Outcomes grid

Introduction

Glossary

About the authors

Chapter 1 Germany 1918–1945

Political, social and economic problems, 1918–1923Golden years? Relative stability, 1924–1929Nazi consolidation of powerThe transformation of social and cultural life under NazismNazi racial policy and the HolocaustNazi foreign policy, 1933–1939Personality study: Leni Riefenstahl

Chapter 2 Russia and the Soviet Union, 1917–1945

The nature of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917The Bolshevik government, 1917–1924The Soviet Union under StalinForeign policy and the Great Patriotic WarPersonality study: Leon Trotsky

Chapter 3 The Cold War, 1945–1991

From World War to Cold War: 1945–1955The global Cold War, 1949–1961Crisis depth study: the Korean WarThe Cold War in the age of protest, 1960s–1970sReagan and the ‘Evil Empire’: the 1980sCrisis depth study: Nicaragua and the Contra warGroup studiesThe end of the Cold War and its legacy

Chapter 4 Conflict in Indochina, 1954–1979

Challenges for the historianFrom the Geneva Accords to the NLF InsurrectionEscalationTet, ‘Vietnamisation’ and withdrawal, 1968–1973Vietnam and Cambodia, 1973–1979

Index

Contents

iv

v

vi

x

1

8

18

33

46

62

70

80

89

95

108

123

157

172

181

190

204

206

226

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258

268

273

281

282

295

311

336

353

Flashpointsiv

New South Wales Modern History Stage 6 Chapter Chapter Chapter ChapterKnowledge and Understanding Outcomes 1 2 3 4

H1.1Describes and analyses the key features of specificperiods of twentieth-century national and internationalhistory * * * *

H1.2Evaluates the role of key individuals, groups, events and ideas during specific periods of twentieth-century national and international history * * * *

H2.1Explains the forces that contributed to change and continuity during specific periods of twentieth-century national and international history and evaluates their relative significance * * * *

H3.1Uses historical terms and concepts appropriately within the contexts of twentieth-century national and international historical investigations * * * *

H4.1Evaluates sources for their usefulness and reliability in relation to specific historical investigations * * * *

H4.2 Describes and evaluates different perspectives and interpretations of the past * * * *

H5.1Selects and organises relevant historical information from a variety of sources * * * *

H5.2Plans a historical investigation, analyses and synthesises historical information from a variety of perspectives, and presents the findings of the investigation * * * *

H6.1Communicates through well-structured texts to explain, argue, discuss, analyse and evaluate complex historical information, ideas and issues using appropriate written and oral forms * * * *

H6.2Uses planning and review strategies to manage effectively the competing demands of complex tasks making appropriate use of time and resources in order to complete historical investigations * * * *

From the Board of Studies NSW Modern History Stage 6 Syllabus (1999), pages 12–13.

Outcomes grid

Introduction v

Flashpoints: National and International Studies is a bookabout four fascinating periods that shaped the twentiethcentury, and is primarily written to meet the needs ofstudents undertaking the New South Wales HigherSchool Certificate Modern History Course. Chapters 1and 2 cover the two most popular National Studies(Germany 1918–1945 and Russia and the Soviet Union,1917–1945), while Chapters 3 and 4 cover the two mostpopular International Studies in Peace and Conflict(The Cold War, 1945–1991 and Conflict in Indochina,1954–1979).

We have chosen the format of a multi-topic book toallow flexibility and choice in school programming,without sacrificing content detail and guidance forstudents. Each chapter explicitly covers New SouthWales Board of Studies syllabus requirements includingareas of historiographical debate, and interesting andilluminating source material.

With this in mind, the following features, which arecontained in each chapter, are designed to help studentsclearly understand the content and explore the issuesinvolved in each study:• topic map• timeline• lists of key terms and key people• schematic overviews of concepts• historiography integrated into relevant sections

of the text to enable students to understand the sig-nificant historiographical issues relevant to each study

• detailed narrative and analysis of each study • engaging variety of written and visual sources with

questions that will develop a wide range of historicalskills

• short answer questions and activities integratedwithin the text.

Internet support

Throughout the text you’ll notice the hi.com.au icon inthe margin. This icon indicates that there is onlinesupport at hi.com.au/flashpoints. The online supportcomprises:• useful websites that have been carefully selected by

the author team• exam-style questions and marking guidelines for

each study.

Introduction

IntroductionAt the end of World War I, Germany was a tired,divided and defeated nation. After a tradition ofabsolute monarchs, a democratic republic wasfounded with what was believed to be the mostdemocratic constitution in the world at that time.During the 1920s the Weimar Republic struggled tosurvive under the shadow of the harsh Treaty ofVersailles, causing deep resentment and intensifyingdivisions within Germany. From 1924, there appearedto be signs of recovery but the Wall Street crash of1929 destroyed the German economy. A combinationof factors gave rise to the Nazis in 1933, a group thathad been on the fringes of German politics only fiveyears before and whose rule led to the deaths ofmillions through the Holocaust and World War II. Astudy of the events that led to such horrific suffering isa reminder that none of us should take our personal orpublic freedoms for granted.

Contents• Political, social and economic problems,

1918–1923• Golden years? Relative stability, 1924–1929• Nazi consolidation of power• The transformation of social and cultural life under

Nazism• Nazi racial policy and the Holocaust• Nazi foreign policy, 1933–1939• Personality study: Leni Riefenstahl

Chapter 1

Germany 1918–1945

Flashpoints2

Topic map

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AUSTRIASWITZERLAND

BELGIUM

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DENMARK

SWEDEN

NORWAY

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LIECHTENSTEIN

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ESTONIA

FINLAND

BELARUS

ROMANIA

UKRAINE

MOLDOVA

ALBANIAVATICAN CITY

Political map of Germany, showing its place in Europe.

