jacklyn conley- thermobaric weapons: they will blow your mind

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University of Pittsburgh April 5, 2008

EIGHTH ANNUAL FRESHMAN CONFERENCE 1

THERMOBARIC WEAPONS: THEY WILL BLOW YOUR MIND Jacklyn Conley ([email protected]) and Evan McMillin ([email protected])

Abstract - Since the 1960’s, thermobaric bombs have been

constantly evolving to be specially designed in cave warfare,

air-to-ground missiles, and are alternatives to nuclear

warheads. Thermobaric bombs work by spreading out

certain materials in the air and igniting them to create a

high-energy explosion. Explosions caused by thermobaric

bombs are most effective in enclosed areas such as buildings

and caves because they have a unique ability to wind around

corners and through tunnels. Thermobaric usage has

drastically increased over the last two decades due to the

current locations of United States military conflict in the

Middle East. This paper discusses the chemical structure

and reactions involved in the creation and detonation of

thermobaric bombs and also the use of different materials

and their effects on the explosion. Also a comparison to

other explosives will be made to show how thermobaric

weapons are more effective than conventional weapons.

Chemical engineers are at the forefront of modifying

thermobaric weapons to be more sustainable and to

encompass a larger range of uses. This will make them a

mainstay for military use in the future. Current development

includes shoulder launch rockets and 40-mm grenades that

are suitable for hand-held launches. These significant

developments allow this technology to be used on a much

smaller scale but still be extremely effective.

Key Words-Thermobaric, Fuel-Air, Explosives, Pressure

wave

HISTORY

Since the beginning of time, war has been an inevitable part

of human behavior, and unfortunately “...there are roughly

50 wars being fought somewhere on the planet at any given

time…” [1]. Since war is inevitable, it is then imperative that

the most effective and destructive weapons are created to

eliminate the enemy and protect our soldiers. Thermobaric

weapons developed out of vapor cloud explosions that are

naturally occurring in industries and grain silos. On average,

100 grain explosions occur every 10 years, half of which

involve corn. Nearly every organic material can ignite in the

form of a dust cloud below 500°C. One lit match in the

workplace is sufficient to cause a vapor cloud explosion.

The explosion due to these vapor clouds is nearly identical

to the third part of the detonation in thermobaric weapons.

Many systems have been designed to eliminate this

phenomenon from the workspace as it results in losses of

production and injuries. However, the United States took

these concepts and designed a new type of explosive from it.

Thermobaric weapons have been used by the United

States since the 1960‟s [2]. They were first used in the

Vietnam War to destroy tunnels, clear forest areas for

helicopters, and to clear minefields. Also during this time,

the Soviet Union developed a branch of the thermobaric

weapon called FAE (Fuel Air Explosives) which was used

against the Chinese in 1969. The development of these

weapons has drastically increased over the past two decades

and has become specially designed to have significant

effects compared to conventional weapons. In 2002,

thermobaric weapons have found a new place in the United

States military. The BLU-118/B, an air dropped

thermobaric bomb, was used against Al Qaida and Taliban

forces in Afghanistan. In 2003, a shoulder mounted launch,

called the SMAW-NE, was used in the invasion of Iraq.

One team of marines reported that from 100 yards away the

SMAW-NE was able to effectively destroy a large masonry

type building with only one round [3].

WHAT ARE THERMOBARIC WEAPONS?

Thermobarics are weapons that, at detonation, produce

extremely high heats and pressures from their detonation.

They differ from many conventional weapons because they

do not carry an oxidizer, a compound that supplies oxygen

atoms to a reaction. The thermobaric instead uses the oxygen

in the air to create an explosion which ignites a fuel, usually

a metallic fuel like aluminum, which is spread out in the air

by the bomb. The burning of this metallic fuel is slow

compared to other explosives but produces a high heat

reaction, which in turn creates a destructive pressure wave.

This pressure wave has the ability to collapse walls, wind

around corners and cause internal injuries to its human

victims. To cause these devastating effects, however, the

correct detonation needs to take place [3].

