JAPANESE JAPANESE AMERICANSAMERICANS

CHAPTER 10CHAPTER 10

* This category includes census estimate from survey for people who reported only one specific Asian Group.

** This category includes census estimate from survey for people who reported one detailed Asian group plus people reporting two or more Asian groups and people who reported some Asian and some non-Asian ancestry.

• Asian American & Asian-Pacific American (again, umbrella terms)

Important Legislation:• 1907 Gentlemen's Agreement - Barred the entry

of Japanese and Koreans.• 1917 Immigration Act - Established a literacy

test and created the "Asiatic Barred Zone," virtually prohibiting immigration from Asia.

• 1921 Quota Act (Johnson Act) - First immigration quotas in nation's history, equal to 3% of the foreign born of admissible nationality in the 1910 census.

• 1924 Immigration Act (Johnson-Reid Act) - Set annual ceiling of 154,227 for Eastern Hemisphere. Banned all Asians.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (Hart-Celler Act)

Basic structure of today's immigration law Abolished the national origins quota systemFamily reunification became cornerstone of policy

Predictions"First, our cities will not be flooded with a million immigrants annually. Under the proposed bill, the present level of immigration remains substantially the same ... Secondly, the ethnic mix of this country will not be upset ... Contrary to the charges in some quarters, [the bill] will not inundate America with immigrants from any one country or area, or the most populated and deprived nations of Africa and Asia ... In the final analysis, the ethnic pattern of immigration under the proposed measure is not expected to change as sharply as the critics seem to think.”

- Senator Edward Kennedy, 2/10/65

Legal Immigration to the United States, 1820-1994

Return Migration

Change in Source Countries of Immigrants

JAPANESE AMERICANSJAPANESE AMERICANS

• Now more than 1.2 million and one of Now more than 1.2 million and one of oldest Asian American groupsoldest Asian American groups

• Model Minority StereotypeModel Minority Stereotype• Characterizes certain Asian American Characterizes certain Asian American

groups as exemplary in socioeconomic groups as exemplary in socioeconomic and moral characteristics, often as and moral characteristics, often as compared to other people of colorcompared to other people of color

• Most heavily concentrated in western Most heavily concentrated in western statesstates

Measuring Differences /Discrimination (?), 2006

To what extent does discrimination

account for earnings

variability across these categories (and

across time)?

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

JAPANESE MIGRATION: OVERVIEWJAPANESE MIGRATION: OVERVIEW• Asian and Pacific Americans include Asian and Pacific Americans include

many immigrant groups many immigrant groups (See Table 10.1)(See Table 10.1)• Historically, immigration of early Asian Historically, immigration of early Asian

groups proceeded seriallygroups proceeded serially• Result of white employers seeking new Result of white employers seeking new

laborers and of white workers motivated by laborers and of white workers motivated by racist prejudices to stop immigration by a racist prejudices to stop immigration by a particular Asian worker groupparticular Asian worker group

• Prevention of Chinese immigration in Prevention of Chinese immigration in 1880s (1882 Chinese Exclusion Act)1880s (1882 Chinese Exclusion Act)• Japanese workers aggressively recruited to Japanese workers aggressively recruited to

fill demandfill demand

Mainland MigrationMainland Migration• Between 1880s and Gentleman’s Between 1880s and Gentleman’s

Agreement in 1907 -1908Agreement in 1907 -1908• More than 150,000 enteredMore than 150,000 entered

• Mainland immigrants moved into greater Mainland immigrants moved into greater diversity of economic positions diversity of economic positions

• White employers favored labor White employers favored labor immigrationimmigration• White workers and unions opposed itWhite workers and unions opposed it

• Unlike earlier Chinese immigrants, Unlike earlier Chinese immigrants, Japanese were able for a time to bring Japanese were able for a time to bring in familiesin families

More Racist Agitation and RestrictionsMore Racist Agitation and Restrictions• White writers and politicians expressed White writers and politicians expressed

fear of Asian immigrantsfear of Asian immigrants• The American Legion and California The American Legion and California

Farm Bureau AssociationFarm Bureau Association pressed for pressed for exclusionexclusion

• Congress succumbed and passed Congress succumbed and passed 1924 1924 Immigration ActImmigration Act

• Established racist quotas that gave preference to Established racist quotas that gave preference to “Nordic” countries“Nordic” countries

• Government action against Asians Government action against Asians spurred by white-controlled labor unionsspurred by white-controlled labor unions

• Japanese largest group of about 1 Japanese largest group of about 1 million in 1965million in 1965

