japanese cultural transition: meiji architecture and the
TRANSCRIPT
JAPANESE CULTURAL TRANSITION:
MEIJI ARCHITECTURE AND THE EFFECT OF CROSS-CULTURAL
EXCHANGE WITH THE WEST
By Christine Manzano Visita
"Here, now, comes the greatest revolutionary epoch! These are the two great events, the restoration of the Imperial power
from the lands of the last Shogun after the end ofseveral wars,
followed by the opening of our communication and the form
ing of our treaties with the western world!"
- Funakoshi Kinya, Imperial College of Engineering graduation thesis, 18831
The class of 1879 and 1883 at the Imperial College of Engineering in To
kyo set out to create comprehensive theses about the future of architecture
in Japan, looking to new materials, foreign forms, and revolutionary engi
neering to describe the development of the architectural landscape ofJapan
as they tried to adapt to Western influence. One of the students, Sone Tat
suzo, made several points within his essay marking the essence ofwhat the
1 Funakoshi Kinya, "The Adoption of European Architecture in Japan" (Graduation thesis, Imperial College of Engineering, 1883),6.
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future of Japanese architecture entailed in the Meiji era: the combination
of European styles and materials with Japanese forms to create an architec
tural atmosphere that was most conducive to the Japanese in the modern
izing era. All of the students, in some capacity, addressed the combination
ofWestern and European ideas and technology that were making their way
into the cultural tapestry ofJapan. For the Japanese, this struggle between
modernity and tradition was a way to find a foothold in the ever changing
environment of the world.
Botond Bognar, in his work Contemporary Japanese Architecture, breaks
down the conflict observed by both Japanese and foreigners alike between
the modern and the traditional into a situation characterized by not choos
ing one or the other but by choosing to inter-mix each side. Foreign influ
ence on Japanese architecture did not start with the use of Western styles,
but had been present in its history for centuries through other countries
such as China and Korea. In those situations and during the age ofWestern
influence, Japan's decision to learn the different techniques and building
styles had always been about creating a "both-and" situation rather than an "either-or."2 Instead of trying to make a clear decision about using one
specific style of architecture over another in building structures, the Japa
nese would apply aspects of foreign forms to the already developed forms ofJapanese designs, utilizing both modern and traditional types of archi
tectural elements.
Looking towards the influence that the West had on Japanese architec
ture, one way to analyze the infusion of modern styles into the more tradi
tional methods includes understanding the importance of national identity
to the Japanese. Arata Isozaki uses the idea of "Japan-ness" to describe the
effect of Western influence on what was considered "pure" Japanese style
of architecture. 3 In his book, Japan-ness In Architecture, Isozaki describes
Japan-ness as a reflection of the idea of the unique prevailing tastes and
ideas of what Japanese style was. This perception of Japanese style was formed through observations made by Western architects such as Frank
2 Botond Bognar, Contemporary Japanese Architecture (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc, 1985), 13.
1 Arata Isozaki,]apan-ness in Architecture, ed. David B. Stewart, trans. Sabu Kohso (Massachusetts: The J'vIIT Press, 2006), 3.
34
Christine Manzano Visita
Lloyd Wright, an American architect, and Bruno Taut from Germany.
Japan's own cultural identity, its Japan-ness, was, therefore, a product of
Westerners, people who were not actually part ofJapanese society but just
observers. Though this idea ofJapan-ness started with foreigners, the idea
ofJapan's own unique style and essence-their own national identity-was
held within the Japanese people years before the Western characterization
was created.
