: Glycemic index determination of commonly consumed

carbohydrate containing foods and composite meals

4.1.1. The different categories of commonly consumed carbohydrates

containing foods and composite meals

4.1.2.Details of study participants

4.1.3. Details of test foods served for GI determination

4.1.4.Incremental Areas Under the Curve (IAUC), Mean Glycemic Index

and Glycemic Load values of the foods tested

4.2.PHASE B: Determination of amylose and amylopectin of selected rice

varieties

4.2.1.Glycemic Index values of the rice samples

4.2.2. Amylose/Amylopectin Ratio and Glycemic Index values of the rice

samples

4.3.PHASE C: Profiling of glycemic index of rice samples using High

Resolution Melting (HRM) technology

4.4. PHASE D: Development of low glycemic index food products.

4.5.PHASE E: Assessment of Knowledge and Awareness of Glycemic

Concept and Development of Educational Tools on GI

4.5.1.Results of survey conducted among general public

4.5.2. Results of survey conducted among health professionals

4.5.3.Results of survey conducted among food industry representatives

4.5.4. Development of educational tools on GI



4.1. PHASE A:Glycemic index determination of commonly consumed carbohydrate containing foods and composite meals

The GI of different varieties of rice, other grains such a quinoa, bulgur,

germinated rice, black glutinous rice, miscellaneous items, palm sugar varieties

and composite meals were determined and GL was calculated. In total, 30 foods

(26 Single foods and 4Composite meals) were tested for their GI values in an

accredited laboratory using the internationally accepted GI testing methodology.

Sixtyhealthy subjects who gave informed consent participated in the

study.Ethnicity, gender, age, and BMI are not related to the within-individual

variation in glycemic responses nor, most importantly, to GI values in the

individual subjects and this is consistent with previous studies suggesting that,

when measured by using appropriate methods, GI is the same in different subjects

(Brouns et al., 2007; T M S Wolever, Vorster, and Björk I, 2003) and therefore is a

property of the food and not of the subject in whom it is measured. The

implications of this include not only that GI can be measured validly in most

subjects but also that the results apply to most of the healthy population.

Mean IAUC, Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load Values of

Palm Sugar Varieties

IAUC (Reference Food)

IAUC (Test Food)

GI±SEM

GL (per serving)

Classification GI/GL

Mean ± SEM CV (%) Mean ± SEM

Coconut Palm Sugar 219.7 ± 11.5 16.3 127.4 ± 9.7 56 ± 3.6 NA

Medium GI

Palmyra Palm Sugar 300.8 ± 14.0 12.9 179.2 ± 12.8 60± 4.2 NA

Medium GI

Sydney University Glycemic Index Research Services (SUGiRS) Manager

Fiona Atkinson commented that the GI value of coconut palm sugar is all over the

internet but failed the peer review process to make it intothe official international

GI database.„That‟s an old value from the Philippines and it was nottested

according to the ISO method,‟ Ms Atkinson said. „We have recently tested coconut

sugar for acompany, but the results must remain confidential until they give us

permission to publishthem. I can say that although the GI was certainly not 35, it



was low for what is essentially asucrose-based sugar” (Glycemic Index

Foundation (2013).

The coconut palm sugar was tested for its GI as per the ISO methodology

among 21 healthy subjects. The GI of coconut palm sugar was 56 ± 3.6. We

increased the number of subjects to ensure that the results were valid. We

consider the GI value to be accurate as the nutrient analysis of coconut sugar

conducted in an accredited nutrient analysis laboratory revealed that coconut

sugar is essentially a sucrose based sugar that contained 75% sucrose and the

rest glucose and fructose. Coconut sugar like cane sugar or sucrose is a medium

GI natural sugar. However in comparison to sucrose (GI = 60) the glycemic index

of coconut sugar is slightly lower(GI = 56). This might be due to the small amount

of fructose present. Fructose does not raise blood glucose appreciably because it

is converted to glucose in the liver and only small proportion of this glucose is

released into the circulation (Delarue, Normand, Pichiaudi, Beylot and Lamisse,

1993).

The GI of Palmyra palm sugar was 60± 4.2, confirming that it is also a

sucrose based sugar. The mean glycemic response curves of the palm sugar

varieties are presented in the Figure 9 given below.



Figure 9: The mean glycemic response curves for equal carbohydrate portions of

the reference food (glucose) and the test foods (2 types of Palm sugar varieties)

shown as the change in blood glucose concentration from the fasting baseline

level.



As different group of subjects were involved in the GI testing of Coconut

palm sugar and Palmyra palm sugar, it is not relevant to compare the glycemic

response curves. Nevertheless we were curious to compare the shape of the

curve and as presented in the figure below, both the curves had a similar shape. It

is interesting to note that until 30 minutes the blood glucose response was similar

for both the sugars. At 45, 60, 90 and 120 minutes, coconut sugar produced a

much lower glycemic response. At 90 and 120 minutes, coconut sugar produced a

blood glucose response which was even lower than the fasting reference value. In

the case of Palmyra palm the glucose levels were lower than fasting reference

values at 120 minutes. Low Glycemic Index foods by nature produce glycemic

responses which are much lower than the reference glucose responses.Indeed

the blood glucose responses elicited by pure sugars and fruits suggest rapid

absorption because the blood glucose concentration rises more quickly and falls

more rapidly than after bread(Wolever et al., 1993).

