JAPANESE PRONOUNCIATIONJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

んAlthough it is typically translated as “n” in romaji, ん sounds like an “m” when followed by “m,” “p,” or “b.” Also remember that the ん sound is held for the same time as any other syllable, which results in a slight pause after the ん.

NOTES

For double consonants, treat it like one long

sound. Start the beginning of the sound at the

end of the preceding syllable, hold silently for

an interval, then finish with the next syllable.

The vowel “e” can vary slightly in sound. When

at the end of a word or followed by a vowel, it

sounds harder, like “ey” in “hey.”

Some syllables tend to have a weak vowel sound.

For example, “shita” → “shh-tah”, “desu” → “deh-ss”

“f” sounds more like an “h” in Japanese. Try to say

“fu” without touching your teeth to your lips.

“r” is softer in Japanese. Try to say “ru” by flicking

your tongue, not pursing your lips.

Tip: Try clapping your hands at even intervals or

using a metronome to help you practice your

timing.

*

*

*

*

*

*

SyllablesSyllables in Japanese are very regular. Unlike English, there is no stress on any particular syllable of a word. Each syllable is also given equal time to pronounce, including double consonants, individual vowels, and ん.

Keep in mind that because Japanese is spoken quickly, empha-sizing each syllable would sound strange. Instead, focus on the time given to each syllable. The language should sound like a steady flow.

sai

nande

nakatta

Toukyou

kiite

kitte

VowelsVowels can act inconsistently in English, but vowels in Japanese are simple and predictable. Japanese vowels never form diphthongs (combined vowels that form a new sound, like “ai” in “rain”), but remain distinct sounds. There are also “long vowels,” which are when a single vowel sound is held for two intervals.

a ah, like in “raw”

i ee, like in “bee”

u oo, like in “moo”

e eh, like in “meh” or ey, like in “hey”*

o oh, like in “bow”

aoi ah-oh-ee

iie ee~ee-ay

uu (long u) oo~oo

ee or ei (long e) e~ey

oo or ou (long o) o~oh

sah

nah n dey

to~ ~oh kyoh~ ~oh

kee~ ~ee tey

kee t~ ~tey

nah kah t~ ~ta

ee

JAPANESE WRITING: HIRAGANAJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

A

KA

SA

TA

NA

HA

MA

YA

RA

WA

KYA

SHA

CHA

NYA

HYA

MYA

RYA

あかさたなはまやらわきゃしゃちゃにゃひゃみゃりゃ

I

KI

SHI

CHI

NI

HI

MI

RI

いきしちにひみ

り

U

KU

SU

TSU

NU

FU

MU

YU

RU

KYU

SHU

CHU

NYU

HYU

MYU

RYU

うくすつぬふむゆる

きゅしゅちゅにゅひゅみゅりゅ

E

KE

SE

TE

NE

HE

ME

RE

えけせてねへめ

れ

O

KO

SO

TO

NO

HO

MO

YO

RO

WO

KYO

SHO

CHO

NYO

HYO

MYO

RYO

おこそとのほもよろをきょしょちょにょひょみょりょ

ﾞ゙ﾞﾞ

ﾞ゙ﾞﾞ

ﾟ

ﾟ

DAKUTEN

* tsu → dzu shi → ji chi → ji

HANDAKUTENﾟﾞN ん

ks

gz* h p

th

d*b

“j” syllables other than ji (じ) combine “ji” and small “y” kana. For example, “ja”: じゃA small tsu (っ) represents a double consonant. For example, かった means “katta.”

A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals.

***

JAPANESE WRITING: KATAKANAJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

A

KA

SA

TA

NA

HA

MA

YA

RA

WA

KYA

SHA

CHA

NYA

HYA

MYA

RYA

アカサタナハマやラワキャシャチャニャヒャミャリャ

I

KI

SHI

CHI

NI

HI

MI

RI

ィきシチニヒみ

リ

U

KU

SU

TSU

NU

FU

MU

YU

RU

KYU

SHU

CHU

NYU

HYU

MYU

RYU

ウクスツヌフムュル

キュシュチュニュヒュミュリュ

E

KE

SE

TE

NE

HE

ME

RE

えケセテネへメ

レ

O

KO

SO

TO

NO

HO

MO

YO

RO

WO

KYO

SHO

CHO

NYO

HYO

MYO

RYO

オコソトノホモヨロヲキョショチョニョヒョミョリョ

ﾞ゙ﾞﾞ

ﾞ゙ﾞﾞ

ﾟ

ﾟ

The “v” sound doesn’t occur naturally in Japanese, so it is often substituted with “b” or represented as a

dakuten form of “u”: ヴ.Other syllables that don’t occur naturally in Japanese are often formed by using a small version of a

vowel. For example, “fu+small o” makes “fo”: フォ. Simularly, ヴぁ makes “va”

A small tsu (ッ) represents a double consonant. For example, カッタ means “katta.”

A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals.

*

*

**

N ン

DAKUTEN

* tsu → dzu shi → ji chi → ji

HANDAKUTENﾟﾞks gz* h p

th

d*b

JAPANESE VERBS: INTRODUCTIONJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

Godan Verbs Ichidan Verbs Irregular Verbs

-[vowel]+u

-tsu

-u

-tsu

-su

-u

-ru¹

-tsu

-u

-tsu

-u

-ku²

-gu

-u³/-tsu/-ru

-su

-bu/-nu/-mu

-[v]+wa

-ta

-a

-chi

-shi

-i

-i

-te

-e

-tou

-ou

-ite

-ide

-tte

-shite

-nde

A

I

E

O

TE TA

Godan

-ru

-ru

-ru

-ru

-ru

-ru

ー

ー

-re

-you

-te

-ta

AIEOTETA

Ichidan

suru

kuru

suru

kuru

suru

kuru

suru

kuru

suru

kuru

suru

kuru

shi

ko

shi

ki

sure

kure

shiyou

koyou

shite

kite

shita

kita

A

I

E

O

TE

TA

Suru/Kuru

ConjugationsConjugate each form starting from the dictionary (”u”) form.

Meaning “five stage,” for each vowelstage, and the most common type of verb. They are mostly regular, aside from three special classes: iku/yuku, -aru verbs, and colloquial -u verbs.

Ichidan verbs consist only of verbs that end in -eru or -iru, but not all -eru or -iru verbs are ichidan. The only way to tell is by memorization.

There are dew irregular verbs in Japanese, including the “copulas,” da and desu, and the verbs suru and kuru, as well as verbs that use suruas their root.