Structures

In order to work effectively there are three parts to the

detonation of a thermobaric weapon. An initial detonation

of CH-6, a small booster charge, provides the heat needed to

start the anaerobic detonation which is a reduction/oxidation

reaction. A reduction/oxidation reaction is the transfer of

electrons between reactants in a reaction. An anaerobic

reaction does not require oxygen and only takes

microseconds to create extremely high pressure within a

small area that has the ability to penetrate armor [4]. During

this reaction, aluminum particles are heated; when they

reach their ignition temperature (950 K or 677°C) the

particles start a chemical reaction with the surrounding water

vapor, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Different sizes

of aluminum particles are ideal because it allows for

multiple reactions to occur. If all the aluminum particles

used are the same size there are two possible outcomes. The

temperature of the gas drops and never ignites the particles

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leaving a nonproductive explosion, or all pieces are ignited

at the same time and the reaction happens too quickly. If it

happens too quickly, the detonation process would stop at

this stage and not have maximum destructive effects. Initial

encasement of the reactants decreases the speed at which the

products expand and will also convert the energy generated

into the thrusting of case fragments. The decreased

expansion rate helps to heat the aluminum particles. The

kinetic energy used to move the reactants is instead used to

displace the casing around the explosive. Without the casing

the reaction would spread out and eventually dissipate and

never reach its full explosive potential [5]. The case must

also be thin enough to maximize the amount of energy

devoted to the next stage of the detonation.

The second stage, the post anaerobic detonation, takes

hundreds of microseconds and is the combustion of the fuel

particles that were too large to be ignited in the first reaction.

The hydrogen generated during the water vapor and

aluminum reaction, carbon generated during the carbon

dioxide, carbon monoxide and aluminum reaction, and the

remaining aluminum particles fuel the progress of this

second reaction [5]. As the products expand a fireball is

created and an intermediate pressure wave erupts which has

the ability to breach walls and bunkers.

The final part of the detonation is the combustion of fuel-

rich species and usually only occurs in enclosed areas and is

considered to be an aerobic reaction. Equation (1) shows the

combustion reaction of aluminum, a common reactant used

in the third part of the detonation.

4Al+3O2 2Al2O3 (1)

ΔH= -1669.8 kJ

The shock wave produced from this reaction bounces off

the surrounding structures and mixes the fuel-rich species

with the surrounding air. The reflected shock wave keeps

the temperature of the air and fireball constant and can even

increase it in certain areas. The shock wave also causes a

change in the flow of the fireball, allowing for more air to be

mixed with the aluminum and therefore causing more

reactions. The increase in the number of reactions creates a

greater impulse, a higher heat, and a larger explosion. When

the fuel rich species mix with the shock-heated air they

undergo “after-burning.” “The energy released through after-

burning and combustion lengthens the duration of blast

overpressure and increases the fireball” [6].

For the aluminum to completely combust, three to six

pounds of air are required for every one pound of aluminum

present. The volume must also expand to 4000 times its

initial volume. The pressure wave is measured to be ten

atm, enough to collapse lungs, blow out eardrums and cause

other internal injuries. The heat and impulse from the

reaction gives the weapon the ability to destroy personnel

and equipment [6].

Optimal Materials

Optimal materials are necessary for the detonation of a

thermobaric weapon to have the greatest destructive effects.

Aluminum is one of the most commonly used materials in

thermobaric weapons. Compared to a conventional

explosive made out of expensive materials created in labs,

aluminum is used in the thermobaric weapon because it is

cost effective and therefore more sustainable. However

other metals may be used in the third stage of the detonation,

including boron, silicon, titanium, magnesium, zirconium,

carbon, and hydrocarbons. Each produces a different

quantity of heat per volume. Aluminum is not only cost

effective but comes second to boron in the amount of heat it

produces per volume of material (Heat Combustion) as seen

in Table I.