STEREOTYPESSTEREOTYPES• Stereotypes of Asian Americans take Stereotypes of Asian Americans take

variety of formsvariety of forms• Robert Lee – “Robert Lee – “Six ImagesSix Images””

• ““Pollutant,” “coolie,” “deviant,” “yellow peril,” Pollutant,” “coolie,” “deviant,” “yellow peril,” “model minority,” and “gook”“model minority,” and “gook”

• Within short period, many early laborers Within short period, many early laborers gained farm land by contract or leasegained farm land by contract or lease

• U.S. presidents, senators, and ordinary U.S. presidents, senators, and ordinary whites exaggerated differences between whites exaggerated differences between themselves and Japanese immigrantsthemselves and Japanese immigrants• U.S. movie industry played important role in U.S. movie industry played important role in

circulation of stereotypescirculation of stereotypes

War PropagandaWar Propaganda• Japanese considered “inferior race” with Japanese considered “inferior race” with

brashness to challenge European and brashness to challenge European and American interests in the PacificAmerican interests in the Pacific

• California attorney general and later U.S. California attorney general and later U.S. chief justice Earl Warren depicted chief justice Earl Warren depicted Japanese as dangerousJapanese as dangerous• National press argued there were many National press argued there were many

enemy agents in this populationenemy agents in this population• NoNo Japanese American ever proven to have Japanese American ever proven to have

collaborated with enemy during WWIIcollaborated with enemy during WWII• Stereotypes slowly began to change after Stereotypes slowly began to change after

WWIIWWII

Recent Distortions, Stereotypes, and OmissionsRecent Distortions, Stereotypes, and Omissions

• Study of Japanese Americans in 1970s Study of Japanese Americans in 1970s found numerous distortions in history text found numerous distortions in history text booksbooks• Most omitted brutal exploitation by U.S. Most omitted brutal exploitation by U.S.

employers in Hawaii and Californiaemployers in Hawaii and California• Japanese and other Asian Americans Japanese and other Asian Americans

reported whites frequently congratulate reported whites frequently congratulate them on how well they speak English as them on how well they speak English as though they were foreign-bornthough they were foreign-born

• Racist imaging sometimes takes form of Racist imaging sometimes takes form of mocking language and cultures of mocking language and cultures of Americans of colorAmericans of color

• Debates about negative images in the Debates about negative images in the media emerged again in early 2000smedia emerged again in early 2000s• Disney film “Pearl Harbor” use of derogatory Disney film “Pearl Harbor” use of derogatory

epithet “Japs” and one-sided portrayal of epithet “Japs” and one-sided portrayal of WWIIWWII

• Examples of racial stereotypingExamples of racial stereotyping• Senator Spark Matsunuga of HawaiiSenator Spark Matsunuga of Hawaii• San Francisco radio stationSan Francisco radio station• Toledo, Ohio radio stationToledo, Ohio radio station• Rosie O’DonnellRosie O’Donnell• Adidas caricature of buck-toothed, slant-eyed Adidas caricature of buck-toothed, slant-eyed

Asian as logoAsian as logo• Such stereotypes are an integral part of old white Such stereotypes are an integral part of old white

racial framing of societyracial framing of society

REPRESSIONREPRESSIONAND VIOLENT ATTACKSAND VIOLENT ATTACKS

• Anti-Japanese movements sometimes Anti-Japanese movements sometimes turned to violenceturned to violence• First acts came within decade of their First acts came within decade of their

arrivalarrival• Scientists sent by Japan to help with Scientists sent by Japan to help with

earthquake relief after San Francisco earthquake relief after San Francisco quake of 1906 attacked by white menquake of 1906 attacked by white men

• Escalated at beginning of WWIIEscalated at beginning of WWII• 1942, whites carried out attacks on 1942, whites carried out attacks on

Japanese Americans and their propertyJapanese Americans and their property

The Ugly Specter of U.S. Concentration The Ugly Specter of U.S. Concentration CampsCamps• Japanese military victories in the Pacific Japanese military victories in the Pacific

increased fear of Japanese invasion on the increased fear of Japanese invasion on the mainlandmainland

• 11stst major phase of federal action major phase of federal action • Americans whose ancestry linked to countries at Americans whose ancestry linked to countries at

war with U.S. were moved from sensitive areas war with U.S. were moved from sensitive areas and their travel restrictedand their travel restricted