The architecture of Japan was a symbol of their innovation, their cul
ture, and history, so with the influence ofWestern ideas affecting their ar
chitecture, the Japanese who had significant interaction with Westerners
and their technology had to deal with adjusting what represented them in
order to keep up with the expanding Western trend. Changing from tradi
tional wood and brick design to the uses of steel and glass and other mod
ern materials marked a metamorphosis in the look and meaning of Japa
nese architecture as the Japanese people moved into a more modern society
and adjusted to increasing international relations. Becoming a larger part of
the "world order," as Seizaburo Sato describes in his essay in ModernJapan:
an Interpretive Anthology, evoked a certain reaction to the cultural changes
brought on through architecture. 4
The education of Japanese scholars in Japan and in other countries, particularly in Europe, proved to be a pathway within which Western ideas
traveled through to the consciousness of the Japanese. Within his article
"Teaching Architectural History in Japan: Building a Context for Con
temporary Practice" in ]he Journal of the Society ofArchitectural Historians,
Jonathan Reynolds focuses on the pedagogy of architectural history in Ja
pan. He calls attention to the infusion ofWestern and modern technology,
materials, and styles into the awareness of Japanese architectural students
during the Meiji period through curriculum at institutions such as the Im
perial University. 5
The Meiji Restoration in Japan, which began in 1868, brought an influx
ofWestern ideas and injected modern technology into a flourishing nation
4 Seizaburo Sato, "Japan's World Order," in Modern Japan: an Interpretive Anthology, ed. Irwin Scheiner (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 9-17.
5 Jonathan Reynolds, "Teaching Architectural History in Japan: Building a Context for
Contemporary Practice," 1he Journal of the Society ofArchitectural Historians, 61, no. 4 (Dec, 2002): 531.
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that, at the time, was opening its boundaries to the West in an attempt to
acquire knowledge that would help them attain a more powerful position
among other Western countries. Architecture marked one of the aspects of
Japanese culture that felt the effects Japan's struggle to find its place within
the changing landscape of the world politically, socially, economically, and
culturally. This paper will address the idea that the education of the Japa
nese in Western ways and the added interest in finding a way to become a
world power in the context of politics and economics not only affected the
architectural landscape of Japan but also affected the notions of national
identity, Japan's status in the international realm, and other cultural and
social constructs found within Japan. The ideals of tradition and modern
ization came together in the context of architecture and reflected these
changes that Japan faced as it evolved into a more industrialized, modern
nation during the Meiji Period and into the twentieth century.
Motivations in ChangingJapan's Landscape
"A nation unique and precious as this was, could not fall be
hind others in power. .. " - Thomas C. Smith, "Old Values and New Techniques
in the Modernization ofJapan': 19556
The rapid succession with which advancing technology was introduced to
Japan as the world modernized led the Japanese to realize that they had
to be able to keep up with the changes in order to become a greater power
in the international realm. The Western nations were categorized as part
of the world that had the most success in terms of the advancement of
technology, the education of people in politics, economics, and other con
tributing factors to a modern and industrial nation. The Western nations
proved that they had a strong presence as influential countries through
their endeavors abroad, including colonization toward imperialistic success.
As an Eastern nation, it was important for Japan to prove that they could
"Thomas C. Smith, "Old Values and New Techniques in the Modernization ofJapan," in Modern ]apan.- An Intt'lpreti'Vt' Anthology, ed. Irwin Scheiner (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1974),95.
Chri.rtine Manzano Vi.rita
contribute as much or even more to the international sphere as the Western
world, as well as impose their ideas of how the world should work. At the
time of the Meiji Restoration,Japan was looking towards extending greater
influence over their Asian counterparts in their area such as China and Ko
rea. The Japanese believed that they were the most capable of the Eastern
nations to show other Asian nations how they should conduct themselves
in order to avoid exploitation of their nation and resources by Western rul
ers looking to gain power.
"In quick advance of civilization no nation could be compared with the
Japanese who are in a burning emotion to rank especially with the most
civilized nations of the world," Sone Tatsuzo wrote as one of his observa
tions of Japan's condition was at that point in the Meiji era.? Breaking
down this idea of advancing into a more civilized nation, there were two
differing concepts of where the Japanese saw themselves in comparison
to the rest of the world. First they saw themselves as a strong and unique
country to which no other nation could be compared, giving them an air of
superiority. But even with the confidence that the Japanese had concerning
their ability to develop and advance into a great nation, they were aware
that there were still other nations with whom they had to compete.