Germany 1918–1945 3

Timeline

World War I endsJanuary The Spartacist uprising

Treaty of Versailles and the creation of the Weimar constitutionNovember The Munich Putsch; inflation and currency reformOctober Start of the Great DepressionJanuary Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany

Hitler combines positions of Chancellor and PresidentSeptember The Nuremberg Laws

Remilitarisation of the RhinelandThe Berlin OlympicsAnschluss, the Sudetenland Crisis and the Munich Agreement

November KristallnachtNazi–Soviet Pact, the invasion of Poland

June Invasion of the Soviet Union January The Wannsee Conference and the Final Solution of the Jewish Problem

Imposition of Total WarFebruary Nazi defeat at StalingradApril Death of HitlerMay Germany surrenders

1918

1919192319291933193419351936

1938

1939194119421943

1945

Key terms

Anschluss annexation of Austria by Germany, for-bidden by Treaty of VersaillesAnti-Comintern Pact treaty between Germany andJapan signed in November 1935anti-Semitism hatred of Jewsarmistice agreement to end fighting in a warArticle 48 a clause in the Weimar (democratic) con-stitution that allowed the President, in cases ofnational emergency, to suspend the democratic rightsof the constitution and allowed the President to rulethe country (pass laws and appoint new governments)Aryan originally, a term used to indicate Indo-Europeans; as a Nazi term, it was used to describe aperson of ‘pure’ Germanic heritage/raceAutarky the policy of economic self-sufficiencyAxis the alliance of Germany, Japan and Italy duringWorld War II

Blitzkrieg German word meaning ‘lightning war’; thefast, violent war waged by Germany Chancellor Prime MinisterConcordat an agreement between the Catholic Popeand the Nazi government on the relationship betweenthe church and government in Germany conservative descriptive of people wishing to main-tain the political and social status quoDawes Plan a plan that reorganised Germany’s repar-ations payments and arranged large foreign loans inApril 1924; stimulated improvement in the Germaneconomy after 1924D-Day the Allied invasion of Western Europe atNormandy on 6 June 1944dolchstosslegende the ‘stab in the back’ legend ormyth that was an inaccurate blaming of Germany’sdefeat in World War I on the republican government

Flashpoints4

élite groups in society with power and influenceEnabling Act the law passed in March 1933 givingHitler emergency powers for four years, marking thebeginning of the Third ReichFreikorps German for ‘free corps’; former World War Isoldiers who were anti-communist and nationalisticFührer German word for ‘leader’; the name given toHitler as the unquestioned leader of the Nazi Partyand, later, GermanyFührerprinzip literally, the ‘leader principle’; obed-ience to the leader (Hitler)fulfilment the policy of meeting reparations obli-gations under the Treaty of Versailles adopted in 1922Gestapo an acronym for the Geheime Staatspolizei(State Secret Police), a section of the SS, the Nazisecret police led by Heinrich HimmlerGleichschaltung the process through which lawswere passed that brought Germany under Nazi controlduring 1933 and 1934Hossbach Memorandum the minutes of a meetingheld in November 1937 in which Hitler described hisforeign policy plans, particularly the invasion ofAustria and Czechoslovakiahyperinflation extreme inflationJunker a member of the land-owning aristocracyKaiser the German EmperorKPD the German Communist PartyLebensraum German for ‘living space’; the Nazi ideaof ‘living space’ for the Aryan peoplemark the main unit of German currencyMunich Agreement an agreement among Germany,Great Britain and France made on 29 September 1939,which gave Germany part of CzechoslovakiaMunich Putsch a failed attempt to take power inMunich by the Nazis in November 1923Night of the Long Knives the purge of the SA andopponents of the Nazis, which enabled Hitler to gainthe support of the German armyNSDAP the National Socialist German Workers Party,or the Nazis Nuremberg rallies annual Nazi Party rallies held inthe city of Nurembergputsch attempt to take power violentlyReich empireReichstag German ParliamentReichswehr the term used for the German army until1935Rentenmark the currency introduced in 1924 toreplace the devalued mark reparations money paid by losing country to compensatefor war

republic a country in which supreme power rests withthe people and their elected representative rather thana monarch; this term is used to describe the govern-ment of Germany between 1919 and 1933Rhineland the land on the border of Germany, France,Belgium and Luxembourg, which is an importantmining areaSA abbreviation of Sturmabteilung (stormtroopers);the Nazi private army, also known as the brownshirtssoviet Russian word for council or committeeSpartacists communist movement, named for theRoman gladiator Spartacus, who started a slaverebellion in ancient RomeSPD the Social Democrats, a moderate left-wing partythat supported democracySS schutzstaffel (also known as the blackshirts);originally Hitler’s personal bodyguards; after the SAwas destroyed in the Night of the Long Knives (1934),the SS became the Nazi ‘police force’Sudetenland an industrial area in western Czecho-slovakia where many German-speaking people lived,and that was given to Germany under the MunichAgreementThird Reich literally, the ‘third empire’; refers to thetime of Nazi rule

The Germans invade Poland.

Germany 1918–1945 5

Concepts overview

NationalismNationalism is a feeling of strong loyalty towards one’snation. At some points in history, nationalism hasinspired independence movements or the belief thatone’s nation is superior to others. In Germany, intensenationalism was expressed in extreme right-winggroups, such as the NSDAP.

MilitarismMilitarism is an aggressive political position based onthe role of armed forces in maintaining the power andsecurity of the state and promoting the interests of thestate internationally. The Nazi government wasmilitaristic in its aims and outlook, and relied on therebuilding of its army in order to fulfil the key aims ofNazism as outlined in Hitler’s Mein Kampf.

DemocracyDemocracy is a political system in which, generallyspeaking, all adult citizens have the right to vote and tostand for election, and in which the political party orcoalition of parties gaining the most votes forms thegovernment. From 1918, Germany had a democraticconstitution, considered at the time to be the mostdemocratic of nations. However, the fact that thisconstitution contained a clause (Article 48) that allowedthe President to rule by decree in times of ‘nationalemergency’ calls this into question. After 1930,President Hindenburg repeatedly used Article 48 toappoint governments, which meant that after this timedemocracy ceased to function. Hitler was also able touse the democratic constitution in order to become alegal dictator and destroy democracy in Germany.

Nazi Germany

RacismRacism is the belief that some races are superior toothers and therefore should have more rights andprivileges. Nazi ideology was deeply racist in its beliefthat life was a struggle between races that would bewon by the superior Aryan race. The deep anti-Semitism of the Nazis was also part of their racistworldview.

TotalitarianismIn the 1950s, Carl Friedrich used the term totalitarianismto describe the government of the Soviet Union, and thiswas also used to describe the government of NaziGermany. According to Friedrich, totalitarian states had acomplex ideology, a mass party in power, used terror,monopolised the media, and controlled the armed forces

and the economy. According to historians such as IanKershaw, this does not apply to Nazi Germany, as theirideology was not complex, power in the Nazi state stillrested in individuals (i.e., the Führer) as opposed to amass party, and the economy was not completelycontrolled by the state.

Flashpoints6

The Jewish community• Two of the most important Nazi ideas were those

of race and anti-Semitism. • One of the main Nazi aims was to create the Aryan

master race and destroy the Jews. • Policies to make this happen were a core part of

Nazi rule in Germany and were implemented assoon as Hitler came to power in 1933.