4.2. PHASE B: Determination of amylose and amylopectin of selected rice

varieties

4.2.1 Glycemic Index values of the rice samples

The amylose, amylopectin content, ratio of amylose to amylopectin and the

GI of the rice samples was tested. The in vivo GI values of 14 rice samples were

categorised based on low, medium and high GI. The GI values of the rice samples

ranged from 55 to 80. With the exception of parboiled basmati rice all other rice

samples fell under the high and the medium GI category. The amylose content of

the rice samples ranged from 9.8% for Calrose rice (lowest) to 24.3% for basmati

rice (Type 3). Calrose rice had the highest GI value and the lowest amylose

content. There are now varieties of rice with 35% amylose that may be predicted

to have lower GIs than that of the Doongara rice (28% amylose) (Brand-Miller,

Pang, and Bramall, 1992). None of the rice varieties tested in this study had

amylose content more than 25%. The basmati rice (Type 3), which had the highest

amylose content, fell under the medium GI category.



4.2.2 Amylose/Amylopectin Ratio and Glycemic Index values of the rice

samples

Wide differences in the digestibility and GI values of rice products have

been ascribed to various factors. These include the fibre content (Augustin,

Franceschi, Jenkins, Kendall and Vecchia, 2002), the botanical source (Brand-

Miller et al., 1992), and food processing (Sagum and Arcot, 2000) and

physicochemical properties, particularly gelatinisation characteristics, particle size,

amylose amylopectin ratio and the presence of lipid-amylose complexes(Hu,

Zhao, Duan, Linlin and Wu, 2004; Panlasigui et al., 1991)It has been reported that

parboiled rice has a relatively low GI of 54 and 65(Granfeldt, Bjorck, Drews, and

Tovar, 1992; Jenkins, Wolever, and Jenkins, 1988).

The correlation between the amylose (%) and the GI value for all the types

of rice tested was found to be statistically insignificant(r=--0.520; p=0.057).

However, when parboiled rice variety was excluded from the analysis, we found a

statistically significant correlation between amylose and GI(r= -.571; p=0.041). The

parboiled basmati rice had a lower GI compared to all other varieties of rice tested

in this study.The severity of parboiling has been shown to affect some of the

physico-chemical properties of rice starch(Biswas and Juliano, 1988).In other

studies the parboiled rice used may have a low GI because the variety used has a

high amylose content rather than because of the parboiling process per

se(Jenkins et al., 1988).



4.3. PHASE C: Profiling of glycemic index of rice samples using High

Resolution Melting (HRM) technology

From the gel image, DNA was extracted from all the 16 rice samples and

5ul of each sample were run on the gel for visualization. It shows that all the rice

samples except for sample R4, had RNase contamination. Degradation of RNA

within the samples was observed and thus the samples were treated with 2µl of

RNase and were left at room temperature for 30 minutes. Five µl (5 µl) of each

sample was run on 1.2% agarose gel and stained with SYBR safe and were

visualized with the use of the gel visualizer. The results obtained still showed

degradation of RNA for the same samples. One of the reasons for RNase

contamination could have been the tips and tubes that were used for the

experiments were not RNase free.

Gene Ruler 100bp Ladder (Thermo Scientific) retrieved from,

(http://www.thermoscientificbio.com/nucleic-acid-electrophoresis/generuler-100-

bp-dna-ladder-ready-to-use-100-to-1000-bp/)

The results in Figure 12 show the optimized conditions for gradient PCR

using both the low and intermediate glycemic index primers. From the gel image, it

can be seen that the DNA bands at 52ºC had the highest intensity for both the

sets of primers.

The gel image shows the gradient PCR of rice sample R1 using both sets

of primers (LGI and IGI). The annealing temperature that was used ranged

between 48-56°C. The reaction ran for almost 3 hours and agarose gel

electrophoresis was performed using 1.2% agarose gel with SYBR safe staining.

The gel was left to run at 80V for 45 minutes and results were visualized using the

gel visualizer. The bands for the 52°C annealing temperature for both sets of

primers appeared to have the highest intensity. For the LGI primer, a band of size

300bp was obtained whereas for the IGI primer, a band of size 200bp was

obtained. This showed a clear distinct differentiation between LGI and IGI.

http://www.thermo/



When rice samples were analyzed using two sets of primers we were able

to differentiate low GI and Intermediate GI rice based on its characteristic melting

curves. Four out of 16 rice samples failed in HRM assay which may be due to bad

quality of genomic DNA.

Previous studies have reported that a polymorphism in the Wx

microsatellite located 55-bp upstream of the putative 5'-leader intron splice site in

the Wx gene was responsible for more than 82% of the variation in the amylose

content of non-waxy rice. This indicates that the Wx microsatellite can be used to

distinguish most rice varieties with different amylose contents (Bergman et al.,

2001).

All the current methods used for identification of low GI or intermediate GI

or high GI is based on traditional PCR methods which is time consuming and

tedious as have to run agarose gel electrophoresis. This method is not suitable for

high throughput screening of different rice varieties. High resolution melting is

novel concept as each PCR product have its characteristics melting curve profile

which is largely governed by size of PCR product plus GC or AT content of PCR

product (DNA sequence).

Results showed simple efficient assay to differentiate low GI and intermediate GI

rice samples. The HRM data for each rice samples was compared with In vivo

data generated by GI Research Unit at Temasek polytechnic.

Comparing the in vitro data and in vivo data

Recent studies by Fitzgerald et al. (2011) reported that intermediate and

high amylose varieties can be genotyped based on SNP located at exon 6 (A/C)

with the use of the IGI primers. For “A” (high amylose) product size of the PCR

amplicon is expected to be 200bp. For “C” (intermediate amylose) PCR amplicon

is expected to be 292bp. In our studies we have not included primers for high GI,

thus it is possible that three of the rice samples, R2, R4, R10 can be both high and

intermediate GI.