Japan's Meiji elite were confident of their formula for rising up in the ranks of the international scene with military power and wealth. 8 Japan's
goal in adapting to Western ideas, including technology, was to try and rise
through the ranks by keeping up with the Western powers and establish
themselves as an Eastern nation of equal status. In the eyes of the West
ern powers, Japan stood as one of the more modern and more "civilized"
Asian countries.9 They were poised with potential to show their strengths
economically, militarily, and culturally; the Japanese did not fail to dem
onstrate their capabilities as they adjusted to new technology rapidly and
made strides to expand their control through their military might and eco
nomic interests in the neighboring countries of China, Korea, the Philip
pines, and others.
The Japanese were adept at taking on aspects of Western society and
7 Sone Tatsuzo, "The Future Domestic Architecture" (Graduation thesis, Imperial College of Engineering, 1879), 18.
sSato, 15. 9 Sato, 15.
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technology within their own country's structure, but they also wanted to
ensure that they were not completely under the influence of the \Vest
ern nations. They continued to move towards their goal of spreading their
control and influence throughout the Asian countries in order to create
an "empire" that could rival the Western nations. By going into places like
China, the Japanese could diffuse their thoughts on how an Asian nation
should organize and build up their country. The adaptation of more modern
technology and ideas were seen as a way to improve, not only the physi
cal landscape of Japan, but also the economical and political scene. These
improvements were made to ensure that Japan would become a prominent
power in the East as well as keep themselves from being taken over by
Western nations that had influence in the Asian countries through coloni
zation, politics, and the economics of trading.
Western Education, Technology, and Superiority?
"The science of Architecture has been laid in our college as
one of the main professional branches of study and the true
principles of European Architecture is being here taught with
the view of learning their true principles in our country... "
- Funakoshi Kinya, Imperial College of Engineering graduation thesis, 188310
At the same time as Japan was opening itself to the West, the educational
system underwent major reconstruction. The national spirit of a country
was paramount in the formation of a strong exterior front shown to the in
ternational world. The educational system looked towards developing that
spirit, emphasizing that the most important point of education was "point
ing the direction toward which the whole nation should march."ll
The Minister of Education from 1886 to 1889, Mori Arinori, created
new educational ordinances and reforms that encouraged education sys
),) Funakoshi, 9. 11 Joseph Pittau, "Inoue Kowashi (1843-1895) and the Meiji educational system," in Mod
,'m Japan: An Interprcth!t' Anthology, ed. Irwin Schiener (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1974), 178.
Christine Manzano Visita ---~--------
terns and institutions to "teach the arts and sciences essential to the state."12
The educational content of the schools and universities being formed were
to have a basis in concepts that would contribute to the building of a pow
erful nation. Such concepts included Confucianism that would emphasize
tradition, but not reject modernization of the state. 13 In order to bring bet
ter education to the Japanese, it was important for ministers of Japan to
focus the attention of the country to the type of programs that would best
benefit their future, which included the impressionable youth of the nation.
One such minister, Inoue Kowashi, looked at the encroaching indus
trialization and modernization and tried to adjust the educational system
to accommodate changing times. In order to better prepare the citizens of
Japan for the new age of technology, the educational system had to provide
students with the skills to advance them into the burgeoning industrial so
ciety.There was more vocational training and technical education in indus
trial skills such as architectural design, mechanical engineering, and other
forms ofengineering that would help establish the Japanese at the forefront
of research and development of new ideas. The reformation of the educa
tional programs improved the possibility ofJapan gaining better status by
keeping up the pace of where the world as a whole was going in terms of
technical, as well as moral, political, and social knowledge. One byproduct of the reconstruction of Japan's educational methods
was the creation of a distinction between certain classes. This emergence
of class divisions within the Japanese society was a reflection of the idea of
class conflict between the bourgeois (upper-class) and the working class.