¹ Only for the five “honorific” aru verbs: kudasaru,nasaru, gozaru, irassharu, and ossharu

² iku 行く → itte / itta | yuku 行く yutte / yutta³ In some dialects, -u → -uta/ute or -ota/ote

suru to do

benkyou suru to study

chuumon suru to order

shimpai suru to worry

kuru to come

da ~to be

desu ~to be (polite)

taberu to eat

oboeru to remember

deru to leave

kariru to borrow

miru to see

dekiru to be able

iru to be, to exist

aruku to walk

kau to buy

kasu to lend

mastu to wait

yomu to read

kudasaru to give (honorific)

iru to need

-ku²

-gu

-u³/-tsu/-ru

-su

-bu/-nu/-mu

-ita

-ida

-tta

-shita

-nda

JAPANESE VERBS: VOWEL FORMSJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

A F

orm

irre

alis

-m

izen

kei

-nai² negative present

-nakatta negative past

-nakereba negative condition

-naide negative command

-zu (ni) [clause] not have done when [clause]

[nai to/nakereba] [naranai/ikenai] must do

aruka kawa kasa mata tabe mi shi ko

I Fo

rmco

ntin

uat

ive-

ren’

youk

ei

-masu polite present

-masen (deshita) polite negative (past)

-mashita polite past

-tai² desiderative (”want to do”)

-nikui² / -yasui² hard / easy to do

-nagara [verb] do while doing [verb]

aruki kai kashi machi tabe mi shi ki

U F

orm

term

inal

-sh

uush

ikei U

Formattributive-

rentaikei

[base] plain present

na plain negative command

nara assumptive conditional

aruku kau kasu matsu taberu miru suru kuru

E Fo

rmhy

poth

etic

al-ka

teik

ei

-ba hypothetical/provisional conditional

-ba ii² optative (”would be good if”)

-ba yokatta regret (”would’ve been good if”)

-ru³ potential/ability (godan only)

-nai² no potential/ability (godan only)

[base] impolite command (generally godan only)

aruke kae kase mate tabere mire sure kure

O F

orm

volit

iona

l-ik

ouke

i

[base] volitional (”let’s...”)

to omou¹ think about doing

to suru¹ try to do / be about to do

arukou kaou kasou matou tabeyou miyou shiyou koyou

¹ verb that can be conjugated

² adjectival verb (i-adjective) that can be conjugated

³ forms new ichidan verb that can be conjugated

NOTES

+ [noun] present relative clause

no/koto nominalization

koto ni suru¹ decide to do

JAPANESE VERBS: TE, TA, PASSIVE, AND CAUSITIVEJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

Te Formthe participle

-ku

-gu

-u/-tsu/-ru

-su

-bu/-nu/-mu

ichidan -ru

iku

suru

kuru

-ite

-ide

-tte

-shite

-nde

-te

itte

shite

kite

[base] command/answer/linking

iru¹ continous action (”i” often omitted)

kuru¹ perfect continuous action

oku¹ to plan to do

shimau¹ accidentally/unexpectedly

kudasai request

aru¹ passive perfect continous

iku¹ future continous

miru¹ to try doing and “see”

mo ii “may” (”may I?”/”you may”)

The participle is a verb form that modifies thenoun, verb, or noun or verb clause. In Japanese,it is commonly used for continous actions, tomake requests, answer questions, and link aseries of actions performed in order.

Ta Formthe perfective

-ku

-gu

-u/-tsu/-ru

-su

-bu/-nu/-mu

ichidan -ru

iku

suru

kuru

-ita

-ida

-tta

-shita

-nda

-ta

itta

shita

kita

[base] perfective (~simple past)

bakari to have recently done

-ra conditional (“tara” form)

to shitara/suru¹ suppositional

toki “when [clause happened]...”

-ri [...-ri] suru³ list general actions

koto (ga) aru¹ to have experienced

-rou past subjunctive (”probably”)

to shite mo “even if...”

tokoro to have just done

The perfective aspect doesn’t exist in English,but it is simple enough to compare it to oursimple past tense. It is an action that has beencompleted in full.

Passive Tense

godan a form

ichidan a form

suru

kuru a form

+reru²

+rareru²

sareru²

+rareru²

Causative Tense

godan a form

ichidan a form

suru

kuru a form

+seru²

+saseru²

saseru²

+saseru²

Passive-Causative

causative a form

+rareru²

Subject becomes the direct object. Subject causes indirect object to act. NOTES¹ verb that can be conjugated

² forms a new ichidan verb that

can be conjugated

³ each clause uses the -ri conju-

gation, but the tense for every

clause is determined by suru,

which comes at the very end

JAPANESE VERBS: COMPOUND, DA, AND DESUJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

Compound VerbsMost V+V compound verbs are formed by using the i-form of the topic verb and conjugating the phrasal verb,similar to using helping verbs with the infinitive in English, where the “helping verb” comes second. Other V+V compound verbs use the linking form (te-form) for the first verb to link two actions taken together.

N+V compound verbs use “suru” for the phrasal verb. Some use the object particle (を), some don’t.

Da and Desu ー The Copula?Whether you want to call da/desu copulas, auxillary verbs, or whatever, it does not explain when and how to use them. Instead, consider them contextual markers for tense and politeness and follow these simple rules:

Da (Plain) Desu (Polite)

present da

negative de (waは) /ja nai

past datta

past negative de (waは) /ja nakatta

volitional darou

te-Form de

conditional nara/naraba

attributive/prenominal no/na

present desu

negative de (waは) /ja arimasen

past deshita

past negative de (waは) /ja arimasen deshita

volitional deshou

te-Form de arimashite

conditional de areba

attributive/prenominal desu

[verb, i-form]+hajimeru to begin to do

[verb, i-form]+oeru to finish doing

[verb, i-form]+sugiru to overdo

[verb, i-form]+naosu to redo

[verb, i-form]+tsudzukeru to continue doing

[verb, te-form]+miru to try doing and “see”

[verb, te-form]+shimau to do accidentally

motteiku to take (to have + to go)

mottekuru to bring (to have + to come)

benkyou suru to study (study/research + to do)

must use¹ when there is not already a predicate verb or adjectival verb in the clause to provide tense/politeness

can use² when it will add context of tense, politeness or meaning to a clause, if the main verb cannot do it itself

cannot use³ when it would not add context of tense, politeness, or meaning, or it would disagree with the main verb

¹ For example, to say you are happy, you must use a form of da/desu with the noun “shiawase.” In this sense, it is a copula.² For example, since “taberu” has the polite form “tabemashita,” you CANNOT say “taberu desu.” However, you can say “tabetai desu.”

³ For example, you cannot say “tabemasen datta,” because “tabemasen” is polite. The past form must be “tabemasen deshita.”

JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: INTRODUCTIONJAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

The Japanese language does not have “adjectives” from a linguistical sense. Instead, it uses verbs and nouns to describe objects. When used prenominally, they form a relative—or adjectival—clause; and when used as a predicate, they are used inflected or paired with a form of da/desu to create a state-of-being (stative) sentence.

COMPARISONSWHAT TYPE?

i-AdjectivesA very common type of “adjective.” They always end in い in their character form. They are considered a special type of verb because they include state-of-being and are conjugated directly, often similarly to verbs.

verb

f-Adjectivesf-adjectives are the continuous or perfective form of anormal verb, used to modify a noun. Prenominally, theyare considered a relative clause, like “city that froze,” and not “frozen city,” meaning they can be used in advancedways, such as “the city that was frozen by a storm.”

verb

na-AdjectivesAnother common type of “adjective,” formed simply byadding a conjugation of da or desu after the noun. The“na” only refers to their prenominal present form; they have no visual way to distinguish them.

noun

no-AdjectivesThe other type of adjectival noun. There is no outright way to distinguish na- and no-adjectives, but personal qualities are usually na-adjectives, while unsubjective attributes are commonly no-adjectives, like “next” or “my,” or even “apple tart” and “German dog.”

noun

ends in “ii” it’s an i-adjective

ends in “ei” it’s not an i-adjective

ends in “[consonant]+i” it’s not an i-adjective

physical attribute probably an i-adjective¹

conceptual attribute probably a na-adjective

unsubjective attribute probably a no-adjective

↑ “[B] yori” or “[B] no hou ga” can be dropped if clear from context. Must use attributive form (”na”/”no”).

↑ Both forms can be used before the terminal/predicateor attributive/prenominal form.

↑ “dare” must be used for animate objects, while“nani” is used for inantimate objects.

A > B [clause A] hou ga [clause B] yori [adj]

B > A [clause A] yori [clause B] hou ga [adj]

degree [clause] hodo [adj]

“same exact” [A] wa は [B] to onaji

“as much as [noun]” [noun] to onaji gurai [adj]

“different” [A] wa は [B] to chigau

superlative ichiban [adj]

superlative mottomo [adj]

more than anyone [noun] wa は dare yori [adj]

more than anything [noun] wa は nani yori [adj]

↑ For example, to say someone is “so tall that [clause]” or“not tall enough to [clause]”

NOTESA notable exception to this is color. The most

primary colors (red, blue, yellow, black, white)

have both i-adj and no-adj forms. Secondary,

tertiary, tints, and shades are strictly no-adjs.

The only “irregular” verb is “ii” (”good”). In all

forms other than present, its stem reverts to its

true form, “yoi.”

¹

*

attributive/prenominal kawaii neko (cat that is cute) terminal/predicate Neko ga kawaii. (The cat is cute.)

JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: CONJUGATION

attributive present hayai [noun]

terminal present hayai

negative hayaku nai

past (ta-form) hayakatta

past negative hayaku nakatta

irrealis (a-form) hayaku

continuative (i-form) haya¹

volitional (o-form) hayaku shiyou

participle (te-form) hayakute

adverb hayaku [verb]

conditonal hayakereba

neg. conditonal hayaku nakereba

noun hayasa (”speed”)

i-Adjectivesthe adjectival verb

i-adjectives are like special verbs,which include tense (and thus must not use the plain verb da).

attributive present benri na [noun]

terminal present benri da

negative benri de(waは)² nai

past (ta-form) benri datta

past negative benri de(wa)² nakatta

irrealis (a-form) benri de

continuative (i-form) benri

volitional (o-form) benri de arou

participle (te-form) benri de

adverb benri ni [verb]

conditonal benri nara/dattara

neg. conditonal benri de nakereba

noun [base]

na-Adjectivesthe adjectival noun

na-adjectives are nouns used todescribe attributes by using a formof the verb da (plain) or desu (polite).

attributive perfect okotta [noun]

attributive continuous okotte iru [n]

terminal present okotte iru

negative okotte inai

past (ta-form) okotte ita

past negative okotte inakatta

present okotte imasu

negative okotte imasen

past okotte imashita

past negative okotte imasen deshita “adverb”/te form okotte [verb]

f-Adjectivesthe adjectival clause

f-adjectives are really just the perfector continuous form of a verb, used asa relative clause to describe a noun.

possessive: my watashi no

“type”: Japanese nihon no

numeral: two ni [counter] no

numeral: many oku no

distributive: another betsu no

demonstrative: this kono

interrogative: what nani no

no-Adjectivesthe other adjectival noun

no-adjectives are a class that include possessive, “type,” numeral, demon-strative, and interrogative adjectives.

NOTESThe i-form of adjectives that end in“nai” appends “sa.” Ex. “nai” → “nasa””ja” is a colloquial form of “de(waは)”Aside from present or polite forms, each form may be used as either the predicate (terminal) or the prenomi-nal (attributive) form.

JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

¹

²*

hayai 早い early | stem: haya

benri 便利 useful

okoru 怒る to get angry

JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

JAPANESE ADVERBS

Manner adverbs (how an action is performed) are usually derived from adjectival verbs and nouns. For i-adjs,the adjective is inflected to the adjectival form. For na- and no-adjs, use the particle, “ni.”

Manner Adverbs

koko ni / soko ni here / there

chikaku ni / tooku ni nearby / distantly

Toukyou no kita 10 mairu ni 10 miles north of Tokyo

tsukue no shita ni underneath the desk (”at the desk’s bottom”)

Locational adverbs (where an action is done) usually use a noun, followed a location particle like “ni” or “de.”

Locational Adverbs

ima now

mainichi every day

taitei usually

hotondo almost/barely

zenzen not at all (neg. tense)

amari not very much (neg. tense)

Time/frequency adverbs (when or how often an action is done) and degree adverbs (to what degree an action is done) usually use a “true” adverb. Time adverbs usually go towards the beginning of the clause.

Time/Frequency/Degree Adverbs

sabishiku kanjiru/omou feel lonely

sore o を shiawase ni kanjiru/omou feel happy about that

While “feeling” something in English uses adjectives, Japanese uses manner adverbs with “kanjiru” or “omou.”To mention what makes you feel that way, use the direct object particle “o” を.

Kanjiru & Omou

yowaku suru turn down (”make weak”)

hazukashiku suru embarrass or make shy

kirei ni suru clean (”make pretty/clean”)

atsuku naru become hot

tomodachi ni naru become friends

suki ni naranai cannot like (”will not become likable”)

Using a manner adverb directly before “suru” can imply causitive tense. In other words, the subject causes the direct object to become [adjective]. Using “naru” can imply that the subject became [adjective].