TABLE 1 HEAT COMBUSTION FOR FUEL ADDITIVES [4]

Fuel Additive Heat Combustion (cal/cc)

Boron 33,100

Aluminum 20,410

Titanium 19,130

Zirconium 18,390

Silicon 17,720

Carbon 13,820

Magnesium 10,530

Hydrocarbons 9,000

There are many advantages for using these materials. They

have low sensitivity, which means they will not react in their

natural state, and are ideal for explosives that must only

explode when desired. Another advantage is that the output

of the explosion can be modified. The materials can be

tailored to produce a high blast or a high heat explosion.

Effects of Pressure Wave

The most significant characteristic of a thermobaric weapon

is its pressure wave. There are many qualities that make the

pressure waves both significant and unique. Humans and

mechanical devices cannot withstand a pressure wave

exceeding ten atm. The pressure wave interacts with the

tissues in a human body which includes skin, bone, and

muscle, which differ in density and elasticity. When a

pressure wave makes contact with these tissues, they are

“compressed, stretched, sheared or disintegrated by

overload” [6]. This pressure wave also dramatically affects

hollow internal organs such as the lungs, intestines, and ears

by collapsing and rupturing them. In addition to tissue and

organ damage, the body is prone to fractures by being

thrown from the blast. [R]esearch has shown that there are

neurological, biochemical and blood chemistry changes

caused by blast effects” [6].

As mentioned earlier, not only will the pressure wave

cause many internal organ injuries within a human but they

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also will result in major devastation of mechanical devices.

When equipment and systems are destroyed, the facility they

are located in can also be destroyed or down graded. This

results in what is called a functional kill. “Depending on the

purpose of the facility and the level of damage, a functional

kill can be as permanent as a structural kill,” which means

the fortification and its equipment are no longer useable [7].

The ability to wind around corners, and blow out specific

floors in a building is another characteristic of the pressure

wave. A study showed that a thermobaric weapon has the

ability to blow out only one floor of a building with multiple

floors [7]. As mentioned earlier, the thermobaric pressure

wave bounces off the surrounding structures to remix in air

with the reactions products to prolong the blast effects.

Since it deflects off of the surrounding structures; it does not

destroy them and leaves the building still standing but

everything inside destroyed. With increasing conflict in the

Middle East, these weapons have been used more often in

tunnels and multi-room buildings in urban locations. The

destructive effects can be calculated using (2).

D= (1/3) (CnE) (2)

In (2), D is the distance in meters to a 1 psi overpressure. C

is a constant for the damages inflicted by a 1 psi

overpressure and is approximately equal to 0.15. The

variable n is the yield factor for the thermobaric explosion

and is derived from the mechanical yield of combustion.

This value is approximated to be 0.1. Lastly, E is the

energy, in joules, given off by the explosive part of a

thermobaric weapon. This equation is only an estimate of the

thermobaric weapons destructive abilities and is usually an

underestimate.

USES IN THE MILITARY

The United States military began using thermobaric weapons

in the mid 1960‟s in the conflict against Vietnam. These

early versions were called fuel-air explosives and were used

to clear obstacles such as trees, mines, and beach defenses.

After the Vietnam War, the Navy and Army developed

smaller and smaller bombs which saw use in Operation

Desert Storm. The Army was finally able to get the warhead

of their thermobaric weapons down to one explosive part.

Before this development, thermobaric bombs were released

in subsections that each had their own ignition system. This

breakthrough, along with America‟s new theatres of war in

Afghanistan and Iraq led to the production of small arms and

missile variants such as the xm1060 and AGM114-N. These

two theaters are different from any major conflict that

America has been in since World War II because a fair

amount of the fighting involved is indoors. In Afghanistan,

the main warfare is against forces operating from caves in

the northern mountain regions and from militants in the

cities patrolled by the U.N. Coalition. The fighting in Iraq

sees the use of thermobarics in clearing houses converted

into bunkers by insurgents. Another potential use of

thermobaric weapons is to defeat biological and chemical

weapons. American intelligence before the war in Iraq

indicated that chemical weapons were present, thus leading

to the development of weapons to safely remove these

threats.