For the upper class, it was not uncommon for their children to seek educa
tion at more prestigious, overseas facilities due to their connections and fi
nancial stability. Many well-to-do families were able to send their children
abroad to foreign countries where they could study subjects in places where
new technology and educational systems were already in place. 14 Japanese
12 Pittau, 177. 13 A description of Confucianism can be found in Andrew Gordon's A Modem History
ofjapan From Tokugawa Times to the Present (Oxford, 2003): 4-6. Confucianism focused on fostering high ethical quality and great intellectuality among people. Morality and respect were ideas that were to be cultivated and studied to bring about a strong sense of spirit among
the Japanese. l4Jordan Sand, House and Home in Modemjapan:Architecture, Domestic Space, and Bourgeois
Culture, 1880-1930 (Cambridge; London: Harvard University Asia Center, 2003),13,15.
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architectural students, who had the means to travel, would go and train
under well established architects in Europe and the United States, often
bringing back the styles and knowledge they acquired to Japan, integrating
Western forms of engineering and architecture into Japanese society.
The distinct emphasis on being well versed in European forms was evi
dent in the manner that Japanese students constructed their ideas about the
direction they thought Japanese architecture was heading towards in the
future. When the Imperial College of Engineering began an architectural
program in 1877, many of the practical studios were the environment in
which students learned and were expected to master Western forms. IS Ar
chitectural education in European designs was seen as an important part of
the architectural program; the reason behind the creation of this program
was deemed as trying to "prepare Japanese to design buildings in Western architectural styles using modern building technology."16 The focus on
Western education supported the notion that in order to move forward
with the development of better designs, Japanese architects had to be open
to foreign styles with their new materials and technology. In addition to practical work, students at the Imperial University in
Tokyo were required to write a thesis paper on different aspects of architec
ture and domestic spaces. Their papers were written in English reflecting
the architectural education they received from English-speaking, and often Western educated, professors. Each written theses had an extensive history
and description of historic European and Western forms of architecture,
particularly Gothic, Grecian, and Roman architectural styles, structure, and
materials. A good portion of each thesis addressed the influence ofWestern
forms on architectural history and its potential to affect new Japanese styles
or how it had presently changed traditional Japanese forms.
The idea that Western and European architectural style and engineer
ing was more advanced and stable than that ofJapanese architecture was a
motivation to incorporate more Westernized qualities of design into Japan's
buildings and homes. Japanese architectural students acknowledged that
there were some major advantages to using materials and forms from West
ern forms. The stone, concrete, and brick buildings prevented fires from
15 Reynolds, "Teaching Architectural History in Japan," 530.� ](, Reynolds, "Teaching Architectural History in Japan," 531.�
Christine Manzano Visita
spreading to other buildings, unlike the wooden construction found with
most domestic and public buildings. I? Attention to the detail ofusing more
Western uses of materials focused in onto something small as roofing ma
terial, where tile was suggested for roofs to keep moisture from snow and
rain from leaking through. 18
In response to the climate of Japan, Western materials were substan
tial enough to withstand the harsher aspects of the external conditions of
the country. More stable structures that were constructed with stone and
concrete had stronger foundations that could help protect buildings from
the earthquake forces that were known to occur in Japan. Also engineering
factors such as loads from people occupying buildings and snow accumu
lating on roofs made architects lean more towards the seemingly sturdier
Western forms of architecture with Roman arches which could withstand
great compression from weight applied to the building. 19
From studying foreign styles and materials of architecture, the Japanese
students knew that in some ways, other forms of construction were equal,
if not better, than the elements of their own native architecture. However,
the reality was that although new technology emerged from the influence
of the West, at times the Japanese style proved to be the more appropriate
architectural context for Japan. From more traditional style of architecture
for comfort or uses of traditional materials for safer buildings, the affinity
towards more natural Japanese design was still apparent. The habits and
customs of the Japanese set the ideal way oflife that architecture and space
needed to adjust to, creating a distinct style that would be hard to leave
behind even in the age ofWestern ideas and technology.
Within the more personal setting of a domestic dwelling, the everyday
habits and routines of the Japanese occupants gave purpose to the use of
more traditional designs of spaces and homes. For the Japanese, the designs
of the interior of their homes were more open and flowing compared to
more structured layouts. Paper screens were used in between rooms to ac
count for customs such as warming rooms with charcoal fire in a hibachi
17 Satachi Shichijiro, "1he Future Domestic Architecture ofJapan" (Graduation thesis, Im
perial College of Engineering, 1879), 8. 18 Satachi, 8.