Suru & Naru

Generally, adverbs can be placed anywhere. Time adverbs usually come near the beginning, while other typesgo near the verb. The adverb applys to the next verb in the sentence.Some adverbs can only be used with negative conjugations. For example, while “zenzen” might be translatedas meaning “entirely,” the clause “zenzen tabetakunai” would be translated as “I don’t want to eat at all.”

NOTES*

*

i-adj i → ku

na/no-adj na/no → ni

ureshii (”delightful”) ureshiku (”delightfully”)

ketteiteki na (”~decisive”) ketteiteki ni (”decisively”)

JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

JAPANESE NOUNS: PRONOUNS

Demonstrative PronounsDemonstratives are words that refer to something by proximity. These are a few common examples.

Indefinite PronounsIndefinite pronouns refer to one or more unspecified people or things. These are a few common examples.

ko- (close to speaker)

kore (this)

kono (this...)

konna (like this)

koko (here)

kocchi (this way)

kou (this manner)

pronoun

determiner

adjective

place

direction

manner

so- (close to listener)

sore (that)

sono (that...)

sonna (like that)

soko (there)

socchi (that way)

so (that manner)

a- (far)

are (that over there)

ano (that...over there)

anna (like that)

sasoko (over there)

acchi (over that way)

aa (that manner)

do- (interrogative)

dore (which?)

dono (which...?)

donna (how/what?)

doko (where?)

docchi (which way?)

dou (how?)

nani (-thing)

nani ka

nani mo (rarely used)

nani mo ... nai

nan de mo

ka (some-)

mo (every-)

mo ... nai (no-)

demo (any-)

dare (-one)

dare ka

dare mo

dare mo ... nai

dare de mo

doko (-where)

doko ka

doko mo

doko mo ... nai

doko de mo

itsu (-time)

itsu ka

itsu mo

itsu mo ... nai

itsu de mo

Interrogative PronounsInterrogatives are “question words” like who, what, when, where, and how. These are a few common examples.

what nani

who dare

whose dare no

why naze / doushite / nande

where doko / dochira

when itsu

what time nanji

how (manner) nanide / douyatte / dou

how much (cost) ikura

how many (general) ikutsu

how much/far doregurai (n) / donogurai (a)

how long (”until when”) itsu made

How many...

people nan nin

times nan kai

years nan nen

years old nan sai

vague nan [counter]

These suffixes (or rather particles) are not limited to these examples. For example, “nan nin ka” means “some people.”

JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM

JAPANESE NUMBERS: BASICS

Basic NumbersSimilar to “hundred” and “thousand,” each place value up to the millions has a key word.

However, this system is not as simple as it seemsbecause many sounds are contracted depending on the values. For example, 800 is condensed from “hachi hyaku” to “happyaku.”

MeasurementsUnits always come after the number. To give height/length/etc, use a noun, like “nagasa” (length). When de-scribing distance away from something or somewhere, you can use the verb “hanareru” (to be apart).

Time & DatesUse “ji” (時) after the hour and “fun” (分) after the minutes. “han” (half 半) is often used for half-past an hour.

hyaku man

juu man

man

sen

hyaku

百万 万 百

juu

十万 千 十2 6 1 8 4 1 2

Together: 二百万 六十万 一万 八千 四百 十 二

FractionsSay it like “A of B parts.”

46

roku bun no yon六分の四

DecimalsUse “ten” 点, meaning “dot.”

11.36 juu ichi ten san roku十一点山ろく

Ordinals“me” 目 indicates a place in a series.

3rd thing mitsu me 三つ目

5th person go nin me 五人目

“Ichi” (1) is only used in the 1s place and the 10,000s (”man”) place.

Shinchou wa 203 senchi¹ da. (My) height is 203 cm.

Taijuu² wa 60 kiro desu. (My) weight is 60 kilo(grams).

Eki wa 2 mairu hanarete iru. The station is 2 miles away.

Machi wa koko kara nan kiro hanarete imasu ka? How many kilo(meters) away is the town from here?

Takasa¹ 605 fi-to no biru a 605-foot tall building

Kore wa omosa² ga 4 kiro da. Its weight is 4 kilo(grams).

nagasa roku inchi no sakana a 6-inch long fish

Years/months use the standard counting system, followed by “nen”/“gatsu” (年/月). Days 1-10, 14, 20, and 24 use a different reading system, followed by the reading “ka” (日). All other dates use the reading “nichi” (日).

1/1 ichi gatsu tsuitachi

5/5 go gatsu itsuka

9/9 ku gatsu kokonoka

5/24 go gatsu ni juu yokka

1996年 sen kyuu hyaku kyuu juu roku nen

2/2 ni gatsu futsuka

6/6 roku gatsu muika

10/10 juu gatsu touka

2/12 ni gatsu juu ni nichi

3/3 san gatsu mikka

7/7 shichi gatsu nanoka

11/14 juu ichi gatsu juu yokka

3/21 san gatsu juu ichi nichi

2014年3月4日 ni sen juu yon nen san gatsu juu yokka

4/4 shi gatsu yokka

8/8 hachi gatsu youka

12/20 juu ni gatsu hatsuka

9/30 ku³ gatsu san juu nichi

4:30 yo (not yon) ji han

11:00 juu ichi ji

7:15 nana ji juu go fun

9:40 ku³ ji yon fun

¹ “shinchou” is used to measure the height of a living being, while “takasa” is used for the height of an object.² “taijuu” is used to measure the weight of a living being, while “omosa” is used for the weight of an object.

³ “kyu” tends to change to the shortened “ku” for time, months, and days.

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JAPANESE NUMBERS: COUNTING

Occurances and FrequencyThe noun “kai” 回 is to count the number of times of an event. Along with “ni,” it can convey frequency.

Ni, san kai sushi o tabeta. I’ve eaten sushi 2 or 3 times.

kotoshi de rokkai me sixth time this year

Nen ni san kai koko ni iku. I go three times a year.

san kagetsu ni ikkai once every three months

Approximations

ni juu go nin gurai around 25 people

ni ijou, juu ika not less than 2, not greater than 10

suu hyaku hiki no inu several hundred dogs

shi, go nin no gakusei 4 or 5 students

[number] [counter][counter] no [object][object] [number]

[counter][number] [object]

Most counters can be used in two ways. The first is preferred unless referring to people, using -tsu, or emphasizing quantity.

Hon ni juu yon o satsu katta. (I) bought 24 books.

aoi no kami ni mai two pieces of blue paper

Hitotsu¹ no shitsumon ga arimasu. I have one question.

Futari² no ane ga imasu. (I) have two older sisters.

Mikka kan mae ni itta. (I) went three days ago.