• Race became an important part of most aspects ofGerman life. For example, Race Studies was taughtin schools.

• The idea of the master race had two consequences:the need to conquer the ‘inferior races’ outsideGermany to create ‘living space’ for the Aryanrace; and the persecution and eventual extermina-tion of ‘inferior’ races within Germany, particularlyJews.

• The persecution of the Jews can be looked at inthree stages:1933–1938: removal of civil rights1938–1941: intensification of persecution1941–1945: the Holocaust

Key groups

Nazi Party (including the SA and SS)• In 1919, Anton Drexler founded the German

Workers Party in Bavaria. • Adolf Hitler joined and soon came to dominate the

party, which changed its name to the NationalSocialist German Workers Party (or NAZI Party).

• By 1921, the party had its own army, the SA, led by Ernst Röhm. The SA attacked opponents andprotected party leaders.

• In 1923, they felt strong enough to launch theMunich Putsch. Although it failed, Hitler hadbecome nationally known.

• The failure of the Munich Putsch made Hitlerrealise that the only way to come to power inGermany was through winning elections ratherthan by armed takeovers. The Nazi Party wasrestructured, better organised and Hitler consoli-dated his leadership of the party.

• Understanding the importance of propaganda,Nazis used rallies, meetings and parades to spreadtheir message. In 1929, the Nazis received supportfrom Alfred Hugenberg, an industrialist whocontrolled 700 German newspapers and filmoutlets. Hitler was able to promote himself on thenational stage as the country fell into the GreatDepression.

• The Depression caused a number of political crisesin Germany. In 1930, government policies causedgreater hardship, leading to widespread anger.

• The Nazis promoted themselves as the only groupwho could save Germany.

• The Nazis did not come to power by winning anelection. Hitler manoeuvred his way to power legally.

Wehrmacht (German fighting forces,1935–45)• The Wehrmacht (Army) was the most powerful

non-Nazi group in German society between 1935and 1945.

• After the purge of the SA in 1934, the Army gaveits loyalty to Hitler (all members of the Wehrmachtgave a loyalty oath to Hitler personally).

• The reintroduction of conscription in 1935increased the support of the Wehrmacht for theNazi regime.

• Although most generals supported Hitler’s militar-istic and expansionist aims, tensions did exist.Some generals doubted Germany’s ability to fighta war of conquest in eastern Europe because of itslack of resources. In February 1938, those whocriticised Hitler’s policies after the HossbachConference (see pages 72–3) were removed fromthe High Command.

• As the tide turned against Germany in World War II, members of the military leadership tookpart in opposition groups (see pages 37–43).

Germany 1918–1945 7

Women• The Nazis believed that women should simply

become mothers and devote themselves to theirfamilies (Kinder, Kirche und Küche: Children,Church and Kitchen).

• They believed that the family was essential andthat the job of all Aryan women was to producechildren for the Nazi state.

• Women were removed from most professions.• Women who had many children were rewarded.• These policies had to be changed in the late thirties

as more workers were needed to help to re-armGermany. Women were placed in unskilled andlower paid jobs, but Nazi propaganda had been sosuccessful that many women did not want to returnto the workforce.

Youth organisations• The Nazi Youth groups were organised to ensure a

new generation of committed Nazis.• In 1936, membership of Nazi Youth Groups was

made compulsory. They had nine million members by 1939.

• The Nazi Youth movement was highly structuredand was made up of different stages:– Little Fellows (Pimpf): Boys aged between six

and ten. – Young Folk (Jungvolk): Boys between ten and

14.– The Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend): Boys between

14 and 18.– When they reached eighteen, young men

joined the Labour Front for six months’compulsory work. After 1937, they joined theArmy.

• For girls, there were other youth groups:– League of German Girls (Jung-Mädelbund):

Girls between ten and 14.– The League of German Maidens (Bund

Deutscher Mädel, or BDM): Girls between 14 and 18.

– When they reached 18, young women couldthen join Faith and Beauty, which focused on health, grooming and housework skills to prepare them for their role as wives andmothers.

Young members of Germany’s National Socialist ranksmarching before Hitler, March 1931.

Flashpoints8

Left or right wing?

You will read about parties or politicians beingdescribed as ‘left wing’ or ‘right wing’. Left wingrefers to socialist or communist ideas, and right

wing refers to more conservative or nationalist views.The Nazis were an extreme right-wing party. You will alsoread about parties that were more moderate or centreparties.

For example, in Australia today, the Australian Labor Party could be described as a centre–left, or socialdemocratic party. The Liberal Party of Australia is aconservative or centre–right party.

The end of war and a new government

The failure of Germany’s Spring Offensive inSeptember 1918 made it clear to many membersof the German High Command that the German

army was close to collapse. General Ludendorff told theKaiser that they had lost the war and advised him thatGermany should seek an armistice with the Allies. Noneof this was made known to the people of Germany, whohad been encouraged to believe, through the use ofpropaganda, that there was still a chance for victory.When defeat came, they were completely shocked.

On 1 October, Prince Max of Baden formed a co-alition government that would negotiate an armistice. Asnews of impending defeat spread, there was unrest amongthe armed forces. Sailors at Kiel and Wilhelmshavenrefused to fight. At Kiel, the German navy mutinied on28 October. Soldiers sent in to control the mutineersrefused to fire on them. Sailors, soldiers and other peopleformed soviets. By 5 November, the mutiny had spreadto other ports, soviets were set up in some German towns,and a revolt in the city of Munich (the capital city of thestate of Bavaria) led to the proclamation of a Bavarianrepublic. In other words, an entire German state hadbroken away.

Things to know before you start

Left wing Moderate/Right wing

Centre

Communist Social Democrats Nationalist(centre left) FascistConservatives(centre right)

KPD SPD Zentrum NSDAP(Communist) (Centre Party)/ (Nazi)

DDP/DVP

Political, social and economic problems,1918–1923

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2 Nov 1918Sailors tookcontrol of Cuxhaven Bremen Hamburg Rostok Lübeck Kiel

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8 Nov 1918Major riotsin Cologne Dortmund Essen Berlin Stuttgart Dresden Leipzig

8 Nov 1918Bavariadeclared aSocialistRepublic

6 Jan 1919Spartacistuprising inBerlin

9 Nov 1918Kaiser fledto Holland

29 Oct 1918Naval mutiny atWilhelmshaven

A

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Munich

Baltic SeaDENMARK

Areas of unrest in Germany, 1918–19.