4.4. PHASE D: Formulation of low glycemic index food products.

Mulitgrain Cookies

Rye Flakes



Rye Flakes are made by heating and rolling rye that can be used in baked

products to give a distinctive flavor and taste.Rye is mainly used in Eastern

Europe and United States for bread making. Moreover, the use of rye flakes in

cookies is not common in Asia. It will not only provide the cookies with complex

vitamins and minerals (Roehl, 1996) but also increased fiber content (Bondia-

Pons, 2009). For past few years oats has been used as a common ingredient in

most of the cookies available in the market and hence instead of using oats, rye

flakes was chosen.

Chia Seeds

The global production of chia seeds is increasing due to its health

properties and popularity. Recently, it has been used as nutritional supplement as

well as in the manufacture of breakfast cereals and cookies in the USA, Latin

America and Australia (Dunn, 2010). It is rich in α- linolenic acid (omega 3) and

dietary fiber that are beneficial to health (Munoz, Cobosa, Diaza, Aguilera, 2012).

In addition, the hydrophilic structure of Chia Seeds can hold water and aid in

displacing calories and fat without compromising the flavor.

C. Nutrient Analysis and Calculation of predicted Glycemic Index of the

Formulation

The nutrient content of the cookies was calculated using Food Works

v.7.0(FoodWorks 7) and ESHA nutrient database(ESHA Research). Nutrient

analysis reports of ingredients provided by the ingredient suppliers were also

referred to. The GI values of each ingredient was sourced from the Sydney

University‟s International Glycemic Index Database as well as some of the values

were taken from our GI laboratory‟s database.

D. Formulation of Cookie Prototype

Effect of Fat Replacers on Cookies

A modified starch fat replacer was used to lower the calorific value and

grams of fat per serving. Fat replacers provide similar taste and texture as that of

fat, but with a fewer kilocalories (Whitney and Rolfes, 2008). Modified starch fat

replacers are able to hold water and impart a smooth, creamy texture similar to fat

and add form and structure to foods (Boyle and Long, 2010). However, it was

found that the use of maltodextrin in cookies may produce a brittle rather than

http://books.google.com.sg/books?id=H8lwmA52ltIC&pg=PA78&dq=rye+in+asia&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ENO9UJ3WKdHirAeYh4GwDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=rye%20in%20asia&f=false

http://ezproxy.tp.edu.sg:2095/science/article/pii/S0733521009000149






crispy texture with severe reduction in cookie spread (Khan, 1996). This was

observed during the preparation of cookies, whereby the cookie spread was rather

limited. An emulsifier was used to replace fat replacer. Presence of emulsifier

helps to reduce the interfacial tension. It weakens the force to separate the oil and

water, resulting in easy mixing of oil and water (Riken Vitamin, n.d).

Effect of Shortening on Cookies

A tender cookie was derived by incorporating shortening with flour into the

dough or batter, prior to adding water (Burrington, 1999). As mentioned by

Whitehurst(2004) the added shortening coated the flour used which resulted in

less gluten development and a tender cookie. Butter was not used in the

formulation, as cookies baked with butter will tend to be flatter than cookies baked

with shortening, as shortening can hold air in batters (Sinclair, 2006).The addition

of shortening was to stabilize the air cells that are generated by mixing (Given,

1994). Vegetable shortening has a higher melting point than butter, thus the

cookie dough must reach a higher temperature in the oven before spreading

begins (Boyle, 2002). The addition of shortening also allowed the cookie a little

more time to set before the fat in the dough melted. The dough observation also

showed that the dough with shortening was easier to mould and was softer. In

addition from the nutritional standpoint, in order to formulate a cookie with a “Zero

Cholesterol” butter was not added in the formulation.

Function of Chia Seeds in Cookies

Chia gel made from 1:9 ratio of Chia Seeds:water was used as fat replacer

in baked goods andthis gel can substitute for half the butter in most recipes.The

sensory evaluation showed that cookies containing chia gel was found to have a

crumbly and slightly less crunchy texture. Chia has a hydrophilic structure that

holds water. As greater amount of moisture was retained, the cookies became

softer. In addition, there was not much water available for the flour to absorb for

gluten development which caused the cookies to be crumbly in texture. This was

also observed by Suas (2009). Based on preliminary sensory evaluation Chia gel

was not used in the formulation as it contributed to softer cookies.

Alternatively, Chia seeds were added directly to the formulation instead of

creating a gel. The Chia seeds started gelling in the mouth and started to stick to



the teeth and thus led to lower sensory scores. To resolve this problem, the Chia

seeds were toasted in a non-stick pan for 40 seconds. Subjecting the Chia seeds

to dry heat caused the seeds to have a nutty aroma and reduced the gelling

property of Chia Seeds. Studies also showed that the nutty flavour of Chia seeds

was more pronounced when toasted (Hoover, 2007).

Flavoring used in Cookies

Initially freshly grated orange zest was used in order to infuse a natural

flavour to the cookies. As using orange zest may not be practically possible when

the prototype is scaled up, it was replaced with orange flavoring. Baking trials

were conducted using different brands of orange flavoring to compare the

suitability in terms of its aroma and flavor.