¹ “tsu” uses the traditional Japanese counting system, which is much different from the modern system.² When counting people, 1 and 2 are “hitori” and “futari,” while all other numbers use the modern counting system with “nin.”

Counting Objects

When counting time, the order is different than counting objects. Counting days uses the calendar-day system.

Counting Time

CountersCounters are used when counting objects, definite or indefinite. Think of “loaves” in “some/2 loaves of bread.” Contrary to belief, counters are not used for every noun, but they are more common in Japanese than English. The proper counter varies based on the object, and some objects can use different counters. Common counters:

general counter tsu¹

people (ex. boys) ri / nin² 人

time (often omitted)³ kan 間

months⁴ kagetsu (kan) ヶ月(間)

small animals hiki 匹

large animals tou 頭

books, magazines satsu 冊

vehicles, machines dai 台

long, cylindrical hon 本

flat, thin mai 枚

small, compact ko 個

liquid (ex. drinks) hai 杯

³ When counting time, “kan” can be omitted except in the case of hours.⁴ The word“kagetsu” combines the counter and object into one word, and “kan” is almost always omitted.

Go ji kan kore o sagashita. (I) looked for five hours.

Konojo wa ni nen kan nana kagetsu⁴ atte inai. I haven’t seen her in two years and seven months.

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JAPANESE PARTICLES: INTRODUCTION

ga Subject marker

o を¹ Direct object marker

ni Indirect object marker

e へ¹ Direction marker

Case Markers

Particles are special parts of speech that modify or mark the noun, verb, or clause that comes before it. Often,they will behave like English prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs, but they play a heavier role than just that.

There are six central types of particles, with different uses. Knowing each type can help you understand itscomplete and proper use within a sentence. Many particles belong to multiple categories, but by recognizing the part of speech they follow, it can become much easier to discern which meaning they take.

Identifies the role of a noun in a clause. They alwaysfollow a noun.

no Possession marker

to “and” (exhaustive)

ya “and” (inexhaustive)

na do “etc.”

Parallel MarkersIdentifies the relationship between two or more nouns.They always follow a noun.

wa は¹ Topic marker

mo Agreement marker

koso Emphasis marker

shika “only”, “just”

Binding ParticlesIdentifies the topic and its context in the sentence. Theygenerally follow a noun.

bakari “only,” “just”

made “up until”, “as far as”

dake “as (much as)”

hodo “to the extent of”

Adverbial ParticlesModifies a clause to operate like an adverb for the inde-pendent clause. They may follow a noun or a clause.

kara “because”

to “if”

ga “although”

keredomo “but”

Conjunctive ParticlesIdentifies the relationship between two clauses. Theyalways follow a clause.

ka Uncertainty marker

ne Tag question marker

ka na “I wonder”

yo Assertive final particle (masculine)

Sentence-Ending ParticlesProvides additional context to the sentence, like emotion.Despite the name, some can follow internal clauses.

Based on old kana roots, some particles are pronounced differently than they are written.Particles always come after the word or clause that is being modified.These lists only provide a very small handful of examples for each category.

¹**N

OTE

S

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JAPANESE PARTICLES: CASE & BINDING

wa は ~“about”

mo “also”

sae (mo) ”even”

sura⁵ “not even”

shika⁵ “anything but”

Binding Particles Unlike case markers, binding particles actually give a meaning to the word it modifies. If used on the actor or direct object of the action, they replace “ga” and “o.” Otherwise, if the object has a particle, it comes afterwards.

¹ “ga” vs “wa”: Using “ga” suggests that there is emphasis on the subject (”it wasn’t her, it was ME.”). More on “wa” below.² Like English, when using passive form, the subject is the recipient of the action while the indirect object is the actor.

* Unlike English, stating subject/object is not required. Objects are usually left out if they are obvious, especially “I” and “you.”* You cannot have more than one “ga” or “o” per clause. In order to avoid repeating particles, look into using “lists.”

Watashi ga¹ kare ni eigo de tegami o kaita. I wrote him a letter in English.

Kare ga¹ kanojo ni zenryoku de nagurareta.² He was hit by her with all (her) force.

³ “wa” and “ga” together: His Japanese is the subject, not “him,” but “kare wa” establishes whose Japanese we are talking about.⁴ “mo” is modifying “nihon ni,” not “watashi,” so it means “in addition to another place,” not “in addition to another person.”

⁵ Must be used with a negatively conjugated verb.* Binding particles cannot be used on interrogative pronouns, like “dare” or “nani.”

ga subject/actor

o を direct object

to accomplice

recipient (inc. place) of the action

means by which the action occurs

object compared against subject

ni indirect object

de instrument

yori comparison

performer of the action

object being acted upon

participent of the action

Case markers indicate the role of a noun. Ever wonder why “I” changes to “me” when you’re the object of asentence? Because it is a different “case.” These changes are much more simple in Japanese, where you only need to mark the noun with a particle based on its role. These are some of the most common case particles:

Case Markers - The Basics

Kare wa nihongo ga umai. About him, (his) Japanese is very good.³

Watashi wa nihon ni mo itta koto aru. I have also been to Japan.⁴

Nihongo de sae kore o ginei dekiru. He can even recite it in Japanese.

Neko sura suki ja nai. He doesn’t even like cats.

Sore wa nihon de shika okorenai. It can’t happen anywhere but Japan.

[place][time]

de/ni³

ORIGIN (”from”/”since”)LOCATION (”at”/”in”)

TIME (”at”/”on”)

REQUIREMENT (”by”)DESTINATION (”to”)

kara

[place][time]

LIMIT (”until”)

made

Case Markers - Location & TimeLocation and time share similarities, and are marked by case markers that indicate whether they are startingpoints, general points, or ending points. Note that ORIGIN, DESTINATION, and LIMIT can also be people.

[place]

ni[time]

ni³/e へ[place] made ni[time]

ACTION

³ “ni” can only be used for location when the verb itselfinvolves a location as being the recipient of the action.

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JAPANESE PARTICLES: を, に, & CAUSITIVE CASING

Remember that you cannot repeat “o,” so it is good to be familiar with the above chart in order to avoid repeat-ing the “ni” particle so many times.

Kanojo ni kare o を mise e へ okuraseru. I will have her escort him to the store.

However, you can also use the direct object particle “o,” particularly when you have already have an indirect object. This does not mean you cannot use two “ni” particles, but it sounds better not to repeat them so close.

Kanojo o を mise ni kare to ikaseru. I will have her go with him to the store.

Most of the time, the person being forced to perform is selected with the indirect object particle, “ni.”

Kanojo ni kare to ikaseru. I will have her go with him.