The future is bright for thermobaric weapons in the

American arsenal. Currently, there are projects focusing on

making hand grenades and flash-bang grenades. The hand

grenades have the potential to be more deadly in enclosed

spaces than traditional hand grenades. Flash-bang grenades

are designed to temporarily blind and impair hearing ability.

The thermobaric flash-bang is designed to be safer to both

the user and the target. Due to the thermobaric explosive

contained inside of it, the grenade can be tailored to produce

a lower but effective blast. Since the reaction lasts longer,

the blinding effects have a longer duration. The lighting

effect is approximately 100 times brighter than the sun

viewed from the earth for 0.06 seconds. Due to the lower

blast, the overpressure wave is also lower, causing less

permanent damage to the surroundings.

The xm1060

The xm1060 is a 40mm grenade designed to be fired from

either an M203 or the new M32 grenade launcher. The

M203 is a single shot grenade launcher mounted on the

bottom of an infantryman‟s rifle. The M32 is a support

weapon that holds six rounds and is used to pin down the

enemy by providing accurate shelling. This round is

designed to be a replacement for the High Explosive (HE)

rounds [9].

The thermobaric rounds are more effective at injuring and

incapacitating infantry than the high explosive rounds.

Thermobaric rounds cover the entire blast radius equally

causing damage that decreases radially from the center of the

blast.

The rounds were designed, tested, and manufactured in

only five months. They are being used in Afghanistan and

Iraq mainly for clearing out buildings and caves because of

the increased blast damage due to afterburning in enclosed

areas. This is the smallest thermobaric weapon in use today

and before testing, it was not certain how effective a small

thermobaric weapon would be [9].

A new round called Direct Air Consuming Ordnance

(DRACO) is being tested. DRACO will replace the xm1060

as the 40mm thermobaric grenade used by the Army. The

xm1060 was manufactured in only five months because the

HE and xm1060 grenade and similar, differing only in the

explosive. DRACO will contain a new fuse and a smaller

casing designed to maximize the effects of the weapon [9].

SMAW-NE

The SMAW-NE, which stands for Shoulder Mounted

Assault Weapon-Novel Explosive, is a weapon designed for

Marine Corps use in Afghanistan and Iraq. The weapon fires

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an unguided rocket containing a thermobaric warhead.

There are a multitude of rounds used in the SMAW for

different purposes. Novel Explosive is the term used for the

thermobaric warhead in this case. The other two rounds used

in the SMAW are High Explosive Dual Mode (HEDM) and

High Explosive Anti Armor (HEAA). The HEDM is used to

penetrate soft targets such as concrete walls or light armor.

The HEAA is designed to penetrate hard targets such as

tanks or reinforce infantry fighting vehicles. The NE is not

designed for penetration like the other types, but is instead

designed to destroy targets using the pressure wave created

by the thermobarics.

The round‟s first use is the demolition of one and two

story buildings that have been turned into enemy pillboxes,

which are bunkers above the ground. One report from Iraq

says "one unit disintegrated a large one-story masonry type

building with one round from 100 meters” [3]. Since the

weapon was introduced in early 2003, it has become a

mainstay for clearing out houses believed to contain hostile

forces of both the Marine Corps and the Army, who has to

borrow the weapon from the Marines. The only downside

found to this weapon is that it must be fired through a hole

due to its lack of penetrating power. The Marine Corps

Gazette says:

"Due to the lack of penetrating power of the NE round, we

found that our assault men had to first fire a dual-purpose

rocket in order to create a hole in the wall or building. This

blast was immediately followed by an NE round that would

incinerate the target or literally level the structure"[3].

The second use of the Novel Explosive round is to clear out

caves in the mountainous regions of Afghanistan. The

thermobaric round is ideal for the clearing of caves due to

both the pressure wave it creates and the fact that it uses the

oxygen in the atmosphere as fuel. The pressure wave

bounces off the walls in the cave and bounces around

corners to injure or kill all of the cave‟s occupants. The lack

of oxygen created after the explosion suffocates any

survivors of the pressure wave. This weapon has the

potential to save American soldiers lives by keeping them

outside of a cave because they effectively clear it out [3].

