JAPANESE STUDIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

BOSTON STUDIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

Editor

ROBERT S. COHEN, Boston University

Editorial Advisory Board

THOMAS F. GLICK, Boston University ADOLF GRUNBAUM, University of Pittsburgh SYLVAN S. SCHWEBER, Brandeis University

JOHN J. STACHEL, Boston University

MARX W. WARTOFSKY (Editor and Advisor 1960-1997) t

VOLUME 45

JAPANESE STUDIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF

SCIENCE

Edited by

FRANCIS GEN-ICHIRO NAGASAKA Nanzan University, Nagoya

Co-edited by

ROBERT S. COHEN Boston University, Center for Philosophy and History of Science

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

Iibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.

ISBN 978-94-010-6176-6 ISBN 978-94-011-5175-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-5175-7

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AlI Rights Reserved @ 1998 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1998 No part of this publication may be reproduced or

utilized in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE / Robert S. Cohen Vll

FRANCIS G. NAGASAKA / Introduction: A Short History of Japanese Philosophy of Science xiii

1. NOBUSHIGE SAWADA / The Mind as Human Jobs

2. WATARU KURODA / Other Minds 7

3. HIDEKICHI NAKAMURA / On the Individuation of Events 21

4. HYAKUDAI SAKAMOTO / Mind, Privacy and Causality 33

5. SHOZO OHMORI / Double Look: Science Superposed on a Perceptual World 69

6. NATUHIKO YOSIDA / Scientific Laws as Tools for Taxonomy 89

7. SATOSI WATANABE / Causality and Temporal Irreversibility 101

8. AKIRA OIDE / The Structure of Statistical Inference 117

9. HIROSHI KUROSAKI / On Inference in Science 143

10. M.M. YANASE / Comment on the Machida-Namiki-Araki Theory 153

11. SHUNTARO ITO / Who Are Precursors of Gali1eo in His Pisan Dynamics? - A Criticism of Professor Moody's Paper 161

12. HIROSHI NAGAI/Philosophical Meanings of the Concept of Evolution 175

Index of Names 189

v

ROBERT S. COHEN

PREFACE

The splendid achievements of Japanese mathematics and natural sciences during the second half of our 20th century have been a revival, a Renaissance, of the practical sciences developed along with the turn toward Western thinking in the late 19th century. The equally admirable results of Japanese philosophers (and historians) of science in our time followed upon a period less congenial to Western interests in the philosophical questions linked to modern science; and this reluctance to confront the epistemology, not even the humane significance, of the sciences went along with devotion to other Western trends. Thus, with the 'new' Japan of the Meiji restoration of 1868, and the early introduction of Western philosophy in the subsequent decade by Nishi Amane, a period of intellectual attraction to utilitarian, positivist, evolutionary, even materialist outlooks was soon replaced by devotion to scholarly work on Kant and Hegel, on ethical and general philosophical idealism. These studies often could emulate the critical spirit (the philosopher Onishe Hajime, praised for his own critical independence, was known as the Japanese Kant) but the neo­Kantian and neo-Hegelian developments were not much affected by either empirical sciences or theoretical speculations about Nature. The pre-eminent philosopher of Japan ofthe first half of our century was Nishida Kitaro, with a pioneering treatise A Study of the Good, who, with his leading student Tanabe Hajime, formed the 'Kyoto School' of pre-war philosophy. Tanabe was a bridge builder from the idealist trends to the study of nature and of the methodology of the sciences; he continued his work through the early post-war years, a critic of nationalist ideology.

Another Western orientation in philosophy, one tightly bound to economics and political science as well as to an historical methodology of analysis, was Marxism. Under the pre-war cultural politics, mainly Marxist philosophers criticized Japanese nationalism whereas the Hegelians were among the extreme proponents of that nationalism. In the first decade of the post-war period, Marxist outlooks burst forth, throughout the new culture and including philosophy: some philosophers of distinction joined the Japan Communist Party, among them the Aristotle scholar Ide Takashi, and the noted student of Nishida, Yanagida Kenjuro. Marxism was a Western orientation toward human social problems which seemed inherently to favor a critical while appreciative stance toward science and technology in human history, and the continuing influence of Marxist categories was evident well beyond any strict