English does not have causitive tense, but it is a simple concept. Someone or something is forcing someone orsomething else to perform the action. The subject is always the person causing the force.

Case Markers - Causitive Tense

This chart shows which particle can be used with each type of action. “Ni” tends to be preferred when possible.

ni indirect object

Mise ni iku.¹

Koko ni aru.²

Neko o kare ni ageta.

Tomodachi ni au.

Anata ni ii.

movement verb ”to”

locational verb ”at”/”in”

other action verbs ”at”/”in”

transferal verbs ”to”

indirect “-”

indirect ”for”

de location

Gakkou de taberu.

e へ destination

Mise e aruku.

Neko o kare e ageta.

made limit

Mise made aruku.

The Complexity of 「に」Likewise, indirect objects are not always how we see them in English. Especially when dealing with location. It is not a true location/destination marker: it can only be used if the location itself can “receive” the action.

¹ “ni” can only be used with some movement verbs. For example: “iku” and “tobu” can accept it, but “aruku” and “hashiru” cannot.² “Locational verbs” are verbs that inherently involve the subject attaching to a location. For example, “to be,” “to hide,” “to enter.”

The Complexity of 「を」Direct objects for Japanese verbs do not always translate as such in English. You will need to learn that certainverbs can be transitive in Japanese, especially when English equivalent would use prepositions.

sagasu to look (for)

matsu to wait (for)

deru to leave (location)

kanjiru to feel (about)

Watashi no neko o を sagashite ita. I was looking for my cat.

Kare o を ichi nichi juu matte imashita. She waited for him all day.

San jikan mae ni ginkou o を deta. He left the bank about three hours ago.

Sore o を dou kanjimashita ka? How do you feel about it?

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JAPANESE PARTICLES: PARALLEL, の, & POSTPOSITIONS

¹ “ni” vs “de”: Typically, “de” is used for the location of an action, but when the verb is stative and inherently involves attaching to alocation, the location is the recipient of the action, and thus uses the i.o. particle “ni.” Examples include “to be,” “to live,” and “to enter.”

ue above/on

shita below/under

naka inside

soto outside

mae (in) front

ushiro behind

aida space between

mawari around

Watashi no kasa wa reizouko to kabe no aida ni¹ aru. My umbrella is between the fridge and the wall.

Kare o eki no soto de¹ matte kudasai. Please wait for him outside the station.

Kanojo ga ki no ushiro ni kakurete iru no o mita. I saw her hiding behind the tree.

Kore wa watashi no tsukue no ue ni oite kudasai. Please put it on (top of) my desk.

Postpositions (equivalent to English prepositions) use a noun + the possessive particle “no” + locational noun.As a noun, each of these must be followed by a particle.

Postpositional Phrases

Watashi wa tomodachi to gakkou ni aruku no ga suki desu. I like walking to school with my friends.

Kore o kiru no wa hisashiburi da. It’s been a while since I’ve worn this. (“About wearing this, it’s been a while.”)

Kare wa engi o suru no tokui de nai. He is not good at acting. (”About him, (his) acting is not good.”)

The second “no” nominalizes a verb or clause. Remember that it will need to be followed by a particle.THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST MULTIPLE VERBS OR CLAUSES.

daidokoro no nagashidai kitchen sink

nihon no denwabangou Japanese phone number

ooku no nihonjin many Japanese people

watashitachi no neko our cat

kare to kanojo no kawaisa his and her cuteness

ni juu san sai no musume 23-year-old daughter

Possession & Nominalization　「の」There are two “no” particles. First is generally called the possessive case. Like other parallel markers, it connects two nouns. Sometimes it is translated as “of,” since it is also used to turn some nouns into adjectives.; however, this is not very accurate (”sukoshi no jikan” cannot be translated as “hours of few”).

Parallel Markers - ListsParallel markers are case markers that link nouns together.Most of them are used to construct lists. Formally, they mustfollow each noun except the last.

THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST CLAUSES OR VERBS.

EXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and”)

1 2 3to to [particle]

1 2 3ka ka [particle]

1 2 3ya ya [particle]

INEXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and such...etc”)

ALTERNATIVE LIST (”or”)

Sakura to Shirou ni agete. Give it to Sakura and Shirou.

Basu ka karuma de ikou. Let’s go by bus or car.

Ringo ya nashi ga oishii. Apples and pears and such are tasty.

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JAPANESE SENTENCES: CLAUSES & RELATIVE CLAUSES

Relative (Adjectival) ClausesAlso known as “adjectival clause,” these are subordinate clauses that describe a noun. In English, they use pro-nouns, like “that” or the “wh-words.” In Japanese, they are formed by putting the clause before the noun. As such, you must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb.

Relative clauses can also use general nouns, like “person” or “thing.” Common nouns to use include:

Kare ga mottekita ringo wa oishii. The apples that he brought were delicious.

Senshuu kyuukou datta jugyou ni itta. I went to the class that was canceled last week.

Boku wa kare ni tegami o kaita kodomo o sagashite iru. I am looking for the child who wrote him a letter.

Kare no ringo o tabeta koto o shitte iru. I know (the thing) that he ate the apple.

Kare wa motometa mono o eta. He got what he asked for.

Sono hon o kaita hito o aitai. I want to meet the person who wrote this book.

Kinou tabeta basho ga suki desu. I like the place where I ate today.

Toukyou ni itta toki o kangaeta. I thought about the time when I went to Tokyo.

Eranda ryuu wa akiraka desu. The reason why (I) chose (it) is obvious.

¹ In English, it is more natural to use noun clauses, which are covered in another section, but Japanese often prefersto use of true nouns over noun clauses. However, you cannot use “koto” for quotes or thoughts.

² These are not used when the object is unknown or vague. For subordinate interrogatives, see the Noun Clause section.* You must use the prenominal/attributive form before each of these words. This means using plain tense, and “na” instead of “da.”

koto¹ “thing (that)”

mono “object (that)”

hito² “person (who)”

basho² “place (where”)

toki² “time (when)”

ryuu² “reason (why)”

Clauses

[topic] + wa は

[subject] + ga

[direct object] + o を

[indirect object] + ni

[location] + de

[adverb]

...

[verb]+

A clause is the simplest unit that can express something. The only required piece of a clause in Japanese is a predicating verb, which always comes at the end of the clause. The order of everything else is flexible, butthe general order is: [time adverbs] + [topics] + [subject] + [everything else] + [predicating verb].

Sentences can have multiple clauses, which can be within or next to other clauses. The order of clauses is also flexible as long as subordinate clauses come before the related indepen-dent clause.