19Tatsuno Kingo, "The Future Domestic Architecture" (Graduation thesis, Imperial College of Engineering, 1879, 13-20.
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(firebox) that would produce smoke. 20 Europeans viewed this custom as
being odd, permitting smoke to reside within the home, but the breathable
material used in the arrangement of the interior allowed the smoke to flow
out of the house better than the solid walls usually found within Western
ized interiors.
In regard to structural safety, Japanese use of more natural materi
als such as wood, which was abundant in their country, was deemed by
Westerners as weaker in comparison to the apparent sturdiness of solid
stone and concrete. In the 1891 earthquake centered in Nobi, Japan, doubt
toward the superiority of Western uses of material within structures rose
within the Japanese community.21 Many were surprised that many of the
wooden buildings that were fairly older than the new European stone and
masonry material-based buildings were able to weather the shocks of the
earthquake better. Was it worth it to move towards engineering materials
that did not perform as well during natural disasters as traditional Japa
nese architectural components? There were advantages to developing West
ern technology and styles within Japan's own architectural landscape, but
would it be beneficial to concentrate their efforts on fostering this growth
while edging out customary forms?
Bruno Taut, a German architect that visited Japan and studied its pres
ent architecture as well as its history during the late Meiji period, acknowl
edged that like many representative forms of culture of countries, over time
they are subject to change. "Like waves of fashion, like the length of skirts,
the courses change and will replace one another until fundamentals have
been agreed upon and a continuous work begun."22 Every different style of
fered strength, beauty, and practicality, but the logical question in reference
to where Japanese architecture was heading during the Meiji era would be:
Would the Japanese have to settle for one style or the other? How would
their course change?
20 Sane, 25. 21 Gregory Clancey, Earthquake Nation: The Cultural Politics ofJapanese Seismicity, 1868
1930 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2006), 4. 22 Bruno Taut, Fundamentals ofJapaneJe Architecture (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai
(The Society for International Cultural Relations), 1936),9.
4 2
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Christine lVlanzano Visita
The "Both-And" Situation and National Identity
"The architecture of a country can be only improved, not by
entire translation but by substituting the superior principle in
the other."
- Taki Daikichi, Imperial College ofEngineering
graduation thesis, 188323
The "technological transfer" that was experienced by the Japanese produced
the question of national and cultural identity. The confusion about which
style would best represent the Japanese way oflife made it difficult to set
tle on just one specific style. The dilemma of abandoning the traditional
architectural styles for the new technological and Western advances cre
ated a similar consensus among the future architects ofJapan: it would be
beneficial to combining the best aspects of both worlds. The compromise
between the two could create a better form ofbuilding design to benefit the
Japanese and ease their struggle with choosing one or the other.
"The familiar intercourse of the Japanese with their ideas is the source
of a great refinement to our country," Sone Tatsuzo stated, acknowledging
that combining information with other cultures was beneficial to create a
more polished society.24 This recognition of mutual influence among other
nations, particularly China and Korea in the past, demonstrated the natural
tendency for Japan to adopt different cultural aspects into their society to
complement their native style. Taki Daikichi, another architecture student,
wrote, "I'm more inclined to improve our buildings by borrowing superior
principles in others rather than to sacrifice our own conveniences and ideas
to fit the principles and requirements in others."25 Daikichi's insight into
the exchange of cultural elements alluded to the idea that the Japanese
should not be changed to fit the designs of other countries, but to use con
cepts from the others to better what was already present in their culture.