AGM-114N

“Early in 2002, Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps (HQMC)

identified the need for an enhanced Hellfire missile warhead

to attack multi-room structure targets” [9]. An experienced

team of scientists, engineers and military experts at the

Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division developed this

new type of hellfire missile called the AGM-114N. The

AGM-114N is an air-to-ground missile (AGM) and

considered a Metal Augmented Charge (MAC) Thermobaric

warhead. The MAC is a main component of this weapon

that has increased the effectiveness against enclosed targets

drastically. This weapon has roots in earlier AGM‟s. The

AGM-114N has “same electronic safe, arms/fire device used

in the AGM-114M,” which is a fragmentation missile, and

has the “same guidance and control section and propulsion

section used in the AGM-114K,” which is an anti-armor

missile [10]. The new addition in the AGM-114N is a

warhead section that is designed for an enhanced blast

performance by containing a new warhead casing.

As previously discussed, one of the most effective

components of all thermobaric weapons is the pressure

wave. In the AGM-114N, the pressure wave is more

sustained and destructive compared to conventional weapons

whose waves have a sharp pressure spike followed by a

rapid decay. The blast created is very effective against non-

traditional targets such as tunnels, bunkers and multi-room

structures expected in urban locations. This hellfire missile

is specially designed to only destroy the first floor of a

building leaving the others completely intact [11]. Its ability

to wind around corners allows the blast to propagate

throughout buildings and tunnels to extend its lethal effects.

FIGURE 1 HELICOPTER FIRING THE AGM-114M [11].

BLU-118/B

The BLU-118/B (Bomb Live Unit) is yet another type of

thermobaric weapon that has unique and destructive

abilities. The BLU-118/B is composed of an “advanced

thermobaric explosive that, when detonated, generates

higher sustained blast pressure in confined spaces such as

tunnels and underground facilities” [12].

Soon after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, a

team of military and industry experts was organized to

identify, test, and field an enhanced weapon to counter

underground targets. A group of explosive experts, led by

Nguyet Anh Duong a chemical engineer, at the Naval

Surface Weapons Center created a device that provided

superior blast effects. The group then performed static

testing on the fuse to show that the initiation of this new

explosive was reliable. The weapon was finished in only

three short months when the GBU-24 (which is a laser

guided weapon) containing the BLU-118/B warhead was

launched by a ground-attack aircraft called the F-15E. The

explosion created showed improvements in overpressure and

pressure-impulse in tunnels compared to an earlier model

(BLU-109). The significant difference is the use of a FMU

(Fuel Munitions Unit) to initiate the explosion. When

detonated in enclosed spaces the result is lethal. This

weapon can be dropped from an airplane with the guidance

of a laser. When dropped vertically it can detonate at or just

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outside of an entrance way. A vertical drop is used to

penetrate, overburden, and detonate inside the opening. This

approach penetrates doorways at a maximum distance. It is

ideal to penetrate an opening into a tunnel because the result

is the detonation occurring within the tunnel system. These

detonations within a tunnel are known to increase the

propagation in a facility significantly. The more the blast

propagates, the easier it becomes to travel through

intersections, rooms, and multiple levels. In areas where the

United States is now in conflict the ability for the BLU-

118/B to penetrate deep into the ground, through concrete

barriers and then igniting everything inside is imperative.

The BLU-118/B, after being created and tested within six

months, was used by the United States on Taliban and Al

Qaeda forces that had fled to the caves 90 miles south of

Kabul in Operation Enduring Freedom in 2002 [12].