• Japanese American businesses sold at a lossJapanese American businesses sold at a loss• In 1942, more than 2/3rds Japanese housed In 1942, more than 2/3rds Japanese housed

inland were inland were native-born U.S. citizensnative-born U.S. citizens• Protested their discrimination in numerous Protested their discrimination in numerous

demonstrationsdemonstrations

Why the Camps Were CreatedWhy the Camps Were Created• U.S. Supreme Court upheld military U.S. Supreme Court upheld military

decision though clear violation of decision though clear violation of constitutional civil rightsconstitutional civil rights• American leaders saw struggle in the American leaders saw struggle in the

Pacific as a Pacific as a racialracial war war• Japanese fought unsuccessfully in Japanese fought unsuccessfully in

courts and with demonstrationscourts and with demonstrations• Highly racialized oppression of U.S. Highly racialized oppression of U.S.

citizens occurred at a time when U.S. citizens occurred at a time when U.S. government was proclaiming values of government was proclaiming values of freedomfreedom and and democracydemocracy to a war-torn to a war-torn worldworld

Later ImpactLater Impact• After WWII, most Japanese returned to After WWII, most Japanese returned to

west coastwest coast• Faced economic discrimination and violent Faced economic discrimination and violent

attacksattacks• Fastest-growing category of hate crimes Fastest-growing category of hate crimes

in recent decades has been against Asian in recent decades has been against Asian AmericansAmericans

• Lieutenant Ehren WatadaLieutenant Ehren Watada• Protested Gulf War in that it violated U.S. and Protested Gulf War in that it violated U.S. and

international lawinternational law• Connected his conscientious stand with those Connected his conscientious stand with those

of concentration camp era who actively stood of concentration camp era who actively stood up against oppressionup against oppression

THE POLITICAL ARENATHE POLITICAL ARENA• Japanese American Citizens League Japanese American Citizens League

(JACL)(JACL)• Since WWII, JACL and other Since WWII, JACL and other

organizations won political and legal organizations won political and legal victoriesvictories

• Organizations continued to press Organizations continued to press government for adequate repayment for government for adequate repayment for losseslosses

• 2001, memorial to incarcerated Japanese 2001, memorial to incarcerated Japanese Americans and soldiers who served in Americans and soldiers who served in military was dedicated in Washington, military was dedicated in Washington, D.C.D.C.

Government OfficialsGovernment Officials• Japanese elected to Hawaiian state Japanese elected to Hawaiian state

legislature led to statehood of islands in legislature led to statehood of islands in 1950s1950s

• Political victories on mainland difficult Political victories on mainland difficult because of dilution of Japanese votes in because of dilution of Japanese votes in predominantly non-Asian populationspredominantly non-Asian populations

• Historically, many Asian Americans reluctant Historically, many Asian Americans reluctant to participate actively in politicsto participate actively in politics• Fear of intensifying discrimination against their Fear of intensifying discrimination against their

groupsgroups• Japanese and other Asians who enter Japanese and other Asians who enter

political arena encounter overt racist political arena encounter overt racist reactionsreactions

Politics, Stereotyping, and Competition with Politics, Stereotyping, and Competition with JapanJapan• Acts of vandalism and violence by whites Acts of vandalism and violence by whites

against Japanese motivated by fear of against Japanese motivated by fear of economic competition with Japaneconomic competition with Japan• Recently, Japan’s economic development has Recently, Japan’s economic development has

surpassed U.S. in many areassurpassed U.S. in many areas• Increasing unemployment in local and national Increasing unemployment in local and national

recessions periodically fueled tendency to blame recessions periodically fueled tendency to blame Asians for U.S. economyAsians for U.S. economy

• Anti-Japanese hostility among non-Asians Anti-Japanese hostility among non-Asians can still turn to threats of violence todaycan still turn to threats of violence today

Protest Organizations and Group PrideProtest Organizations and Group Pride• Voluntary associations formed in early Voluntary associations formed in early

1900s to combat anti-Japanese 1900s to combat anti-Japanese discriminationdiscrimination

• 1960s Pan-Asian organizations 1960s Pan-Asian organizations appeared, established by younger appeared, established by younger generationsgenerations

• Numerous colleges and universities Numerous colleges and universities developed Asian American studies developed Asian American studies programsprograms

• Yet recently, hate crimes directed Yet recently, hate crimes directed against Asians persist on campusesagainst Asians persist on campuses

THE ECONOMYTHE ECONOMY• First four generations of JapaneseFirst four generations of Japanese

• IsseiIssei (born in Japan),(born in Japan), NiseiNisei, , SanseiSansei, , andand YonseiYonsei• Issei Issei played “played “middleman minoritymiddleman minority” role” role

• Most early immigrants came from eleven Most early immigrants came from eleven Japanese prefectures which were Japanese prefectures which were represented by an association in U.S.represented by an association in U.S.