The hybridism of domestic homes with European exteriors and Japa
23 Taki Daikichi, "Future Architecture in Japan" (Graduation thesis, Imperial College of Engineering, 1883),2.
24 Sone, 5. 25 Taki, 25.
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nese interiors were able to give residents a way to use new materials and
styles while holding on to the comforting, traditional aspects of the Japanese home. The private domain for a person was a reflection of what they
considered most important in their lives, aspects of life they liked were
kept in close proximity. For the Japanese, maintaining the essence of their
culture and the familiarity of more traditional environments within their
personal realm helped to keep their identity as they delved into foreign
styles. For many, the presence of Japanese-style aspects in dwellings was
essential to people's lifestyles.
"The men of high rank and the merchant of large fortune
recently built their abodes in a pure European style, yet in
ninety-nine cases out of a hundred there were formed the
rooms of Japanese arrangement to sit down in the habitual
manner, within the building, or instead of them, there were
subordinately built Japanese houses, or else they cannot comfort themselves."
- Sone Talsuzo, Imperial College (fEngineering, 187926
Figure .1. "Pure French" design created by Yas
uoka Katsuya in the catalogue, .Japanized Sma!!
Western Homes. DeSigns like these signaled a
change in the styles of Japanese residential
homes. From Jordan Sand's House and Home in
Modern.Japan,269.
"Sone,26.
44
Christine Manzano Visita
In the late Meiji period during the 1900s, this form of hybridism became a part of the "mass market" of people looking to create domestic
spaces in accordance to changing times. Just as Western styles of clothing,
furniture, and decoration became embodied in Japanese lifestyles, so was
its architectural features. The use of the two different styles of materials
and forms led to series of domestic homes that reflected the fusion. ]apa
nized Small U!estern Homes was a catalogue that presented Japanese families
with houses that were built in varying European styles, but still had some
Japanese aspects to its design.27 These houses were described as "seven parts
Western and three parts Japanese" as the catalogues advertised houses that
were "Swiss chalet", "pure German", and other European styles.28 (See Fig
ure 1.)
This commercialization of Westernized, but Japanese, homes showed
the growing influence that foreign styles had on the cultural formation of
the most personal and identifYing spaces of a person, their own home. This
implementation of foreign designs revealed the gravitation towards what
was seen as exotic to the Japanese. Just as Westerners observed Japanese
ways of life and cultural styles in art and architecture as different and in
triguing in their unfamiliar ways, so did the Japanese have a similar fascina
tion with the unknown of which they wanted to gain understanding. This concept is explored in the recent theory of Occidentalism, the opposite of
Orientalism. Orientalism, characterized by Edward Said in his work of the same
name, was the creation of the idea of "the other," or the unknown culture,
group, people that distinct in their own way. It is the study of different peo
ple and cultures by another group of people relative to what is they know
of their own culture. This idea and study was created by Westerners in the
observation of the Eastern world and their seemingly exotic and different
lifestyles and traditions into which they wanted to gain insight.29 In this
way, the understanding gained from studying the other culture would result
in the formation of opinions on the value of each society in comparison to
each other.
27Jordan Sand, House and Home in Modern Japan: Architecture, Domestic Space, and Bour
geois Culture, 1880-1930 (Cambridge; London: Harvard University Asia Center, 2003), 268. 2, Sand, 268.
29 For more on Orientalism look to Edward W. Said's Orientalism (Vintage Books, 1979).
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The idea that the Japanese were fascinated by the differences in life
style, art, and architecture of other countries, particularly Western ones,
retains the same ideas of Orientalism, but turns it around and sees it from
the point of view of "the Orient". With this notion of Occidentalism, the
Orient is able to study how the "Western Other" view their lifestyles and
customs. Through the analysis of the comprehension of Eastern culture by
the Western Other, the Orient is able to "participate actively and with the
indigenous creativity in the process of self-appropriation."30 By looking at
the Western accounts of what their culture was about and their opinions
of the Orient's culture, the Orient would be able to reinterpret their "non
Western realities mainly through the looking glass of Western theory."31
The Orient is able to compare their own concept about who they are to the
insights formed by the Westerners and their Western culture to determine
how to move forward with their own society. For the Japanese, architecture
was a point in their culture where observing Westerners provided a catalyst
for change.