A subordinate (dependent) clause provides the independent (main) clause with additional information. They never usepolite tense. There are three kinds:

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

The clause “kare ga mottekita” is being used to describe “ringo”

* Relative clauses sometimes use “no” instead of “ga” for the actor of the clause. This puts less emphasis on the actor as a whole.

· Relative (Adjectival) Clauses describe nouns · Adverbial Clauses describe actions (why/when/etc) · Noun Clauses are used as a noun

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JAPANESE SENTENCES: QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Question MarkersJapanese does not use intonation or rearrange sentence structure to form a question. Instead, questions areclauses or sentences that are “marked” by particles like “ka” and “ne.”

ka uncertainty prt.

ne tag question prt.

Kyou hirugohan o mou tabeta desu ka? Did you already eat lunch today?

Kare wa nihongo o yoku hanasu, ne? He speaks Japanaese well, doesn’t he?

InvitationsIn order to be polite, invitations (and even non-invitations) often use volitional or negative forms.

volitional [o-form] | [i-form]+mashou

negative [a-form]+nai | [i-form]+masen

Ashita kaerou ka? Shall we return home tomorrow?

Issho ni gohan o tabemasen ka? Won’t you eat with me?

Nounal Interrogatives: Who? What? Where?To ask a question with a nounal interrogative, pop the word right where the answer would go.

dare who

nani what

doko where

dochira which

Dare ga sono hon o kaita ka? Who wrote this book?

Nani o tabetai desu ka? What do you want to eat?

Kare ga doko ni iku hazu desu ka? Where is he supposed to go?

Dochira o jushoushita ka? Which one did you win?

Kare wa itsu kaeru ka? When will he get back?

Naze kanajo wa gakkou ni ikanakatta ka? Why didn’t she go to school?

Kore o donoyouni tsukau ka? How do you use this?

itsu/nanji when/what time

naze/nande/doushite why

dou/donoyouni how

To ask an adverbial question, place the adverb anywhere before the verb.

Adverbial Interrogatives: When? Why? How?

Answering QuestionsIn Japanese, it is common to answer with the predicate, but not any of the objects, even with transitive verbs.

Hai, okotte iru desu.

Yes, (he) is angry.

Kare ni banana o watashita?

Did (you) give him the banana?

Bobbu ni? Iie, watasanakatta. Kare wa okotte iru?

To Bob? No, (I) didn’t give (him) (the banana). Is he angry?

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JAPANESE SENTENCES: CONJUNCTIVE SENTENCES

[clause A] and [clause B] [clause A, te-form] [clause B]¹

[clause A] but [clause B] [clause A] ke(re)do(mo)² [clause B]³

[clause A], so [clause B] [clause A] kara⁴ [clause B]³

Coordinating PhrasesIn coordinating sentences, each clause holds equal weight.

[clause A] because [clause B] [clause B] kara/no de⁴ [clause A]

[clause A] when [clause B] [clause B] toki ni⁴ [clause A]

[clause A] while [clause B] [clause B] aida ni⁴/uchi ni⁴ ⁵ [c. A]

[clause A] while [clause B] [clause B, i-form] nagara [clause A]

[clause A] after [clause B] [clause B, ta-form] ato ni⁴ [clause A]

[clause A] before [clause B] [clause B, u-form] mae ni⁴ [c. A]

[clause A] since (time) [clause B] [clause B, te-form] kara [c. A]

[clause A] until [clause B] [clause B, u-form] made [clause A]

[clause A], therefore [clause B] [clause A] no dakara⁴ [clause B]

Subordinating Phrases (Adverbial Clauses)

[clause] tame ni “in order to”

[clause] no ni “despite”

[clause] kagiri “as long as”

[noun] ni tsuite “about”

[noun] niyotte “by means of”

[A] ka [B] “either, or”

[A] de mo [B] “even if”

Dakara [clause] “therefore”

Shikamo [clause] “moreover”

Soshite [clause] “and”/”then”

yoriyoi yomu tame ni benkyoushite iru studying in order to read better

Isogashii no ni kare wa made itte kimashita. Despite being busy, he still went.

Watashi wa ikite iru kagiri hataraku. I will work as long as I live.

nihongo o hanasu koto ni tsuite no hon book about speaking Japanese

katsu koto niyotte uru obtain by winning

Ie ni aruite ka koko de matte. Walk home or wait here.

Shigoto wa taihen de mo tanoshii. Even if work is tough, it is fun.

Abunai! Dakara sugoku nayamu. It’s dangerous! So, I’m really worried.

Shikamo shiken de isogashii. Moreover, I’m busy with the exam.

Soshite watashi wa asagohan o tabeta. And then I ate breakfast.

Other Conjunctive Phrases

Some of the most common subordinate sentences, where “clause B” is the subordinate clause.

These forms either use the particle “no” or a noun followed by the particle “ni.” In these cases, clause B must use prenominal/attributive form (using “da”instead of “na”).Further, you must use plain tense.Use “nagara” if the subject of both clauses is the same. If clause B is negative, “uchi ni” means “[clause A] before [the positive of clause B].” As subordinate clauses, the first clause should not use polite tense.

The last clause’s verb denotes tense and polite-ness for the entire sentence.Keredomo > keredo/kedomo > kedo in terms ofpoliteness; verbs should reflect politeness used.Both clauses should be conjugated for tense and politeness.

4

5

*

¹

²

³

NOTES

NOTES

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JAPANESE SENTENCES: IRREALIS MOODS

ImperativeWhile there is a grammatical imperative form (meireikei), it is considered rude and rarely used outside of TV.

polite [i-form]+na(sai)

plain [te-form]+(kudasai)

impolite [meireikei form]

plain neg. [a-form]+naide

impolite neg. [u-form]+na

O-yasumi nasai. Good night (”rest”).

Tasukete! Isoide kudasai! Help! Please hurry!

Te o agero! Put your hands up!

Shimpai shinaide (kudasai). (Please) Don’t worry.

Kore o taberu na! Don’t eat that!

PotentialPotential forms conjugate like any ichidan verb. For suru verbs, use the ichidan verb dekiru, “to be able.”

Kare wa zenzen piano o hikenai desu. He can’t play the piano at all.

Yoku neraremashita. I was able to sleep well.

godan [e-form]+ru

ichidan/kuru [a-form]+rareru

ConditionalAs most of the conditional forms have general, interchangeable uses, below are merely their key divergences. The first clause is the condition, and thus uses the listed form, while the second clause is the result.