Vll

F. G. Nagasaka (ed.), Japanese Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vii-xi. © 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

viii ROBERT S. COHEN

adherence to one or another political party program. This was so in several ways: first, a sophisticated attention to Marxist (that is

specific historical materialist) interpretation of the history of science and mathematics; and second, an interest in developing either a logic of the development of scientific ways of knowing, or a logic of natural processes of development (in either case, a dialectic of nature with resonance to traditional Chinese and Japanese views of Nature as well as to the views and problematic of Marx and Engels and later Western Marxist interpreters). An early treatment of a development from the history of society was a series of papers on the relationship between mathematics and the social class structure of historically changing societies, published in 1929-30, by Ogura Kinnosuke. This work was as influential and shocking among Japanese intellectuals due to Ogura's discoveries concerning external, and specifically social class, determi­native factors in the progress of science as was the presentation of Hessen's Soviet Marxist paper on social factors in Newton's mechanics at the Interna­tional Congress in London in 1931, two or more years after Ogura. An interesting account, with related materials, will be found in Nakayama Shigeru's 'The externalist orientation of Japanese historians of science' (Japanese Stud. Hist. Sci., 1972, reprinted as 'The history of science: a subject for the frustrated' in Science and Society in Modern Japan, MIT Press, 1974) along with a clear succinct translation of a part of Ogura's 'Arithmetic in a class society: notes on arithmetic in the European Renaissance'. Beyond the explicit scope of this volume of Japanese Studies in the Philosophy of Science but of interest in itself is Nakayama's paper on 'Grass-roots geology' in the same MIT volume, wherein we see the leading role played by local field geology in a mature but unconventional philosophy of science propounded by Ijiri Shoji.

In his Introduction, Professor Nakasaka traces the coming, at last, in the late 1940s and 1950s, of philosophy of science in its professional character, and with that also an awakening of general philosophers, including historians of Asian and Western philosophy, to the extraordinary role of science in civilization. A series of surveys can guide the English reader who wishes to look deeper:

Nagai, Hiroshi, 'Some Aspects of the Philosophy of Science in Japan' Annals of the Japan Association for the Philosophy of Science vol. 1, no. 1 (1956) [Hereafter 'Annals']

Nagai, Hiroshi, 'Recent Trends in Japanese Research on the Philosophy of Science' Z. allgem. Wissenschaftstheorie vol. 2 (1971)

Ohe, S., 'Philosophy of Science in Japan (1956-1965), Annals vol. 3 (1966) Teranaka, H., 'Philosophy of Science in Japan (1971-1975)' Annals vol. 5

(1978-79) Kurosaki, Hiroshi, 'Philosophy of Science in Japan (1976-1980)' Annals vol. 6

(1982) Murakami, Yoichiro, 'Philosophy of Science in Japan (1981-1985)' Annals vol.

7 (1987)

PREFACE IX

Murakami, Yoichiro, 'Philosophy of Science in Japan (1986-1990), Annals vol. 8 (1992)

and a special article Yamanouchi, T., 'Physics and Philosophy in Japan' Contemporary Philosophy,

ed. R. Klibansky (1968)

* * *

Several scientists and philosophers have appealed to a Western mind in particularly interesting ways, and I note a few of their works here.

(1) Watanabe Satosi. Knowing and Guessing: A Quantitative Study of Inference and Information (Wiley, 1969). A major treatise of natural philosophy: physics, communication and information theory, cybernetics, statistics, inductive logic, and steeped in philosophy.

Reversibilite contre irreversibilite en physique quantique' in Louis de Broglie: Physician et Penseur, ed. A. George (Albin Michel, Paris 1953), pp. 385-400.

'Symmetry of Physical Laws' Parts I, II, III in Rev. Mod. Phys. vol. 27 pp. 26-39,40-76,179-186.

'Causality and Time' in The Study of Time II, ed. J.T. Fraser and N. Lawrence (Springer 1975), pp. 267-282.

'Needed: A Historical Dynamical View of Theory Change' in Synthese, vol. 32 (1975), pp. 113-134. Here we find Watanabe's critique of Kuhn's theory.

'A Model of Mind-Body Relation in Terms of Modular Logic', Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 1 (Reidel, 1963), pp. 1-41. This was the first paper in the first volume of the Boston Studies; Watanabe's lecture, October 26, 1961, was the first lecture to the Boston Colloquium for the Philosophy of Science.

This paper was revised: 'Modified Concepts of Logic, Probability, and Information Based on Generalised Continuous Characteristic Function', Information and Control, vol. 15 (1969).

'Theory of Propensity: A New Foundation of Logic', Boston Studies, vol. 31 (entitled Language, Logic and Method) (Reidel, 1983), pp. 283-308.

(2) Mutsuo Yanase. This insightful philosopher-scientist, also a noted Jesuit theologian, has published on fundamental physics, especially concerned with micro-measurement, with time, with probability, and with the realism issue in scientific knowing.

'ReversibiliHit und IrreversibiliHit in der Physik' Annals vol. I (1956), pp. 131-149.

x ROBERT S. COHEN

'On Aevum - between time and eternity -' Annals vol. 4 (1975)

'Fuzziness and Probability' Annals vol. 6 (1985), pp. 219-226.