The change to Western and modern materials spawned discourses on what represented the Japanese as a distinct people, what would provide a
strong sense of identity among other countries. The concept of national
identity seen in the context of Japanese architectural history can be ex
plained through Benedict Anderson's theory of nationalism and imagined
communities. 32 Even though each individual person in Japan may not have
identified with each other because they had never met personally, they still
had a sense of unity and national identity through a common idea that the
nation itself created, whether it was a tangible object such as a building or
a concept like architectural styles.
One of the most important discourses, that proved the ongoing strug
gle between established and foreign ideas ofwhat architecture should be in
conjunction with national identity, would concern one of the most promi
30 Xiaomei Chen, Occidelltalism: A Theory of Counter-Discourse in Post-Mao China (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995),5.
31 Chen, 17. 32 See Benedict Anderson's "The Origins of National Consciousness" from Imagined Com
munities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread ofNationalism (London, NY: Verso, 1983; rpt., 2006),1-7,37-46.
Christine Manzano Visita
nent institutions in Japan, The Imperial Diet. 33 For the Japanese, The Im
perial Diet was a reflection of the Western government used in the Meiji
government. Because the governmental division itself was supposed to be
representative ofJapanese government, the Diet building was supposed to
"represent a vision ofJapanese identity both domestically and internation
ally," and act as a unifYing symboL34
Much of the debate that surrounded the creation of a new Imperial
Diet building was made among politicians and architects who wanted to
pinpoint a design that would encompass the spirit of Japan. Many of the
designs presented were made by foreign architects; the government wanted
the building to be rooted in modernity as Japan moved towards a new
age. What came out of these foreign architects were designs that either
embraced Japanese aspects of architecture or moved away from them. One
German architecture firm came up with two different designs: one with
a straight European style and no Japanese details and one that alluded to
Japan's architectural past through small details.35 Part of the use ofJapanese
style was aimed at composing an "exotic hybrid" (orientalized design) as
seen by Westerners; though the main design style was foreign,Japanese de
tails were used to create portions of a design that would reflect the country
and its people.36 (See Figures 2.1,2.2.) Following the lines of combining styles, the emergence of the combi
nation of European classicism with "pure" Japanese elements was brought
into Japanese consciousness through the teikan style, the imperial crown
synthesis styleY Shimoda Kikuataro, a Japanese architect who entered
the contest for the Imperial Diet design in 1918, presented his work in
3.1 A description of the branch of the Japanese government, The Diet, can be found in Andrew Gordon's A Modern History ofJapan From Tokugawa Times to the Present (Oxford, 2003): 77-93. The Diet marks its beginning in 1890 as the parliament ofJapan. It was created through the Meiji Constitution to address the political debates and practices that had formed during the Meiji era. The Diet represented then, as it does now, a large part of the political
life ofJapan. 34Jonathan M. Reynolds, "Japan's Imperial Diet Building: Debate over Construction of a
National Identity," ArtJournal, 55, no. 3 (Fall 1996): 38. 35 Reynolds, 40. 36 Reynolds, 40. 37 Isosaki, 3.
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Figure 2.1. European-style design
created by Wilhelm Bockmann.
VVestern characteristics such as the
dome, columns, columns, and bilat
eral symmetry. 1887 entry version
1. From Jonathan Reynolds' "Japan's
Imperial Diet Building," 40.
Figure 2.1. European-style design created by VVilhelm Bockmann. \lVestcrn characteristics
such as the dome, columns, columns, and bilateral symmetry. 1887 entry version 1. From
Jonathan Reynolds"'Japan's Imperial Diet Building," 40.
this particular combination ofJapanese and Western concepts,J8 His work
tried to represent the possible future of architecture during the lVIeiji era;
he tried to suitably represent the best of both architectural styles in one
building, making the building both aesthetically pleasing and respectful
of Westernized forms and of Japan's desire for national identity. Despite
the creative effort at reconciling the two different styles, his juxtaposition
of European and Japanese styles was attacked by his colleagues; instead of
seeing a strong illustration of both forms, his colleagues believed that the
l' Reynolds, 43.