Effect of Soy Lecithin as an Emulsifier in Cookies

Lecithin allows an improved blending of the various ingredients, better

dough processing and reduction in fat needed to give a desirable texture. Soy

lecithin allows batters to rise better and provides a softer texture to the finished

product (Woodruff, 1994). Initially, half the amount of fat was replaced with liquid

soy lecithin on a gram-for-gram basis as a fat replacer in the formulation as stated

by Institute of Food Technologists(1998). But the cookie had an undesirable soy

flavour. This result was similar to the results observed in the study by Manley

(2011) that excess soy lecithin will impart an unpleasant flavour.Initially liquid

lecithin was used, which resulted in a sticky dough.. Thus, handling of the dough

was difficult due to the stickiness contributed by liquid lecithin. Alternatively soy

lecithin granuleswere used to replace liquid lecithin which resulted in improvement

of dough consistency. Only 3% of soy lecithin granules were added to the total

flour weight based on literature review (Archer Daniels Midland Company, n.d).

Effect of Different Types of Flour on the Structure of Cookies

The proportion of coconut flour, all-purpose flour and wholemeal flour was

adjusted to achieve a desirable texture. During the different baking trials it was

observed that the coconut flour yielded a heavier and less cohesive cookie.

Therefore, the percentage of coconut flour used was decreased and the quantity

of all-purpose flour used was increased. Results showed that texture and mouth

feel was improved, which is an important attribute to the cookies.



Coarse-grain wholemeal flour was initially used, but later in was replaced

with the fine-grain wholemeal flour. The texture of the cookies was hard when

coarse-grain wholemeal flour was used. The fine-grain wholemeal flour

contributed to a lighter, softer and less grainy texture.Wholemeal Flour provided a

nutty flavor and added texture to finished cookies. The dietary fibre in the

wholemeal flour acted as fillers that interrupted the gluten structure in the

developed dough. It was noticed that it is more difficult to achieve the same

degree of open texture in cookies with added fibre compared to those made with

no added fibre.

The amount of rye flakes in the cookies was found to be overwhelming and

that led to a hard cookie texture. Therefore, wholemeal flour was adjusted to meet

the whole grains criteria after the reduction of rye flakes. With the increase of

wholemeal flour, reduction of all-purpose flour is necessary to reduce high

proportion of flour in the formulation. From the literature, too much flour will make

the cookie firm, dry and tough (Agen, 2011). Flour is able to absorb moisture and

when there is too much flour, there will not be enough moisture for the flour to

absorb causing it to be dry (Klivans, 2005). Thus, the proportion of different protein

flour is important to ensure better texture of the cookies.

Effect of Different Leavening Agents on Cookies

Chemical leavening agents such as baking soda was used to give rise to

the cookies and provide a tender texture. The amount of baking soda used was

around 2.7% to 3.1% of total flour weight. The amount of baking soda used was

controlled to ensure the amount of sodium does not exceed healthier choice

symbol (HCS) guidelines. Too much baking soda can result in a slightly coarse

texture and dark crust colour (Suas, 2009). Ammonium bicarbonate was another

leavening agent that was used in cookies where the cellular structure is sufficiently

porous to permit slow escape of gases (Ashokkumar, 2009). The combination of

ammonium bicarbonate and baking soda helped to increase the height of cookies.

Ammonium bicarbonate was used as a leavening agent for cookies to improve

their volume (Iqbal. and Mido., 2005). In addition, ammonium bicarbonate had an

increase of 0.5% to 0.94% of total flour weight to reduce the amount of baking

soda from 3.25% to 2.5% of total flour weight. This is to reduce the amount of

sodium in the formulation that was contributed by sodium bicarbonate.



A trial on baking powder was also carried out to determine the effect of

texture and cookies height. Baking powder was found to be more suitable for

cookies dough that will be refrigerated (Table and Mushet, 2009). However, in the

baking trial it was noticed that cookies made with baking powder did not spread as

much and tend to rise higher and more quickly than those made with baking soda.

They also did not brown quite as fast.

From the literature it was noted that baking soda was usually added to

cookie dough at 0.5% to 1% of total flour weight. Similarly, the usage level for

ammonium bicarbonate was also added at 0.5% to 1% of total flour

weight(Stauffer, 1990). Therefore, the amount of ammonium bicarbonate and

baking soda was reduced to 1% of total flour weight to reduce the crumbliness in

texture. This showed that reducing the amount of leavening agents not only

contributed to lesser hardness but also helped to reduce the amount of sodium in

the developed cookie prototype.

Effect of Using Two Baking Trays on the Bottom Crust Colour of Cookies

The MIWE condo oven (convectional oven) was used with adjustable top

and bottom temperature available. The bottom crust colour of the cookies was

found to be dark at the temperature of 160˚C (both top and bottom temperature).

A reduction of bottom oven temperature to 150˚C was used in the subsequent trial

but the bottom colour of the cookies remained dark. Therefore, a double baking

pan was used to reduce and prevent excessive browning of cookies.

Effect of Different Mixing Methods on the Texture of Multigrain Cookies

The two step mixing method includes creaming of all the wet ingredients

together, followed by the mixing of all the dry ingredients. In the creaming step,

sugar is dissolved and fat is creamed, so they surround the protein molecules in

flour and prevent the interaction between the flour and water. Therefore, there is

difficulty forming a gluten network. All dry ingredients were added in the second

step so as to have minimum mixing of flour to prevent gluten formation as well as

toughening of the dough (Manley, 2000). This is important because gluten

formation will lead to tough and hard cookies texture (Cauvain and Young, 2008).



Research shows that the texture of the final baked product is determined by

the size of the air bubbles whether it is large and irregular or small and fine.

Chemical leavening agents was used to increase the size of already existing air

cells by filling in the air cells with carbon dioxide and expand them. However, it

cannot change the texture that has been predetermined by the air cells. If there

are many tiny cells, it will result in a fine and delicate crumb. In contrast, if the air

cells are few and irregular, the texture will be coarse (La Table and Mushet, 2008).