Germany 1918–1945 9

One of the most important political parties in thecoalition government was the SPD, a moderate socialistparty with about one million members, who threatenedto withdraw from the coalition unless the Kaiserabdicated. Fearful that this might lead to a civil war inGermany, Prince Max persuaded the Kaiser to give upthe throne. The SPD immediately withdrew from thecoalition government (which caused it to lose power)and set up their own government. Prince Max resignedand the leader of the Social Democrats, Friedrich Ebert,became Chancellor. The Kaiser fled the country and aGerman Republic was proclaimed on 9 November 1918.On 11 November, representatives from the new govern-ment met with the Allies at Compiègne in France andsigned the armistice that ended the Great War.

This meant that neither the army nor the Kaiserwould be blamed for defeat; those who did not supportthe new republican government could blame politicians,especially the Social Democratic Party, for the humilia-tion of defeat and a harsh treaty forced upon Germany.This became known as the myth of the ‘stab in the back’(dolchtosslegende).

Attack from the left: The Spartacistrevolt

The first problem faced by the new government camefrom the extreme left. By mid-1919, this threat had beeneradicated because the army joined forces with thegovernment to crush communist uprisings. This did notguarantee stability for the new German Republic, how-ever; the German army did not support the democraticsystem or the Republic but opposed communism evenmore. It soon became clear that although the army wouldswiftly crush any threat from the left, they refused to takeany action against right-wing opposition or uprisings.

At a conference of representatives of the Germanstates in 1918, it was agreed to set up a new NationalAssembly. However, extreme left-wing groups opposedany kind of democratic parliament and called forrevolution. The Spartacists attempted an uprising inBerlin in December and January 1918. This was putdown by the army and Freikorps. The leaders of theSpartacists were murdered.

Who were the Freikorps?

The Freikorps (or Free Corps) comprised more than 200 paramilitary groups or private armies that wereformed after World War I. Made up primarily of ex-soldiers and officers, the Freikorps tended to be right wing and nationalistic, hostile towards the Republic

and saw their role as being to protect Germany fromcommunism.

Uneasy allies: The Ebert–Groener Pact

To ensure that there would not be a communist revolu-tion or civil war, President Ebert had made an agreementwith General Groener, Commander of the Army, inNovember 1918. The Ebert–Groener Pact ensured thatthe army, also known as the Reichswehr, would supportthe Republic. During 1919, Ebert used the Reichswehragainst the left, but the army’s loyalty to the Republic was uncertain. In fact, most army officers were anti-republican and anti-democratic, preferring the rule of theKaiser. The army did little to stop the murder squads thatkilled communist leaders and others.

General Hans von Seeckt, who became Commanderof the Reichswehr in 1920, believed that the army was ‘astate within a state’, arguing that the interests of the armywere separate from the interests of the government, andrefused to carry out reforms within the army because itwas ‘non-political’.

A new German constitution

After elections in January 1919, the new constitution ofGermany was proclaimed at the city of Weimar, far awayfrom the unrest and violence in Berlin, which continueddespite the crushing of the Spartacists. The Reichswehrand the Freikorps soon crushed these uprisings anddefeated the Bavarian republic. Although the Republicfaced threats from both the left and the right, it survivedbecause the army saw the threat of a communistrevolution (as had happened in Russia in 1917) as a moreimmediate problem to be dealt with.

At no stage during the Weimar period did a singleparty win power in its own right. Although the SPDusually won the most votes until 1930, it was neverenough to form a majority, so governments were createdby parties agreeing to form a coalition. These coalitionswere usually unstable and governments did not last longas a result. There were 25 different governments between1919 and 1933.

Social and economic problemsThe impact of the Treaty of Versailles

As a result of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost:• 15% of land • 12% of people• 10% of coal reserves • 48% of iron • 15% of agricultural land • 10% of industry

Flashpoints10

Germany was also bound to pay reparations fordamage caused in battle zones, shipping losses and thepensions and benefits paid to allied soldiers and theirfamilies. The total reparations bill was set at US$32billion dollars.

The German delegates at the Peace Conference,who had not been allowed to take any part in the treatynegotiations, were horrified by the harsh and punishingterms. Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau, the GermanForeign Minister, suggested that they simply refuse to signit, and the entire German cabinet resigned. With theAllies threatening to resume attacks on Germany unlessthey accepted the treaty, the new Foreign Minister,Hermann Müller, signed the Treaty of Versailles.

Dolchstosslegende: The ‘stab inthe back’ myth

The humiliating treaty was blamed on the Weimargovernment, members of which were branded ‘theNovember criminals’. The ‘war guilt’ clause in the treatycaused particular bitterness and resentment. GeneralsLudendorff and Hindenburg had advised the Kaiser toseek an armistice in September 1918, and advised theWeimar government that Germany could not resistrenewed Allied attacks if they did not accept the treatyin May 1919. By November 1919, however, they werepromoting the idea that the treaty should never havebeen signed and that it was the new government that hadbetrayed the German army, thus leading to the militarycollapse of 1918. The fact that the Kaiser had abdicatedbefore the armistice was signed meant that he was notheld responsible. The ‘stab in the back’ myth alsocompletely ignored the military weaknesses that led toGermany’s defeat. Right-wing groups now blamed Ebert,Müller and Mattias Erzburger, the founders of theGerman Republic, for the Schmachfrieden—the ‘shame-ful peace’. This simple ‘explanation’ for Germany’s defeatand humiliation became widely accepted; it underminedthe faith that many Germans had in the new republic andwas used to attack democracy in Germany.

Today in the Hall of Mirrors [at Versailles] the disgraceful treaty is being signed. Do notforget it! The German people will, withunceasing labour, press forward to reconquerthe place among nations to which they areentitled.

Editorial from the Deutsche Zeitung, 28 June 1919.

Source 1.1

The caption reads, ‘Germany, work! The liarsblamed us for the war. Now they also burden uswith reparations’.

Questions

1 Describe the attitude shown towards theTreaty of Versailles in Sources 1.1 and 1.2.

2 How are reparations presented in Source1.2?

3 How useful are Sources 1.1 and 1.2 for ahistorian studying reactions to the Treaty ofVersailles in Germany?

A German cartoonfrom 1919

Source 1.2

Germany 1918–1945 11

Attack from the right: The Kapp Putsch

The Treaty led to political instability. Many on the rightsimply wanted the Republic overthrown by force. InOctober 1919, General Ludendorff, Wolfgang Kapp (ajournalist and founder of the right-wing FatherlandParty) and General von Luttwitz (a leader of theFreikorps) formed the National Association to organiseanti-republican forces. One of Kapp’s aims was to restorethe German monarchy.