• 1913 1913 California Alien Land LawCalifornia Alien Land Law• Stipulated aliens could not buy or lease land for Stipulated aliens could not buy or lease land for

more than 3 yearsmore than 3 years

• Often became gardeners or nursery Often became gardeners or nursery operatorsoperators

• Japanese American women labored Japanese American women labored along with men to secure their own and along with men to secure their own and their families’ livelihoodtheir families’ livelihood

• Some worked as domestic servants to Some worked as domestic servants to whiteswhites• Resisted oppression in covert waysResisted oppression in covert ways

• As need for labor grew after WWII, white As need for labor grew after WWII, white employers finally began to hire Japaneseemployers finally began to hire Japanese• Second and later generations gradually Second and later generations gradually

moved from small business economy to moved from small business economy to professional and other white-collar jobsprofessional and other white-collar jobs

Occupational MobilityOccupational Mobility• Income data reveal economic successIncome data reveal economic success• Yet, they face exclusion from certain Yet, they face exclusion from certain

positions in many businesses, positions in many businesses, entertainment, political, and civil service entertainment, political, and civil service areasareas

• Glass CeilingGlass Ceiling• An unwritten and unofficial policy in An unwritten and unofficial policy in

some organizations that limits the some organizations that limits the potential for advancement of certain potential for advancement of certain persons, usually based on their race or persons, usually based on their race or gendergender

EDUCATIONEDUCATION• IsseiIssei had strong commitment to had strong commitment to

educationeducation• Japanese Americans developed their Japanese Americans developed their

own schools to educate children in the own schools to educate children in the Japanese language and cultureJapanese language and culture• By 1930s, making great strides despite By 1930s, making great strides despite

discriminationdiscrimination

• Wartime imprisonment interrupted Wartime imprisonment interrupted educational pursuitseducational pursuits

• Japanese among the most educated Japanese among the most educated AmericansAmericans

RELIGIONRELIGION

• Immigrants broughtImmigrants brought Buddhism Buddhism and and ShintoismShintoism

• 1920s white exclusionists claimed 1920s white exclusionists claimed temples were areas of emperor worshiptemples were areas of emperor worship

• Today, many are members of Today, many are members of Protestant churchesProtestant churches• Churches second in importance to family Churches second in importance to family

in cementing the communityin cementing the community• Resurgence in Buddhism in recent Resurgence in Buddhism in recent

years among Asians and non-Asiansyears among Asians and non-Asians

ASSIMILATION PERSPECTIVESASSIMILATION PERSPECTIVES• Japanese Americans the most assimilated Japanese Americans the most assimilated

to Euro-American core culture of all Asian to Euro-American core culture of all Asian groupsgroups

• Assimilationists argue that some cultural Assimilationists argue that some cultural assimilation came early for Isseiassimilation came early for Issei• 22ndnd generation Nisei became bi-cultural generation Nisei became bi-cultural• 33rdrd generation Sansei closed gap with some generation Sansei closed gap with some

aspects of dominant cultureaspects of dominant culture

• 33rdrd and 4 and 4thth generation highly oriented to generation highly oriented to norms and styles of white middle-class norms and styles of white middle-class culture and retained few Asian traditionsculture and retained few Asian traditions

• Structural assimilation at secondary-Structural assimilation at secondary-group levels significant for Japanesegroup levels significant for Japanese

• Behavior-receptional and attitude-Behavior-receptional and attitude-receptional assimilation showed little receptional assimilation showed little change until after WWIIchange until after WWII• Discrimination and prejudice marred lives of Discrimination and prejudice marred lives of

Issei and Nisei for first 60 yearsIssei and Nisei for first 60 years

• By 1980s whites did not see Japanese By 1980s whites did not see Japanese as very different from themselvesas very different from themselves• High rate of intermarriage with whitesHigh rate of intermarriage with whites• Still experience subtle, blatant, and covert Still experience subtle, blatant, and covert

discriminationdiscrimination

• Asian-white marriages illegal until late Asian-white marriages illegal until late 1940s1940s• Out-marriage rates to whites high in Out-marriage rates to whites high in

CaliforniaCalifornia

• Numerous Asian Americans marry Numerous Asian Americans marry outside their own group yet outside their own group yet marry inter-marry inter-ethnicallyethnically to other Asian Americans to other Asian Americans

• Few have rejected their Japanese cultural Few have rejected their Japanese cultural heritage or identityheritage or identity

• Younger Japanese Americans retaining Younger Japanese Americans retaining some of their distinctive organizations some of their distinctive organizations and traditionsand traditions

• While there are signs of significant While there are signs of significant acculturation to core culture, most hold acculturation to core culture, most hold values close to those of their parentsvalues close to those of their parents