Two trials of the same formulation but different creaming methods were

carried out. The first method used two step mixing method while the other method

used the creaming of shortening and sugar, followed by the addition of wet and

dry ingredients. The two step mixing method includes creaming of all the wet

ingredients together, followed by the mixing of all the dry ingredients. Proper

creaming of shortening and sugar is important to fill the dough with air bubbles

and to create the desired texture. In creaming, the sugar cuts into the butter and

forms tiny air bubbles. The air bubbles expand and stretch the gluten network into

thin strands, which are much tender than thick ones, thus helping to tenderize the

baking dough. From the results, it was found that the use of different creaming

methods had no effect on the texture of cookies.

Effect of Dough Handling on Multigrain Cookies

The dough was initially divided into individual weight of either 10g or 15g

and then pressed in a cookies cutter to form the round shape. However, uneven

surface appearance was found. Rolling of dough was used subsequently to

achieve a smoother surface appearance of the cookies. Dough was found sticking

on the rolling pin despite dusting of flour on it. Further improvement of chilling the

dough for 30 minutes in a refrigerator reduced the stickiness of dough. This

contributed to less sticky dough, resulting in less dusting flour used and better

handling of dough during rolling.

E. Results of the different baking trials conducted

During the product development phase, 27 baking trials were conducted.

However, the results of only some of the pertinent trials are presented below in the

following figures.



Figure 20: Moisture Content of Multigrain Cookies

Figure 21: Water Activity of Multigrain Cookies

3.73 3.91 5.11

5.60

3.10 2.80

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Reference TC14 TC15 TC16a TC16b TC27

Mo

istu

re C

on

ten

t

Moisture Content (%)

0.349

0.542

0.596

0.416

0.336 0.348

0.463

0.243

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Wat

er

Avt

ivit

y (A

w)

Water Activity (Aw)

8734.1

15998.4

13749.6

7465.3

8761.6

20022.3

12184.2

12983.8

17703.6

22693

13663.3 13659.2

13659.2

7,0008,0009,000

10,00011,00012,00013,00014,00015,00016,00017,00018,00019,00020,00021,00022,00023,000

Har

dn

ess

Val

ue

(g)

TEXTURE ANALYSIS

*The reference compared refers to a popular brand of HCS commerical cookie.

*The reference compared refers to a popular brand of HCS commerical cookie.



Figure 22: Hardness Value of Multigrain Cookies

TC27 was chosen as the final formulation. From the results, TC27 had a

lower moisture content of 2.80% than reference of 3.73%. Based on the literature,

cookies with higher moisture content create softer cookies (Suas, 2009).

Therefore, the reference with higher moisture content had a lower hardness value

of 8588.46g as compared to TC27 with hardness value of 13659.2g. Moisture

content and Aw was correlated, therefore, TC27 with low moisture content also

resulted in low Aw of 0.243. The moisture content and Aw of TC27 met the

standard for cookies of less than 5% moisture and Aw of 0.2-0.4.

F. SENSORY EVALUATION OF MULTIGRAIN COOKIES

Table 27

Mean acceptance scores for overall appearance, flavour, sweetness,

crunchiness, moistness and overall liking of cookies

Formulation Overall

Appearance

Overall

Flavour

Sweetness Crunchiness Moistness Overall

Liking

Multigrain Cookies

4.85 5.21 5.27 5.45 4.85 5.03

The appearance of the low GI cookies had lower rating. In commercial

processing, cookies are molded using machinery molders so as to create a more

uniform and even texture. From the sensory results, 3% of the panelists had

commented that the low GI cookies had a rough surface. From the one way Chi-

square analysis, there is a significant difference (P<0.05) between the dislike,

neither like nor dislike and like categories on the overall appearance, flavor,

sweetness, crunchiness and overall liking of the low GI cookies. The ratings were

found to score more than 5 for all the attributes in the like category except for

overall appearance and liking.

G. FORMULATION OF MULTIGRAIN COOKIES

*Due to the confidential contract signed with the industry partner and as the product is currently in

the process of being commercialised, the individual flour quantities are not revealed.

The proportion of available carbohydrate contributed by each ingredient are

multiplied by each ingredients GI value as shown above. The sum of the resulting



values is the predicted GI of the formulation. It is the predicted/calculated GI and is

only an estimation. The predicted GI value depends on the correct GI value of the

individual ingredients in the formulation. The GI value of coconut flour was not

known and hence this was not included in the calculation. Since

predicted/calculated GI was closer to low GI value, in-vivo glycemic index testing

was carried out in an accredited laboratory.

Results

The GI value of Cookies and its palatability rating is presented in Table 10.

Table 30

Glycemic Index (GI) Value of Multigrain Cookies

Name of the test

food

Mean GI±

SEM**

GI

Classification

Multigrain Cookies 36.0 ± 3.63 LOW

**-SEM- Standard Error of the Mean



A. Formulation of Fried Rice

Table 45

Formulation of Fried Rice

*- 1 cup = 250ml ; 1tsp = 5ml; 1tbsp = 15ml

Serves: 1 Recipe Yield: 1

Preparation Time: 45 minutes Cooking Time: 15 minutes

Ingredients (g) Household measure*

(%) Remarks

Rice

Oil 2.0 ½ tsp 0.33 Canola oil (or) corn oil (or)sunflower oil (or) olive oil

Basmati rice, raw 80.0

½ cup 13.25

Brand: Indus Valley Basmati Rice or any other brand.

Water 150.0 1 1/3 cup 24.83 Use this only for cooking rice

Barley, pearl, raw 30.0 2 heaped tbsp 4.97 Botanical name: Hordeum distichon.