When the German government tried to reduce thenumber of soldiers in the army and the Freikorps (asdemanded by the Treaty) in March 1920, the NationalAssociation saw the opportunity for an uprising. InBerlin, Luttwitz refused to disband Freikorps units and on 13 March, units of ex-soldiers (who had simply joinedthe Freikorps after leaving the army) rebelled—5000troops seized government buildings. Led by WolfgangKapp, they marched to Berlin and a right-wing govern-ment was declared under his leadership. Although theCommander-in-Chief, General Reinhardt, was preparedto act against the Putsch, all other commanders refused.The army’s refusal to move against this takeover of thegovernment was in stark contrast to their actions againstthe Spartacist revolt, claiming ‘Reichswehr does not fireupon Reichswehr’ (‘the army does not fire upon thearmy’). It was only when President Ebert (who had fledto the city of Dresden) called on workers to help save theRepublic that the Kapp Putsch could be defeated. Ageneral strike was called, which so completely paralysedBerlin that Kapp’s government fell after only a few daysin power. However, in Bavaria the SPD government wasforced to resign and a right-wing government took itsplace.

After the failure of the Kapp Putsch, the governmentwas unable to punish those behind the Putsch, mainlybecause of their reliance on the army to put down left-wing attacks. The Putsch had set off a wave of strikes andcommunist-led uprisings in other parts of Germany,including a massive revolt led by the Spartacists in themining area of the Ruhr. The government had to call onthe army (following the Ebert–Groener Pact) to crushthis uprising.

The importance of the Kapp Putsch

Although the Kapp Putsch collapsed, it was a significantevent because it showed that nationalist or right-winggroups were prepared to take action against the Republicjust as readily as the left. It also showed, however, thatworkers and unions would fight against any attemptedmilitary takeover (coup).

The Putsch widened the divisions between the armyand the Republic. It showed the government that thearmy would only act in its own interests and would nevertake action against those whose ideas it supported. Thismeant that the army was not a non-political servant ofthe government but a group in German society with aclear agenda of its own and no loyalty to democracy. Thearmy would ruthlessly crush opposition or uprisings fromthe left but supported right-wing or nationalist groups, orat the very least would not stop them.

It became clear that the relationship between the armyand the government rested solely on their opposition tocommunism and their determination to put down anyleft-wing revolts. In other words, the Republic’s survivalrelied on an army whose leaders did not support it.

Source 1.3

The general strike in Potsdamer Platz causedtransport chaos.

Flashpoints12

The ‘White Terror’

In 1921 and 1922, there was continued political violencein Germany. Although there were significant KPDuprisings in Hamburg and central Germany, these wereput down by the army. Most incidents of mob violence,terror attacks and assassinations came from the right in a campaign known as the ‘White Terror’. The mostprominent victims were Mattias Erzburger (leader of theSPD, and member of the German delegation at the ParisPeace Conference) and the German Foreign Minister,Walter Rathenau. Both were murdered by members ofOperation Consul, a group of ex-army officers.

In 1922, the Law for the Protection of the Republicwas passed to combat such attacks, setting harshpenalties for acts of political violence and terrorism.Although the majority of assassinations and acts ofpolitical violence were carried out by right-wing groups(354 out of 376), the German judiciary who tended tooppose the Republic refused to pass heavy sentences onright-wing defendants. Of the 22 left-wing defendants,ten were sentenced to death, while none from the rightreceived the death penalty and only 28 received anypunishment at all. Their average prison sentence wasfour months.

The growth of private armies

During this time, a number of private paramilitary groupsbegan to appear on both the left and right wings of thepolitical scene:

Source 1.4

The proud German Army, after victoriouslyresisting an enemy superior in numbers for fouryears, performing feats unprecedented inhistory, and keeping our foes from our frontiers,disappeared in a moment. Our victorious fleetwas handed over to the enemy. The authoritiesat home, who had not fought against the enemy,could not hurry fast enough to pardon desertersand other military criminals, including amongthese many of their own number, themselvesand their nearest friends.

They and the Soldiers’ Councils worked withzeal, determination and purpose to destroy thewhole military structure. Such was the gratitudeof the new homeland to the German soldierswho had bled and died for it in millions. Thedestruction of Germany’s power to defend itself—the work of Germans—was the most tragiccrime the world has witnessed. A tidal wavehad broken over Germany, not by the force ofnature, but through the weakness of theGovernment, represented by the Chancellor,and the paralysis of a leaderless people.

From General Ludendorff, My War Memories, 1914–1918, 1920.

Source 1.5

Questions1 Describe the effects of the Kapp Putsch as

shown in Source 1.3 on page 11.2 How can Source 1.3 be useful to historians

studying the reasons why the Kapp Putschfailed?

3 Explain the significance of the flag that thesoldiers in Source 1.4 are holding.

4 What do Sources 1.4 and 1.5 show youabout the aims of those who took part inthe Kapp Putsch?

Kapp soldiers holding the Imperial flag during the Kapp Putsch.

Germany 1918–1945 13

Right wing

The Stalhelm (steel helmet) • a group of army veterans founded by former officers

Franz Seldte and Theodor Duesterberg• main aim was to fight any attempts at a left-wing or

communist revolt• wanted Germany to return to a monarchy and was

fiercely nationalistic• began to play an important role in politics by the

late 1920s (see page 29)

The Sturmabteilung (the SA)• the stormtroopers of the Nazi Party• attracted many ex-Freikorps members and

ex-soldiers (see page 9)

Left wing

The Reichsbanner • an unarmed movement organised on military lines,

formed in opposition to the Stalhelm• made up mainly of ex-servicemen who tended to be

SPD and trade union members

The Red Fighting League(Rotfrontkampferbund)• the private army of the KPD• the main opponent of the Stalhelm and the SA

Source 1.6

Here in Bavaria, I am in the stronghold of reaction.At night I am often awakened by the military com-mands and the march of men (Monarchists) whoare training at night in the forests and in themountains. It is a gruesome feeling—this secrettraining of men to kill other men. And these menbeing trained are peasants and working-men—notthe class we usually think of. In Saxony the samething occurs; there at night the men who are undertraining are also working men, but the leaders areCommunists. And they are preparing to kill their

kind also. Sometimes I see no difference betweenthe two. What is this business everywhere—menpreparing to murder their own kind for the sake ofan idea? Not their own idea either, but that of menwho use them as tools to set themselves in power.We only wait for the day when the two groups willstart massacring each other. Both groups arebitterly opposed to passive resistance as a method;it isn’t bloody or sadistic enough.