GBU-43/B

The GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB) is

currently the largest nonnuclear weapon in the United States

arsenal. The weapon was nicknamed the Mother of All

Bombs by soldiers and the press. The MOAB contains

18,700 pounds of warhead consisting of Cyclotrimethylene

trinitramine (RDX), aluminum particles, and trinitrotoluene

(TNT). It can currently only be dropped by the C-130

aircraft as it is too large to fit in a bomber‟s bay. This

weapon was designed to replace the BLU-82, a Vietnam era

bomb. The GBU-43/B has more power using less explosives

and its destructive radius is 150 meters from the center of the

explosion. The MOAB is used to destroy bunkers, soft

armored vehicles and personnel. The detonation of this

explosive device is massive enough to level an apartment

building. Other uses of the weapon include clearing landing

zones for helicopters, clearing mine fields, and clearing

beach fortifications and obstacles. The weapon is guided via

GPS on the aircraft and has pinpoint accuracy. More

importantly than the physiological damage the weapon can

cause to the enemy, its psychological damage to the morale

of the enemy is essential. It can keep the enemy pinned

inside of trenches and bunkers for fear of being hit by this

massive thermobaric weapon [13].

Agent Defeat Weapons

Agent Defeat Weapons (ADW) has been upgraded since the

attacks on September 11, 2001. These weapons are specially

designed to eliminate chemical and biological agents.

Conventional weapons would not be effective against the

facilities that house these harmful agents because it could

result in these agents spreading to nearby areas that civilians

occupy. This would also cause significant damage to the

surrounding environment. Both the AGM-114N and the

BLU-118/B have been integrated into the agent defeat

weapons. The thermobaric component is vital because the

blast effects can be tailored to have higher heats and longer

durations. The thermobaric uses high-temperature

incendiaries against the chemicals in a facility without

letting any escape. The ADW‟s “effectiveness is measured

by how many people it doesn‟t kill-while it destroys

stockpiles of horror weapons” [14].

Multiple programs have been set up and are designed to

neutralize enemy chemical and biological assets. HTI (High

temperature incendiary) is used to ignite the chemical

agents, and munitions in place. Research is currently

developing an Inter-Halogen Oxidizer weapon that will use

incineration techniques to defeat and destroy chemical and

biological agents within the blast radius. Fragmentation

explosives may be used to penetrate chemical containers

without creating a large explosion. The large explosion

could potentially cause the agents to be blown outside of the

facility. Even air-delivered weapons have been considered.

These weapons are still currently being developed and air-

delivered weapons are at the forefront of this new

technology [14].

COMPARISONS AND SUSTAINABILITY

Thermobaric weapons are very unique compared to

conventional weapons because they not only produce an

effective blast and pressure wave but also are considered to

be more sustainable. For a weapon to be considered

sustainable it must have lower costs, lower environmental

impact or decrease the mortality rate of United States

soldiers. Thermobaric weapons encompass all of these

aspects when compared to conventional weapons.

When compared to conventional explosives, thermobaric

weapons contain cost effective materials such as aluminum

where conventional weapon materials are created in labs and

are made up of expensive compounds. Having cost effective

materials allows more weapons to be created for the same

amount of money.

Conventional high explosives are sensitive to mechanical

or thermal energy. Insensitive high explosives, like the

thermobaric, require significant stimuli before any reaction

can occur. A unique quality of insensitive explosives is that

detonation will not occur if they are incinerated, or struck by

a bullet or fragment. This is significant because the weapon

will not detonate unless the correct stimulus is applied and

will fulfill their performance and operational requirements

only on demand. This also decreases the amount of deaths

due to “friendly fire” or accidental explosions. Even though

the time it takes for the reactions to occur are longer in

thermobarics than in conventional weapons, they are able to

potentially produce significant damage because of the

quantity of energy released. As seen in Figure 2, a

comparison between thermobaric explosives and high

explosives is made. Even though the peak pressure is higher

for the High Explosive (HE), compared to the Thermobaric

Explosive (TBE), the pressure dissipates more quickly.