Red lentils, raw 8.0 1 tbsp 1.32 Botanical name: Lens esculenta. Also known as masoor dal

Vinegar 0.75 ¼ tsp 0.12 White artificial vinegar

Salt 0.29 ⅛ tsp 0.05

Ingredients to be blended

Onion, red, peeled 23.3 ½ medium bulb 3.86 Red onion

Garlic 3.0 1 clove 0.50

Dried chili, de-seeded 2.5 2 ½ pieces 0.41

Shrimp paste 0.65 ⅛ tsp 0.11 ‘Belacan’

Anchovy, dried 2.88 4 pieces 0.48

Water 48.0 4 tbsp 7.95

Vegetables to be microwaved

Broccoli, cut into small pieces 30.0 ½ cup 4.97

Long beans, diagonally cut into thin strips

10.0 ⅛ cup 1.66

Carrots, diced 10.0 ⅛ cup 1.66

Peas 10.0 1 tbsp 1.66

Other ingredients

Oil 4.0 1 tsp 0.66 Canola oil (or) corn oil (or)sunflower oil (or) olive oil

Tomato, raw, diced 52.0 1 medium 8.58

Chicken thigh, de-skinned, cubed

110.0 ½ cup

18.21

Water 24.0 2 tbsp 3.97

Salt 0.88 ¼ tsp 0.15

Garnishing

Spring onion, chopped 1.5 1 heaped tsp 0.25

Total 603.59 - 100



Table 46

Preparation Method of Fried Rice

Preparation steps Parameters Remarks

RICE (Refer to ingredients under rice in Table1)

Rinse and soak basmati rice in water.

15 minutes For rinsing and soaking you may use required amount of water.

Wash rice thoroughly and drain the water completely. Keep aside.

Heat oil using medium flame and stir-fry the soaked rice.

Frying time: 2 minutes

Transfer the rice into rice cooker and add water. Add vinegar and salt. Stir well and cook the rice until it is done.

Cooking time: 8 minutes

Add 150g (1 ⅓ cup) of water as stated in ingredients under rice in the above table. Note: DO NOT overcook the rice

When the rice is done, leave it to cool.

Refrigerate the rice for 5-6 hrs or overnight before stir frying.

Boil barley and lentils separately with the required amount of water. Drain if there is any excess water. Let it cool and keep aside.

Barley: 20 minutes Lentils: 4.5 -5

minutes

Blending Of Ingredients(Refer to ingredients to be blended in Table 1)

Blend onion, garlic, dried chili, shrimp paste and anchovies with water.

1-2 minutes Use a blender.

Vegetables(Refer to vegetables to be microwaved in Table 1)

Microwave all the vegetables.

2/2.5 minutes on high

Broccoli-2.5 minutes Carrots, long beans and peas - 2 minutes

Stir-Frying (Refer to other ingredients in Table 1)

Using a medium flame, heat oil in a non-stick pan/or a heavy bottomed pan. Stir-fry the blended ingredients until fragrant.

1 minute

Add in diced tomatoes, chicken, salt and stir well.

2 minutes

Then add in microwaved vegetables, barley and lentils (which have been cooked) and water. Stir well.

4 minutes

Finally add in rice and mix thoroughly. Make sure not to break the rice grains.

3 minutes

Remove from heat and garnish with spring onion and serve.



B. NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION

Table 47

Nutritional Information

Per serving

(~450g)

Per serving

(~450g)

Energy(kcal) 753 Cholesterol (mg) 106

Protein 38.7 Total Carbohydrate (g) 119.6

Total Fat (g) 17.4 - Dietary Fibre (g) 12.0

- Saturated Fat (g) 3.4 Sodium (mg) 1400

C.RESULTS OF SENSORY EVALUATION

Sensory evaluation results among 55 panelists proved that the fried rice

was well accepted.

Table48

Sensory Evaluation

* Rating scale 1-7(1- Not Acceptable; 7- Most Acceptable)

Table 52

Results of In-Vivo GI Testing

SNo Food Serving

Size

Carbohydrate

(g per serving) Mean GI SEM*

GL

(per serving)

1 Fried Rice ~450g 107 45 6.4 48

*-SEM: Standard Error Mean

Sensory attributes Hedonic rating*

Appearance 5.3 1.0

Flavour 5.3 1.2

Texture 5.4 1.1

Overall liking 5.4 1.1



4.5. PHASE E: Assessment of Knowledge and Awareness of Glycemic

Concept and Development of Educational Tools on GI

4.5.1. Results of survey conducted among general public

In 2012, 1009 participants were surveyed as compared to 1000 participants in

2009. Out of the 1009 participants surveyed in 2013, 50.3% (n = 508) were males

and 49.7% (n= 501) were females. 22.4% (n=226) were aged 16-19, 20.2%

(n=204) were aged 20-29, 21.3% (n=215) were aged 30-39, 25.6% (n=258) were

aged 40-49, 8.2% (n=83) were aged 50-59 and 2.2% (n =22) were aged above

60The survey was carried out in English and so most of the senior citizens were

not able to participate.

Awareness of the Glycemic Index (GI) concept

Table 54 shows the awareness of GI among the survey respondents in

2009 and 2012.