Extract from a letter written by Agnes Smedley (anEnglishwoman living in Germany) to a friend, 11 August 1923.

Source 1.7

The week has witnessed looting of many shops invarious parts of the city, unrest in most citiesthroughout the country, and actual street fighting inmany. Looting and rioting are regarded as so muchgrist to the mills of the Communists and thereactionaries alike. The Communists take advan-tage of it and preach their dogma; the monarchistsdo the same. They smile cynically when they readof the frightful increase in the cost of living and say,

‘It has not yet gone far enough. It must be worsestill before the masses realize the mistake they havemade in establishing a republic! We shall wait a bitlonger.’ But most of the townspeople are so weary,so destroyed by uncertainty and long years ofnervous strain, that they do not care what happens.They are tired of it all.

From an article written by Agnes Smedley in The Nation, 28 November 1923.

Flashpoints14

Failed coalition governments

Reichstag elections held after the Kapp Putsch in 1920reflected weakened support for the Republic. The pro-republican coalition of the SPD, the Centre Party and theDDP saw their majority of 78 per cent of seats plummetto 45 per cent. This meant that moderate pro-republicanparties were unable to gain an outright majority in theReichstag. Smaller extreme parties who were anti-republic, such as the KPD on the left and the DVP on theright, played a more important role in a series of coalitiongovernments.

Between 1919 and 1923, a series of coalition govern-ments rose and fell, as no single party was able to win anoutright majority. Between 1919 and 1923 there were sixseparate coalition governments. This added to theatmosphere of chaos and instability that seemed to be themain feature of republican government.

The problem of reparations

The most pressing problem for the new government wasfulfilling the Treaty of Versailles. On 1 May 1921, theAllies finally set the figure that Germany had to pay at20,000 billion gold marks under the London PaymentsPlan. Under the London Plan, Germany had to make anannual payment of 2000 million gold marks plus 26 percent of the value of its exports. Germany was also boundto pay reparations for damage caused in battle zones,shipping losses, and the pensions and benefits paid toallied soldiers and their families. The total reparations billwas set at US$32 billion. Under the threat of Alliedoccupation if they refused the Plan, the governmentaccepted—when Germany had rejected earlier plans, the

Allies had occupied Duisburg, Düsseldorf and Ruhrort.By 4 May, the government resigned. The Allies showedlittle sympathy with Germany’s pleas that the Plan waseconomically damaging, and made a threat (known asthe London Ultimatum) to invade the coalmining area ofthe Ruhr if the new German government did not acceptthe Plan. Under the policy of fulfilment, the new Germangovernment accepted the London Payments Plan.

During the Genoa Conference in April 1922, calledto discuss international economic problems, Germany’sinternational isolation and diplomatic weakness washighlighted. When the French government continued toinsist that Germany pay the full reparations bill, Germanydecided to negotiate with the Soviet Union. The Treatyof Rapallo was signed in April 1922 between Germanyand the Soviet Union, with an agreement to drop anywar compensation claims and set up trade and diplomaticrelations, ending Germany’s isolation.

Economic meltdown:Reparations and the Ruhr crisis

The Treaty of Versailles also caused economic instability.After the devastation of war and the losses of territories,the German currency was unstable and it was impossiblefor Germany to pay the massive reparations bill. Thereparations debt worsened Germany’s economic prob-lems. Germany made the first payment in 1921, thenasked the Allies in July 1922 to suspend payments inorder to help the German economy to recover—at thisstage, their national debt was 469,000 million marks. TheAllies refused, so Germany stated that they could not

Source 1.8

Nothing could be heard but the sound of marchingboots. A small boy in the crowd of onlookerslaughed … two members of the Ehrhardt [aFreikorps unit] broke ranks, knocked the boy downand beat him with their rifle butts until he was

quite still. Nobody else moved, although someonehad the courage to hiss. An officer barked a com-mand and machine guns opened fire on the crowd.

From G.S. Graber, History of the SS, 1978.

Questions1 What activities are being described in Sources

1.6 and 1.7 on page 13?2 Describe the attitude of Agnes Smedley to

these events.

3 To what extent are sources 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8useful for a historian studying paramilitarygroups in Germany in the early 1920s?

Germany 1918–1945 15

make further reparations payments in 1923 or 1924. In December 1922, the Reparations Commission

declared that Germany had failed to supply the coal andtimber ordered by the Treaty of Versailles. In January1923, France and Belgium sent 60,000 troops to thecoalmining area of the Ruhr to get this ‘payment’. Thepeople of Germany were outraged. The governmentcalled for a campaign of passive resistance against theFrench occupation and the coal miners and otherworkers in the Ruhr went on strike. Chancellor Cuno putan immediate stop to all reparations payments. MoreFrench and Belgian troops were sent to the Ruhr andoccupied it for the next two years. Mine owners werearrested and the mines and railways were taken over.

Although the campaign of passive resistance wassuccessful because coal production in the Ruhr felldramatically, it had a disastrous effect on Germany’seconomy. The Ruhr was an extremely important miningand industrial area. Germany was forced to import coaland lost the income that it would have earned from theRuhr. The government paid everyone who lost incomeduring the passive resistance. This ran to millions ofmarks. Government costs had risen by 700 per cent, and more banknotes were simply printed. Inflationquickly became hyperinflation, with German currencycompletely losing its value.

The impact of hyperinflation

• Working-class and middle-class Germans lost thevalue of their wages; savings and pensions were wipedout.

• Farmers and landowners survived the crisis as theycould barter their crops.

• Industrialists and big business benefited from thecrisis: they could wipe out their debts. Businesses thathad access to foreign currency or exported goodsmade fortunes.

• Radical parties took advantage of the hardship anddespair caused by the Ruhr crisis. The communistswon an extra 58 seats in the elections of 1924. TheNazi Party began to grow and increase its influence.

• Although the government was weakened, it benefitedeconomically as hyperinflation resulted in a loss ofgovernment debts. People who had suffered deva-stating financial losses turned against the Republic.This loss of support can be seen as one of the long-term causes of the failure of democracy in Germanyby 1933.

• Political instability escalated: in Bavaria, the Land(state government) suspended democratic rule andordered the army to swear allegiance to the staterather than the Republic; Freikorps units known asthe Fehme or Black Army revolted in Spandau nearBerlin; SPD state governments in Saxony andThuringia invited communists to become ministers asmoney and advisers from the Soviet Union set up left-wing paramilitary groups; in the Rhineland theFrench encouraged the setting up of a republic tobreak away from Germany.