• In broad view of assimilation, Asians can In broad view of assimilation, Asians can be grouped into major categories based be grouped into major categories based on:on:• Degree of overall assimilation to dominant Degree of overall assimilation to dominant

Eurocentric culture and institutionsEurocentric culture and institutions• The strength of ethnic identityThe strength of ethnic identity

• Japanese Americans in high assimilation, high Japanese Americans in high assimilation, high ethnic identity categoryethnic identity category

• HapaHapa• The Hawaiian word for The Hawaiian word for ““those of mixed those of mixed

ancestryancestry””

Power-Conflict ViewPower-Conflict View• Only few analysts interpreted Japanese Only few analysts interpreted Japanese

American experience form power-conflict American experience form power-conflict perspectiveperspective

• Because U.S. was an imperial power in Because U.S. was an imperial power in Pacific, U.S. labor agents had easy entry Pacific, U.S. labor agents had easy entry into Asian countries and could dictate into Asian countries and could dictate labor agreements benefiting U.S. labor agreements benefiting U.S. employersemployers

• At first Japanese Americans forced by At first Japanese Americans forced by white-generated discrimination to become white-generated discrimination to become low-wage workerslow-wage workers

• Pressure to acculturate largely coercive Pressure to acculturate largely coercive for first two generationsfor first two generations• Early commitment to cultural assimilation in Early commitment to cultural assimilation in

Japanese communities was reaction to Japanese communities was reaction to severe racial discriminationsevere racial discrimination

• Implicit bias in traditional assimilation Implicit bias in traditional assimilation modelmodel• Assimilation theory emerged in a period of Assimilation theory emerged in a period of

intense white agitation against Japanese intense white agitation against Japanese immigration and reflected racist views of immigration and reflected racist views of white scholarswhite scholars

• U.S. government played role in defining U.S. government played role in defining racial groupsracial groups

Criticizing the “Criticizing the “Model MinorityModel Minority” Stereotype” Stereotype

• Paramount weakness in assimilation Paramount weakness in assimilation analysis is reliance on a “analysis is reliance on a “model minoritymodel minority””

• Whites intentionally created model Whites intentionally created model minority during period of African American minority during period of African American protest to suggest that African Americans protest to suggest that African Americans could achieve by working harder rather could achieve by working harder rather than protesting institutional discriminationthan protesting institutional discrimination

• Educational opportunities not available to Educational opportunities not available to blacks helped Asians to get white-collar blacks helped Asians to get white-collar jobs after the warjobs after the war

• Success came at the price of Success came at the price of marginalization in small-business marginalization in small-business economy and later in certain economy and later in certain professionsprofessions• Economic success result of carving Economic success result of carving

distinctive niche, which is not in line with distinctive niche, which is not in line with idealistic assimilation modelsidealistic assimilation models

• Paul TakagiPaul Takagi• Bias in traditional cultural background Bias in traditional cultural background

explanationexplanation• The idea that the racial and ethnic groups The idea that the racial and ethnic groups

whose values are closest to those of the whose values are closest to those of the dominant white group are the ones who will be dominant white group are the ones who will be and should be successfuland should be successful

• Janice TanakaJanice Tanaka• Nisei greatly affected by internment and Nisei greatly affected by internment and

placed pressure on themselves and their placed pressure on themselves and their children to conform to white perspectives children to conform to white perspectives and customsand customs

• Japanese immigration and Japanese Japanese immigration and Japanese American integration into dominant American integration into dominant culture and society shaped by U.S. culture and society shaped by U.S. corporations’ intervention in world corporations’ intervention in world economyeconomy

• New economic alliances in the Pacific New economic alliances in the Pacific Rim are bypassing U.S.Rim are bypassing U.S.

• Japan is a powerful economy in these Japan is a powerful economy in these alliancesalliances• One reason why there has been relatively little One reason why there has been relatively little

recent migration from Japan to U.S.recent migration from Japan to U.S.• Some non-Asians, angry over domestic Some non-Asians, angry over domestic

troubles, confuse Japanese Americans with troubles, confuse Japanese Americans with other Asians and blame them unfairly for other Asians and blame them unfairly for economic troubles caused by U.S. economic troubles caused by U.S. employers investing overseasemployers investing overseas

• For a time, Japan viewed as taking over For a time, Japan viewed as taking over U.S. by buying companies and real estateU.S. by buying companies and real estate• Little attention given to fact that Great Britain Little attention given to fact that Great Britain

and Canada largest foreign investors in U.S.and Canada largest foreign investors in U.S.