Table 54

Awareness of the Glycemic Index (GI) Concept among those Surveyed

Awareness(Heard of the term GI)

Age Group (Years) Total (%)

16-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 Yes No

2012-2013 Survey respondents (%)

31.7 27.2 20.3 17.9 2.4 28.7 71.3

2009-2010 Survey respondents (%)

49.0 20.3 9.6 11.5 6.5 26.5 73.5

Amongst the 1000 respondents surveyed in 2009-2010, Tabe II shows that

73.5% of the general public has not heard of the term Glycemic Index (GI). In

comparison with a survey done in Australia, 500 grocery shoppers were surveyed

in 2006 on their awareness of the GI concept, 86% (n=430) of them were aware of

the term GI and 87% of the respondents agreed that the GI symbol is a helpful

shopping tool when looking for healthy food choices13. The main reason for the

increased awareness of GI amongst Australians is due to the promotion activities

of the GI symbol program since its launch in 2002. This clearly portrays the gap in

the GI knowledge and reinforces the importance of public education on the GI

concept. Age was negatively associated with a higher level of GI knowledge, i.e.,

those in 16-19 age group showed the highest level of awareness of GI as

compared to the other higher age groups. This trend was seen in 2009/10 and



2012/13 (16-19years vs. 50-59years old, p=0.235).Another noteworthy

observation is the increase in awareness about the GI concept in adults aged 30-

39 years by 10.7% in 2012/13 compared to 2009/10. It is also interesting to note

that there is significant difference in the level of awareness of GI among the

respondents in the educational sector (p=0.190). Correlation is significant at 0.01

level. The level of awareness of those respondents involved in education sector

also increased by 13.9% in 2012/13 compared to 2009/2010.

Perception about the definition/meaning of the term Glycemic Index (GI)

Table 55 shows the perception of the respondents about the definition of the term

GI.

Table 55

Respondents Perception about the Definition of the Term GI

*- respondents who have heard of GI

The results from the above table show that there was a 10.9% increase in the

number of respondents who had the correct perception of the GI concept which is

„Ranking of only carbohydrates foods from 0-100”. On the other hand, there was a

15.3% decrease in the number of respondents who had a wrong perception of the

term GI which is „Foods that are low in carbohydrates”.

Perception of the respondents about the health benefits of low GI foods

Table 56 shows the perception of the respondents (public and health

professionals) about the health benefits of low GI foods.

Perception about definition of the term GI

2012-2013 n=290*

2009-2010 n=265*

No % No %

Ranking of only carbohydrate on a scale of 0-100 (%)

221 76.2 173 65.3

Ranking of all foods based on their nutritive value (%)

180 6.2 19 7.2

Grouping of foods based on their sugar content

0 0 18 6.2

Foods that are low in carbohydrates 7 2.4 48 18.1

Unsure/do not know 28 9.7 25 9.4



Table56

Perception of Respondents about the Health Benefits of Low GI Foods

From Table 56 it can be confirmed that majority of the respondents in both

the groups perceived that low GI foods are beneficial for people with diabetes.

This is followed by those trying to lose weight. An interesting finding is that 22.5 %

of the health professionals associated low GI foods with enhanced sports

performance, whereas only 6.0% of the public associated GI with sports

performance in 2009/10. In 2012/13 the percentage of general public who related

GI to those engaged in sports increased by 10.6%. There is also increased

awareness among the public that low GI foods are suitable for everyone. In

2012/13 only 4.8% of the public were unsure or did not know about the perceived

health benefits of GI as compared to 34.6% in 2009/10.

Factors considered as important by consumers while purchasing low GI

foods

During the survey conducted in 2012/13, the respondents were asked to rank

the following factors while purchasing low GI foods namely, „taste‟, „cost‟, „nutritive

value‟, „health benefits‟ and certified low GI logo on packaging‟ in the order of

importance. As seen from the results, taste was considered as the most important

factor amongst the participants of all age groups (55.2%, n=160). „Health benefits‟

Perceived health benefits of low GI foods for

General Public Health Professionals

2012-2013 n=290*

2009-2010 n=265*

2009-2010 n=62

No % No % No %

People with diabetes (%) 195 67.2 95 35.7 25 40.8

Those trying to lose weight (%) 135 46.6 60 22.9 16 25.4

Those concerned about heart health (%)

100 34.5 56 21.2 1 1.4

Those engaged in sports (%) 48 16.6 16 6.0 14 22.5

Everyone (%) 117 40.3 52 19.8 5 8.5

Unsure/do not know(%) 14 4.8 92 34.6 1 1.4



was chosen as the second most important factor to consider, followed by cost.

„Nutritive value‟ and „certified low GI logo on packaging‟ were considered the least

important factors amongst the participants (36.2%, n=105 and 30%, n=87

respectively).

GI Information gathering sources chosen by the respondents

Internet was the most common platform chosen by the participants in

2009/10 and 2012/13 to increase their knowledge about GI. In terms of age, 14%

(n=80) and 17.9% (n=102) came from the youths (16-19 years) and young adults

(20-29 years) respectively. Imparting GI knowledge via newspapers was preferred

by the participants who were aged 30-49 years old.

4.5.2 Results of survey conducted among health professionals

Use of GI concept by health professionals

In 2009/10 the GI survey was also conducted among 62 health professionals

namely, dieticians and nutritionists from local hospitals, nursing homes and

nutrition consultancy companies that conduct nutrition counseling. This helped us

to understand the extent to which the GI concept was used in the counseling of

patients. Majority of the dietitians (37.9%) used the GI concept to educate diabetic

patients, followed by 24.2% who used GI to counsel overweight and obese

patients. Only 16.7% used the concept while counseling patients with heart

disease. 21.2% of the nutritionists used GI while counseling endurance athletes.

This is in line with public‟s perception about the relationship between GI and

diabetes.