Solving the problem

In August 1923, a new Chancellor, Gustav Stresemann,came to power. He ended passive resistance and stabilisedthe currency by introducing the Rentenmark. Endingpassive resistance caused an outcry by right-wingnationalists and resulted in a failed Putsch by the Nazisin Munich (see page 16). After Stresemann resigned asChancellor, he served as Foreign Minister until his deathin 1929.

DateValue of US dollar in

German marks

July 1914 4.2 marks

July 1919 14 marks

January 1921 65 marks

January 1922 191 marks

July 1922 493 marks

January 1923 18,000 marks

July 1923 350,000 marks

August 1923 4,600,000 marks

November 1923 4,200,000,000,000 marks

Flashpoints16

The Munich Putsch

The right-wing government of the state of Bavaria wasoutraged by Stresemann’s ending of passive resistanceagainst the French. It gave its leader the powers of adictator and refused to obey the Berlin government.Although the Bavarian government toned down itsresistance to the federal government after Stresemann’sgovernment called on the army to restore order inSaxony and Thuringia, it remained the stronghold ofanti-republican feeling. During a meeting of Bavarianministers with businessmen in a Munich beer hall, theNazi stormtroopers (SA) led by Adolf Hitler burst in andannounced that Hitler had taken over the Bavariangovernment. Hitler asked the ministers to join a newnational government led by himself and GeneralLudendorff. When the Nazis marched on Munich thenext day, they were stopped by the Bavarian police. Hitlerwas arrested and the Putsch ended. Hitler was able to use his trial to publicise his views throughout Germany,and was given a light sentence by the judges, whosympathised with him.

Source 1.9

Cartoon from the German magazine Simplicissimus,1923. The mother is crying out ‘Bread! Bread!’

Two women were going to the bank with awashing basket filled with notes (money). Theypassed a shop and saw a crowd standingaround the window, so they put down thebasket for a moment to see if there was anythinggoing that could be bought. Then they turnedround and found that all the notes were there,untouched, but the basket had gone.

A Berlin joke, 1923.

Source 1.11

On Friday afternoons in 1923, very long lines ofworkers waited outside the pay windows of thebig German factories, department stores, banksand offices, watching the clocks until at lastthey reached the pay window and received abag full of paper bank notes.

According to the figures on the notes, theywere worth anything from 700,000 marks up to380 billion or even 18 trillion marks; the figuresrose month by month, then week to week, thenday to day.

People began running as soon as they could.They dashed to food stores where there werefurther slow queues. Had you got there first, ahalf kilo of sugar might have been bought for 2 million marks. If you were at the back, bythe time you got to the counter, 2 million wouldbuy only a quarter kilo.

The government printing presses could notkeep up. People carried their money around insacks or prams. Life was madness, nightmare,desperation, chaos.

From K. Heiden, Der Führer: Hitler’s Rise to Power, 1944.

Source 1.10

Questions1 What were the effects of hyperinflation as

described in Sources 1.9, 1.10 and 1.11?2 What were the differing reactions towards

hyperinflation as described in Sources 1.9,1.10 and 1.11?

3 To what extent does Source 1.10 help youto understand the reasons why hyper-inflation caused a drop in support for theRepublic? Use the evidence from the textto support your answer.

Germany 1918–1945 17

Source 1.12

Kahr was sending us off to sleep. He had just saidthe words ‘and now I come to the consideration’which, for all I know, was to be the high spot of hisspeech, when the door behind us which we hadcome through flew open and in burst Goering withabout twenty-five brownshirts with pistols andmachine-guns.

Hitler began to plough his way towards theplatform and the rest of us surged forward behindhim. Tables overturned with their jugs of beer. Onthe way we passed a major named Mucksel, one ofthe heads of the intelligence section at Army head-

quarters, who started to draw his pistol as soon ashe saw Hitler approach, but the bodyguard hadcovered him with theirs and there was no shooting.

Hitler clambered on a chair and fired a roundat the ceiling. It is always maintained that he didthis to terrify the gathering into submission, but Iswear he did it to wake people up. Anyway, onhome ground at last, Hitler barked an impromptuproclamation: ‘The national revolution has brokenout. The Reichswehr is with us. Our flag is flying ontheir barracks.’

From Ernst Hanfstaengel, Hitler: The Missing Years, 1957.

Source 1.13

The Bavarian Ministry is removed. I propose that aBavarian government shall be formed consisting ofa Regent and a Prime Minister invested withdictatorial powers. I propose Herr von Kahr asRegent and Herr Pohner as Prime Minister. Thegovernment of the November criminals and theReich President are declared to be removed. Ipropose that, until accounts have been finallysettled with the November criminals, the directionof policy in the national Government be taken over

by me. Ludendorff will take over the leadership ofthe German National Army, Lossow will beGerman Reichswehr Minister, Seisser Reich PoliceMinister.

From Adolf Hitler’s speech made in the MunichBurgerbraukeller, 8 November 1923.

Source 1.14

Hitler shouted, ‘Close the ranks,’ and linkedarms with his neighbours. The body of the manwith whom Hitler was linked shot up into the airlike a ball, tearing Hitler’s arm with him, so that itsprang from the joint and fell back limp and dead.Hitler approached the man and stooped over him.

Blood was pouring from his mouth. Hitler pickedhim up and carried him on his shoulders. ‘If I canonly get him to the car,’ Hitler thought, ‘then theboy is saved.’

From the official biography of Adolf Hitler published by theNazi Party in 1934.

Flashpoints18

1 Who advised the Kaiser to seek an armistice in1918?

2 What events took place in Germany as news ofimpending defeat spread?

3 Who were the SPD?4 Why did the Kaiser abdicate?5 When was the German Republic proclaimed?6 Who signed the armistice for Germany?7 What is the Dolchstosslegende?8 Who were the Spartacists?9 How was the Spartacist uprising defeated?

10 Who were the Freikorps?11 What was the Ebert–Groener pact?12 Was the German Army completely loyal to the

Republic? Explain your answer with evidence.13 Define the term ‘reparations’.14 Was wasn’t the Kaiser blamed for the armistice?15 What was the Schmachfrieden ?16 How was the Dolchstosslegende used to undermine

democracy in Germany? 17 What did right-wing opponents of the Republic

want?

18 Describe the events of the Kapp Putsch that led to its failure.

19 What was the importance of the Kapp Putsch?20 What was the ‘White Terror’?21 Why was the law for the Protection of the Republic

passed?22 Describe the attitudes of German judges towards

right-wing defendants. Why did they have theseattitudes?