'Analysis of the Quantum Mechanical Measurement Process' (with E.P. Wigner) Annals vol. 4.

'Hidden Realism (I)' Annals vol. 5, pp. 225-244, and 'Hidden Realism (II)' vol. 6, pp. 129-138.

(3) Hideki Yukawa. The pre-eminent physicist of Japan has published many articles and books of a philosophical or broadly cultural nature, and critically commented on the inadequacy of modern fundamental space-­time theory. His own work at the level of elementary particles, in his self­reflection, was originally derived from what Yukawa termed a metaphysi­cal idea of the classical Chinese philosopher Chuang Tzu; perhaps intuition.

Here are two representative reflections.

'Elementary Particles and Space-Time Structure' Annals vol. 1 (1960).

'Intuition and Abstraction in Scientific Thinking' Annals vol. 2 (1962).

(4) Other philosophical physicists of scientific renown: Tomonaga Shin'ichiro whose 'The World Reflected in the Mirror' (Tokyo 1965) is a reminder of a favorite story of Niels Bohr; Yamanouchi Takahiko who has been a sympathetic colleague to analytic philosophers, and a critic of the 'Un­scientific' factor of instinct or intuition as in Yukawa, published Man and Machine (Tokyo 1965) and later a philosophical study of the logic and explanatory power of model theory in On Understanding of Modern Physics (Tokyo 1970); and Sakata Shoichi, interested in the emergent levels structure of Nature, as well as Taketani Mutsuo whose work on the Problems of Dialectics (two volumes, Tokyo 1946 and 1959) was a major post-war Marxist work of scientific philosophy.

These are personal glances at a rich literature of which no doubt the English Annals, itself a treasure house, is only a sample. In very recent years, a collection on the theme of 'Mind-Body Problems' was published (Tokyo, 1980) with contributions from Omori, Inoue, Kuroda, Yamamoto, and Hiramatu. This vexed problem in the philosophy of science subsequently drew much attention, notably Omori's Fragments (1981), and Sakamoto's Philosophy of the Human Machine (1981). At the same time, in 1990, a special symposium of the journal Philosophy of Science was devoted to the question: what should be the future of philosophy of science? Sawada's paper lucidly presented the different situations of philosophy of sciences past, present, and (alternatives?) future; Sakamoto set forth his original conception of the desired 'unified science', not that of the logical positivists but rather a great synthesis of all scientific activities. Thus for Sakamoto a comprehensive study of bioethics

PREFACE Xl

must draw upon many sciences in essential ways, but also each would appear to take care to mind solely its own business; and yet bioethics is ethics, essentially philosophical, and the insights of each science must be philosophically coordinated. This coordination, this unification, should be regarded as an important part and task of the philosopher of science. (The harmony of this view with that of Otto Neurath's 'orchestration' of the sceinces comes to mind.)

In 1991 Akira Oide's work, Challenge to Paradoxes dealt especially with quantum logic. Also in 1991 Sakamoto published his New Developments in the Theory of the Origin of Language, again, as in his bioethics, a provocative synthesis of investigations from many sciences. Also in 1992, Kuroda's Act and Norm was a notable posthumous publication; and Omori's Time and Ego, his last book. Clearly this sampling from the current decade shows strength of mind and great focus upon humane philosophical responsibility. Now the new philosophers are at work, those in their forties or early fifties, mainly from the University of Tokyo or Keio University: our good guide Nagasaka tells us to look for the names of Soshiti Utii, Yosaku Nishiwaki, Tanji Nobuharu, Keiichi Noe, Teruo Yokohama.

The volume before you seems to be representative of the best of the first, the 'renaissance' generation of Japanese philosophers of science. Our Preface and our Introduction provide maps of what constitutes the Japanese philosophical landscape for philosophers and historians of recent science. Of course, our major gratitude goes to the authors of the articles in the book, twelve very patient philosophers. And warmest thanks to Francis Gen-Ichiro Nagasaka.

Boston University Center for Philosophy and History of Science March 1998

Robert S. Cohen

FRANCIS G. NAGASAKA

INTRODUCTION

A SHORT HISTORY OF JAPANESE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

Western philosophy was not introduced into Japanese intellectual circles on a considerable scale until the latter part of the 19th century. English philosophers like Bentham, Mill, and Spencer and French philosophers like Rousseau had a strong impact on the Japanese mind in the early history of Western philosophy in Japan. But German idealism soon replaced the early trend, mainly due to the tremendous prestige of the University of Tokyo, and later the University of Kyoto. In the later trend many, if not most, Japanese philosophers devoted themselves to the study of Kantian and Neo-Kantian philosophers in the early part of the 20th century, and took no heed of the philosophic significance of natural science.