Importance of using the GI concept while planning meals for patients

The health professionals were asked to rate how important GI is in relation to

planning meals for patients. Eighty eight per cent of the health professionals rated

that GI concept as important (40%), very important (32%) and most important

(16%) while planning meals for diabetics. Similar figures were noted in case of

meal planning for overweight and obese individuals. In the UK, 61 % of dietitians

state that they are reluctant to recommend GI diets to their patients17. Many

studies have investigated the benefits of low-GI diets in people with and without

diabetes. The health benefits examined included The health benefits examined

include the following: Weight loss and weight maintenance18; Increased insulin



sensitivity19, Improved diabetes control20 ; Reduced risk of heart disease21;

Reduction in blood cholesterol levels18 (Thomas et al, 2007), hunger reduction22

(Jiménez-Cruz et al, 2005), Prolonging physical endurance 23 (Wu and Williams,

2006).

Main concerns in using the GI concept for counseling

Figure 25: Main concerns in using GI concept for counseling

Figure 25 portrays the main concerns faced by health professionals while

using the GI concept for counseling. Major concern voiced by majority of the

respondents (n=46) was the lack of GI value for local foods, followed by the

controversial issues in the therapeutic use of GI. Thirty over years since the

introduction of the GI concept, there has been substantial evidence that the role of

low-GI diets in improving health is clear, and yet there is no consensus regarding

the relative importance of such diets. Despite the number of studies exploring the

effect of low-GI diets, not all of these studies are in agreement with regard to its

effectiveness24.

Respondents might have also found it difficult to educate the public on the

concept of GI because of the lack of education materials on GI. All the health

professionals surveyed agreed that a local database on GI will be very helpful.

4.5.3 Results of survey conducted among food industry representatives

Ninety six per cent of the food representatives had heard of the term GI as

compared to only 26.5% and 28.7% of the general public surveyed in 2009/10 and

34

12

24

46 44

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Resourcesavailable on GI is

lacking

Lack of educationon the GI concept

GI being a verycomplicated

concept issue toexplain

GI value of localfoods is

unavailable

Therapeutic useof GI still remains

controversial

Main concerns in using the concept of GI



2012/13 respectively. Majority of them (47.9%) of them mentioned that internet

was the major platform through which they heard about GI followed by friends and

colleagues who passed on the information. This is expected as Internet has

become the best source of information as there is nothing on which you cannot

find information by browsing the different search engines.

Fig 26: Reasons chosen by food industry representatives for not

manufacturing low GI food products

81.6% of the respondents were keen to know more about GI. They preferred

websites,, blogs as the major source of GI information, followed by

pamphlets/brochures.

The findings of the survey conducted among the general public, health

professionals and food industry representatives indicate that awareness on GI

needs to be stepped up. This is the need of the hour as there is only a very small

increase (2.2%) in the number of respondents who are aware of the concept in

2012/13, compared to those in 2009/10. Internet was the major source of

information about GI among all the groups surveyed.

4.5.4. Development of educational tools on GI

Appropriate evidence based information about GI was delivered in the form

of print material (pamphlets), booklet, talks, workshops, cooking demonstrations

and recipe book.



a) Development of Low GI booklet and pamphlet

A booklet on GI explaining the GI concept in simple easy to understand

terns was developed. The booklets were also distributed during public talks and

seminars on GI. A pamphlet which contained limited and very pertinent

information on GI was developed and this was sent as a promotional material to all

the food industry representatives and alsodistributed to the community at large.

b) Presentation of talks on GI

Over the past 3 years, 2 major Glycemic Index symposia was organized

and this symposium attracted 260 over health professionals and industry people

Every quarter of the year atleast one major public talk was organized and so far

around 20 talks have been organized over the period of 4 years.

c) Development of low GI recipe book

Two recipe books, one in the format of a daily calendar and another in

the ordinary format of a book were developed. There are many low GI books

available in book stores and online, but none of these books focus on Asian

recipes. Furthermore, most of the recipe books do not contain much information

about the evidence based concept of GI. These recipe books will fill in the gap

and would help to bring the concept of low GI to the locals thus allowing them to

understand the full extent of the benefits of having a low GI diet. The recipe

book is now in the final stages of publication.

d) Conduct of cooking demonstration workshops

One of the major focus was to educate and raise awareness of low

GI concept amongst a group of diabetic patients. During the research period,

four cooking demonstration on low GI dishes was conducted for members from

the diabetics. The five recipes were selected from the eight recipes included in

the recipe book. A total of 25 participants participated in the workshop. The

duration of the workshop was 3 hours. During the first half an hour, the low GI

concept was explained to the participants. Unlike the usual cooking

demonstration where participants only observed the cooking process, this

workshop provided them with hands- on experience in cooking the dishes.



They were divided into five groups of five. Each group had the opportunity to

prepare one of the five dishes. This hands-on experience made the workshop

more engaging and allowed them to learn the concept better. A feedback form

was given to the participants. Based on the feedback results, all participants learnt

and understood more about low GI diet. In addition, they found adopting a low GI

diet easier with the help of this workshop and recipes. Giving each rating a value

on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being strongly agree, we tested it at 95% significance

level against the benchmark value of 4, which is “agree”.

Table 57

One Sample Test

One-Sample Test Hα: µ > µ0

Test Value = 4

Mean t df Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean Difference

t Critical

Accept/ reject

Learning 4.8000 9.798 24 0.000 0.80000

2.0639

Accept

Adopt 4.7600 8.718 24 0.000 0.76000 Accept

Prep.at.home 4.6000 4.243 24 0.000 0.60000 Accept

Recommend 4.8000 9.798 24 0.000 0.80000 Accept

Benefit 4.8800 13.266 24 0.000 0.88000 Accept

The results were substantially positive. With all the response points

being significantly greater than agree, this shows that the participants

enjoyed and learned a great deal from the workshop.

iv results and discussion determination of glycemic index...

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