23 Describe the attitudes of German judges towardsleft-wing defendants. Why did they have theseattitudes?

24 Who were the SA?25 What was the Red Fighting League?26 What did election results after the Kapp Putsch

show?27 How many coalition governments ruled Germany

between 1919 and 1923?28 What was the London Plan?29 Describe the events that led to hyperinflation in

Germany in 1923. 30 What was the Munich Beer Hall Putsch?

Questions1 Compare the accounts of the Putsch in

Sources 1.12 and 1.14 on page 17.2 Explain the reasons why the descriptions of the

Putsch differ in 1.12 and 1.14.

3 According to Source 1.13 on page 17, whatwere the aims of the Beer Hall Putsch?

4 Who were the ‘November criminals’?5 To what extent were these aims in Source 1.13

widely accepted? Use the text to support youranswer.

Golden years? Relative stability,1924–1929

Atraditional view of events between 1924 to 1929is that this was a time of economic recovery,foreign policy successes and political stability

(often called a ‘Golden Age’) for the Republic, which

was destroyed by the economic collapse of the GreatDepression that began in October 1929. This caused the rise of Hitler, who succeeded because he offeredGermans a solution. However, a closer look at Germany’s

Short answer questions

Germany 1918–1945 87

1 When was Leni Riefenstahl born?2 What was her original career?3 What prompted Riefenstahl to become an actress?4 What kind of films did she appear in?5 What type of heroine did she play?6 Why were these films popular?7 Which film marked Leni Riefenstahl’s debut as

a director?8 Why was this unusual?9 How successful was her first film as a director?

10 How did Leni Riefenstahl first come to meet AdolfHitler?

11 When did this meeting take place?12 What did many Germans who worked in the film

industry do after the Nazis seized power in 1933?13 When did Hitler ask Leni Riefenstahl to film the

annual Nüremberg rally?14 What was the name of the first rally film and when

was it released?15 What was the theme of the first rally film?16 How does this film portray the Nazi Party in 1933?17 Why was this film withdrawn after 1934?18 What is the subject matter of Triumph of the Will? 19 How successful was Triumph of the Will?

20 What changes within the Nazi Party are clearlyevident in Triumph of the Will?

21 Which Nazi values are communicated in Triumphof the Will?

22 What was the main subject matter of Day ofFreedom?

23 How did the Ministry for Propaganda ensure thatas many people as possible would see Day ofFreedom?

24 Which specific Nazi policies are reflected in Day of Freedom?

25 Who commissioned Olympia?26 What was the subject matter of Olympia?27 In what ways did Riefenstahl revolutionise the

filming of sporting events in Olympia?28 To what extent do you think Olympia communi-

cates Nazi ideals?29 How was Riefenstahl received during her tour of

the United States?30 What controversy is associated with the making of

Tiefland?31 What happened to Riefenstahl after World War II?32 How does Leni Riefenstahl describe her actions in

the 1930s?

Concluding section

Checklist

You should use this checklist to ensure that you under-stand the Key Features, Concepts and Groups requiredfor your study of Germany 1918–1945. Fast page refer-ences are provided for revision of these essential elementsof the study.

Key features of Germany 1918–1945

• a survey of political, economic and social problems inthe period 1918–1923 (pp. 8–18)

• characteristics of relative stability in the period1924–1929 (pp. 18–21)

• collapse of the Weimar Republic, 1929–1933 (pp.22–30)

• foundations of the National Socialist GermanWorkers Party or Nazi Party (NSDAP) and its role,structures, policies and impact (pp. 23–9)

• roles and impact of conservative parties and élites onthe political process (pp. 29–30)

• the social, economic and political impact of the GreatDepression (p. 20)

• Hitler’s accession to power and his role as Führer (pp. 29–32 & 36)

Short answer questions

Flashpoints88

• consolidation of Nazi power, 1933–1934 (pp. 33–6)• conformity, dissent and resistance in response to the

goal of Volksgemeinschaft (People’s Community) (pp. 36–45)

• the transformation of German social and cultural lifeunder Nazism (pp. 46–50)

• nature and impact of Nazi propaganda, terror andrepression within Germany and in occupied territories(pp. 55–61)

• Nazi racial policy, anti-Semitism and the Holocaust(pp. 62–70)

• nature of Nazi foreign policy, its aims, strategies andmilitary successes (pp. 70–4)

• the Nazi war machine and its implications for the wareffort (pp. 74–5)

• support for, and opposition to, Nazism on the homefront (pp. 41–2)

• military defeat and the collapse of Nazism (pp. 75–9).

Concepts to be studied in relation to thekey features of Germany 1918–1945

• democracy• militarism• nationalism• racism• totalitarianism (all p. 5)

Groups to be studied in relation to thekey features of Germany 1918–1945

• the Jewish community (pp. 6 & 62–70)• Nazi Party, including the SA and SS (pp. 6, 23–9

& 55–6)• Wehrmacht (German fighting forces 1935–1945)

(pp. 6, 41–2 & 74–9)• women (pp. 7 & 46–8)• youth organisations (pp. 7 & 50–5).

ResourcesBooks

Bracher, K.D., The German Dictatorship, Weidenfeld andNicolson, New York, 1971.

Bullock, A., Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, Penguin Books,Harmondsworth, 1962.

Carr, W., A History of Germany 1815–1990, EdwardArnold, New York, 1991.

Freidlander, S., Nazi Germany and the Jews: Years ofPersecution 1933–39, Phoenix Press, London, 1998.

Heyes, E., Children of the Swastika, Millbrook Press,Millbrook, CT, 1993.

Hiden, J., Republican and Fascist Germany, AddisonWesley Longman, New York, 1996.

Kershaw, I., The Hitler Myth: Image and Reality in the ThirdReich, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989.

Koonz, C., Mothers in the Fatherland, St Martin’s Press,New York, 1988.

Landau, R., Studying the Holocaust, Routledge, New York,1998.

McDonough, F., Opposition and Resistance in NaziGermany, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,2001.

Overy, R.J., The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Third Reich,Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1996.

Shirer, W., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, Secker andWarburg, New York, 1972.

Films and videos

Cabaret (film), dir. Bob Fosse, 1972.Europa Europa (film), dir. Agnieszka Holland, 1991.The Nasty Girl (film), dir. Michael Verhoeven, 1989.The Pianist (film), dir. Roman Polanski, 2002.

Web support

For a full list of relevant websites, exam-style questionsand marking guidelines, go to hi.com.au/flashpoints.

Hans and Sophie Scholl