Christine Manzano Visila
designs undermined the basic nature of each style and chose to reject the proposals. 3
'1
Eventually a neoclassical design was chosen for the Diet building
which contained Japanese decorative motifs. The use of a primarily European design never really reached the "status of a national symbol that resonated with the Japanese public. "40 The form did not reflect, adequately,
the Japanese style that would have given the building more accurate projec
tion ofJapan and its people. 1he Diet building was a chance for Japan to
use modern materials and designs to become this physical representation
of their national pride and identity, but the final \,yestern-style edifice was
unable to evoke that image among the Japanese. (See Figure 3.)
Figure 3. After the first Imperial Diet building burned down in January 1891, this final de
sign for the Imperial Dict building was composed as a permanent replacement in lieu of a
temporary building that was constructed. The final edifice was built out of steel, reinforced
concrete, and gray granite. This deSign has Japanese details which only accounts for a small
portion of the overall neoclassical construction with its towers, stepped roofs, and columns. It is a compromise of styles to bring a modern building to life. This picture of a model of the final
building is from Jonathan Reynolds' "Japan's Imperial Diet Building," 46.
For the Japanese, the creation of combined styles within their archi
tectural world gave them conflict over national identity as they tried to
find the right balance between modern designs with traditional aspects of
]9 Reynolds, 44. 411 Reynolds, 47.
49
THE FORUM
Japanese architecture. The evolution of the architectural landscape ofJapan
emerged through their sense of national pride interpreted through chang
ing technology and new education.
Conclusion
The transference of knowledge of technology and architectural styles set
the future of Japan on a course to adjust both their physical, outward ap
pearance while at the same time changing the core of their ideas of national
identity and culture. The transformation ofJapanese life in relation to the
introduction ofWestern educational opportunities oflearning modern ma
terials, technology, and structures has been seen as reaching into all aspects
ofJapan as a country during the Meiji period.
As a strong nation in Asia among others being taken over and colo
nized by Westerners, Japan looked to staying an independent and influen
tial country to avoid the same fate. In order to keep their status as a greatly
educated and united nation, adaptations to the new world order from 1868
onward had to be made to promote further progress in the international arena. The Japanese not only had to be well-informed politically about
where it stood among the ranks of powerful European and other Western
countries, but they had to support their own position through strengthening their cultural and social elements of their nation.
From the goals to become a greater people came improvements to as
sist their efforts to keep up with the modern times. The educational system
that was created gave opportunities for students to become more educated
in new technology which was important for them to contribute more in re
search and development ofJapanese engineering, art, and architecture. The
improvement of the education ofJapanese students led to the betterment
of the country by creating more informed citizens to build up their nation
through their use of their knowledge.
Through the changes made in the educational system, and the oppor
tunities available to students to study abroad, the incorporation ofWestern
ideas helped forge new identities as Japanese as well as helping to cre
ate new styles in architecture. The question of whether the use of Western
styles,]apanese styles, or a mixture of the two could appropriately represent
the Japanese culture and nation was the main issue that emerged during
the Meiji period; the influence of modern technology and foreign forms of
5°
Christine Manzano Visita ----~~---_.-----------
art and architecture became a point of discussion in regards to the develop
ment of the country's culture and style.
Ultimately, the conclusion that many Japanese and Western architects
alike devised was a combination of Western and Japanese elements of de
sign moved towards constructing a "hybrid" design that tried to encompass
the new aspects ofWestern ideas while keeping the essence ofJapanese de
sign. The national identity of the Japanese people was important to keep in
tact not only through political and social movements, but also through the
cultural changes, like architecture, that were made in response to changing
environments, education, and interaction with other countries.
From the effects of bringing in foreign ideas and new technology, the
architecture of Japan was forever changed by the infusion of forms and
materials into its already present designs. The movement towards more fo
cused education on expanding industries and the search for a representative
style of Japan through new areas of developed ideas gave Japan a chance
to move into the Meiji Era with a new outlook on its future; a future that
involved adapting to the changing modern and technological times as well
as keeping their traditions to create a better nation.
51
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