-ba provisional mood; focuses on necessary condition; not used to command, permit or suggest¹

-tara subjunctive mood, perfective tense; focuses on result; can show intent, relative past, and correlation

baai hypothetical mood; noun meaning “case,” literally, “in the case that...”

to implicative mood; used for expected, definite, habitual, correlative, or natural results; result is present tense

nara assumptive mood; used when the condition is “known” or likely, but not when result is natural or obvious

moshi for emphasis; must be used at the beginning of the clause, and in conjunction with another conditional form

verbs [e-form]+ba

neg. [a-form]+nakereba

verbs [ta-form]+ra

neg. [a-form]+nakattara

verbs [u-form] baai

verbs [u-form] to

verbs [u-form] nara

i-adj [stem]+kereba

neg. [stem]+ku nakereba

i-adj [stem]+kattara

neg. [stem]+ku nakattara

i-adj [present] baai

i-adj [present] to

i-adj [present] nara

nouns [noun] de areba

neg. [noun] de nakereba

nouns [noun] dattara

neg. [noun] de nakattara

nouns [noun] na/no² baai

nouns [noun] da to

nouns [noun] nara

¹ -ba form can be used for suggestions only when the condition is an i-adj, the verb is aru or iru, or the condition is negative.² Use “na” for na-adjectives and general nouns, and “no” for no-adjectives.

* These forms can be translated as “When B, A,” “If B, then A will occur,” or “If B, then A would occur” depending on context/tense.

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JAPANESE SENTENCES: NOUN CLAUSES

Nominalized Clauses　「の」You should already know that the nominalization particle “no” turns clauses into nouns, but it can be used with “da/desu” to nominalize entire clauses. This essentially turns actions into statements, and is identical to our use of noun clauses and the verb “to be.” For example: “Here is where [I put my watch]” vs. “I put my watch here.” This is often used to provide explanation, but it is also makes questions sound more polite.

no/n (da)

no/n (desu)

no/n (desu) (ka)

no/n de

Ashita watashi wa ikitakunai no ja nai. It’s not that I don’t want to go tomorrow.

Mou kirei na² no desu. It is that it is already clean.³

Dou kore wa yatte mitsuketa no desu ka? How is it that you found this?

Osokatta n de, sensei ga okotte ita. It is that I was late, and the teacher was mad.³

² You must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb before the particle “no.” This means using plain form, and “na” instead of “da”³ Because the nominalization often implies explanation, this structure is usually translated as “because.” So the more

natural translations would be “Because it is already clean.” and “The teacher was mad because I was late.”* Note that in casual speech, “no” is often abbreviated to “n” and “da/desu” and/or “ka” may be left out.

Subordinate Interrogative Clauses　「か」The “ka” particle is not just used to ask questions, but shows that a clause is unknown or uncertain, even within a declarative sentence. If the noun clause starts with a “wh” word or “if,” you should use “ka” instead of “to.”

Doko ni iru ka shitte iru. I know where (he) is.

Watashi wa kare ga oyogeru ka mitakatta. I wanted to see if he could swim.

Raishuu karera wa ikitai ka to omoimasu. (I) think that they want to go next week (but I am not sure).

Itsu iku beki ka shirinai. I don’t know when (I) should go.

The Subordinator “that”　「と」The particle “to” is used very similarly to our word “that” when used to turn a clause into a noun. Below are common verbs to use with “to,” but the translations are more literal than natural.

Kanojo wa kare ga isogashii to itta. She said that he is busy.

Hana wa kirei da to omowanai ka? Don’t you think the flowers are pretty?

Nihongo o hanasu koto wa tanoshii to kanjiru. I feel that speaking Japanese is fun.

Jijitsu de aru to shinjimasu. I believe that it is true.

Watashi wa jibun ga muchi da to shitte iru. I know that I am ignorant.

Mita totanni sugi kare da to watakatta. The moment I saw (him), I knew that it is him.

to iu¹ to say

to omou to think

to kanjiru to feel

to shinjiru to believe

to shiru to know

to wakaru to realize

¹ “to iu” is often abbreviated to “tte,” which is also commonly used to emphasize words, similar to the expression, “[...], you say?”* You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “to.” This means using “da” instead of “na.”

* Use the o を particle when dealing with direct objects or relative clauses, and not noun clauses, ex. ”I know the reason...”.

* You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “ka.” This means using “da” instead of “na.”

“to” denotes that “kare ga isogashii” is the object that was said

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JAPANESE EXPRESSIONS: EXPANDING ON QUALITIES

Degree - “enough/so”　「ほど」When you want to elaborate the extent or degree of a quality, you can use the adverbial particle, “hodo.” Note how the positivity of the clauses reflects in the naturalized English translation.

[+] hodo [+] ~“enough”

[+] hodo [-] ~“not enough”

[-] hodo [+] ~“so”

[-] hodo [-] ~“not so”

Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakai. He’s tall enough to reach the ceiling.

Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakanatta. He’s not tall enough to reach the ceiling.

Nikugan dewa mienai hodo chiisai. It is so small that you cannot see it with the naked eye.

Sore o shiranai hodo baka de wa nai. He’s not so stupid that he doesn’t know that.

“too”　「過ぎる」Use the continuative form of verbs and adj. verbs followed by the verb “sugiru” to say something is “too much.”

Kare wa segatakai sugite, kono heya de wa massugu ni tatenai. He is too tall, he can’t stand up straight in this room.

Comparisons - “-er, than”　「より ・ ほう」The case marker “yori” and the noun “hou” are commonly used to compare the quality of nouns or clauses against each other. “hou” represents the side of the subject, while “yori” represents the “challenger.”

Ikou yori iu hou ga yasashii. Easier said than done. (”Compared to doing, saying is easy.”)

Watashi wa suugaku yori sono hou ga rikai shiyasui desu. That’s easier for me to understand than math.

Both “yori” or “hou” may be left out. Also, “yori” can be used without a noun to give a general meaning.

Hayaku okiru hou ga zutto ii. You really should wake up early. (”It is much better to wake up early.”)

Mizu yori karui mono wa uku. Anything lighter than water floats. (“A thing that is lighter than water floats.”)

Yuki wa Taro yori mo hayaku hashiru. Yuki runs faster than even Taro too.

Watashi wa itsu ka yori tsuyoku naru. I will get stronger some day.

Observations & Similes - “like”　「よう」The noun “you,” means something like “form.” As a noun, you must use prenominal/attributive form before it.

Karera wa konai you da. Seems like they aren’t coming tonight.

Kuiiru you na manazashi de jitto mita. (I) watched with a devouring gaze.

Kare wa watashi o minakatta you ni furumatta. He acted like he didn’t see me!

Chou no you ni tobitai. I want to fly like a butterfly.

you da observation ¹

you na adjectival

you ni adverbial

no you ni simile

¹ This is not used when something literally has a certain appearance. For example, to say “looks sad,” use “kanashiku mieru.”