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FIGURE 2 PRESSURE HISTORY OF HIGH EXPLOSIVE (HE) AND

THERMOBARIC EXPLOSIVE (TBE) DETONATIONS [6]

“Thermobaric weapons are explosives optimized to produce

heat and pressure effects instead of armor-penetrating or

fragmentation damage effects” [6]. However, thermobarics

are able to outperform conventional weapons that are

effective against armored vehicles but lack effectiveness

against buildings, bunkers, and fortifications. A shaped

charge is one of these conventional weapons. Its blast has a

narrow damage radius and travels linearly, compared to the

Thermobaric waves that can wind through tunnels.

Fragments from conventional weapons are stopped by tunnel

and cave walls and do not propagate throughout the facility.

“Conventional countermeasures such as barriers (sandbags)

and personnel armor are not effective against thermobaric

weaponry” [6].

When compared to nuclear weapons, the interval at

which overpressure takes place gives the thermobaric

weapon an advantage and allows the explosives to be useful

against bunkers, minefields, and armored vehicles. In

addition, persons outside of the blast radius but deep in a

tunnel will experience internal damage and suffocation due

to the pressure wave and high heats that are produced.

Being better for the environment is a surprising, positive

aspect of the thermobaric. “As they do not radiate any

radioactive material and do not contaminate the

environment, they therefore, have an edge over nuclear and

conventional bombs” [15]. Thermobarics also have a higher

energy density compared to conventional weapons. “For

example, whereas TNT yields 4.2 MJ/kg, hydrogen produces

120 MJ/kg” [16].

When compared to fragmentation grenades, thermobaric

grenades have a better chance of destroying their intended

target. Thermobaric grenades, like the xm1060, cause a

pressure wave that has equal potential at all points, meaning

that everything in its blast radius will be affected from the

blast. The fragmentation grenades are not as efficient

because the shrapnel produced does not strike everything in

its blast radius. High energy rounds used in conventional

fragmentation grenades use their explosion to create

shrapnel from the shell casing and the environment that

travels slightly below the speed of sound and has the same

effects on the body as a bullet would. The spread of shrapnel

in the explosion is inconsistent, which means there are gaps

where no damage is done to the target.

SUMMARY

Without the expertise of chemical engineers like Nguyet

Anh Duong, thermobaric weapons would not be as

successful as they are today. Nguyet has led the

development of ten high performing explosives since 2001

and has left her mark in the future of modern day weapons.

The thermobaric weapon has many significant abilities that

make them superior to other conventional weapons. The

effects of the thermobaric pressure wave and its ability to

wind through tunnels is perhaps one of the most important

aspects of a thermobaric weapon. The high heats created

from the detonation have the ability to incinerate chemical

and biological agents, which is imperative when facing

weapons of mass destruction and ensure that innocent

civilians are not affected. Being a non-sensitive material,

thermobaric weapons are therefore, more safe to transport

and will not detonate randomly. Thermobaric weapons

have raised the bar for modern weapons to become safer for

the environment and also become more effective.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to first thank our Co-Chair Mike for our fun

meetings and for ripping our paper apart and giving us good

feedback. Thank you to Rob for giving up your time to be

the chair of our conference, we greatly appreciate it! Also,

we would like to thank John, the EMT, for helping us to

procrastinate on writing this. And of course we would like to

thank our moms and dads for birthing us and persuading us

to pursue a career in engineering. And finally to the writing

center for reading and editing this paper.

REFERENCES

[1] “Thermobaric weapons under fire again.” 22, November

2005. Gizmag.com

http://www.gizmag.com/go/4856/ Accessed: 2008,

February 10.

[2] “Fuel/Air Explosives (FAE).” FAS Military Analysis

Network. 15 February 1998. Fas.org

http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/dumb/fae.htm

Accessed: 2008, February 25.

[3] Hambling, David. Marines Quiet about Brutal New

Weapon. 14 November 2005. Military.com

http://www.gizmag.com/go/4856/

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http://www.defensetech.org/archives/001944.html

Accessed: 2008, February 10.

[4] Ludwig, Chris. 2003. “Verifying Performance of

Thermobaric Materials” Defense Technical

Information Center

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