Perhaps Hajime Tanabe of the University of Kyoto was the only exception among the leading philosophers of the time who took a serious and extensive interest in natural science and mathematics (Tanabe died in 1962). Under the influence of Hermann Cohen he published Philosophy of Science in 1918 and he also translated Poincare's Valeur de la science into Japanese. One may say these marked the very beginning of Japanese philosophy of science. In 1925, he published A Study of the Philosophy of Mathematics in which he advocated the transcendental-logical principles of mathematics against the logicism of Russell and Frege. Though he devoted himself to more metaphysical problems in the meantime, he returned to the philosophy of science in Between Philosophy and Science which, published in 1937, includes such papers as "The Philosophical Meaning of Quantum Mechanics" and "Concepts in Greek Philosophy and the New Physics." His activities in this field continued even after World War II. He wrote a series of books on the subject: in 1950, Introduction to Philosophy; in 1954 Development of Mathematics in History; in 1955 Inquiry into a New Methodology of Theoretical Physics and Dialectics of the Theory of Relativity.

In the 1940's we notice several important works other than Tanabe's: Goichi Miyake wrote in 1940 The Formation of Science and the Natural World, and in

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F. G. Nagasaka (ed.), Japanese Studies in the Philosophy of Science, xiii-xviii. © 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

xiv FRANCIS G. NAGASAKA

1947 History of Ideas of the Philosophy of Mathematics. Another important work in this period is Philosophy of the History of Science by Torataro Shimomura, which appeared in 1941. He contended that the formal property of mathematics is not primitive but rather derivative in the course of Geistesgeschichte. He contrasted the views of Seki Kowa (1642-1708), a great Japanese mathematician of the 17th century, with Newton and Leibnitz concerning the invention of differential calculus. Shimomura also wrote Formation and Structure of the Theory of the Infinite in 1944.

In the field of the history of mathematics and science, several important works were published in the decade stretching from 1946 to 1955 by such authors as K. Ogura, J. Sugai, S. Yajima, and K. Kondo. They include A History of Geometrical Thought (1946) and An Introduction to Mathematical Thought by Kondo. In particular Shuro Honda's A History of Scientific Thought (1955) is worthy of notice. Hiroshi Nagai published his voluminous Formation of the Modern Philosophy of Science in which he elucidated the internal and inseparable relation between science and philosophy from the Renaissance to the end of the 18th century. Joichi Suetuna, the mathematician, also became interested in this field of research; he wrote Mathematics and its History (1944) and Mathematics and Logic (1947). In 1952 Foundations of Mathematics was published, a collection of philosophical papers he had previously published. Besides Suetuna many leading mathematicians in Japan took a keen interest in the problems of the foundations of mathematics, and numerous books and articles were written on the subject during the 1940's: Just to cite a few, Elemental Concepts of Modern Mathematics (1946) by Iyanaga, An Outline of Modern Algebra (1941) by Akizuki, and Philosophy of Number and the Continuum (1943) by Shiraishi should not be forgotten.

Contrary to mathematicians, leading Japanese physicists of the time did not pay too much attention to the philosophical issues involved in the emergence of the new physics. Perhaps Time (1948) by Satoshi Watanabe was an exception. Later Hideki Yukawa became more and more interested in the philosophical or metaphysical aspects of physics, and Takahiko Yamanouchi also. This trend was strong enough to urge these people to form a new organization; the Japan Association of Philosophy of Science was founded in 1954, and subsequently a journal which is devoted to the study of the foundations of science and mathematics was created as an official journal of the association, its Japanese edition published semi-annually and the English edition annually. The Associa­tion joined the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science, and formed the IUHPS regional committee, together with the History of Science Society of Japan.

The Association organized a series of International Symposia on "Science and Modern Civilization" under the auspices of the Asia Foundation in 1958, 1960 and 1961. Supported by the Japan Science Council, it also organized a series of Symposia in cooperation with the History of Science Society of Japan, in 1961 "Acceptance and Significance of Modern Science in Japan" and in 1962 and 1963 "Analysis and Synthesis in Science."

INTRODUCTION xv

In Tokyo under the strong influence of the Vienna Circle, the Synthesis of Science Society was founded as early as 1928, though it was a movement carried forward by a group of individual philosophers and scientists rather than a well-established institution. During the years of World War II, the activities of the Society were practically at a standstill, and the journal Synthesis of Science had to be discontinued. In spite of the difficulties, however, the Society continued to exist, and in 1949, completely reorganized, the Society decided to adopt a new name: the Logic of Science Society, Japan. The newly established society, however, had but modest activities. Except for bimonthly meetings on a small scale, it had neither its own journal nor plenary meetings.

In 1953 another organization was founded by Seiji Ueda of Waseda University: Japanese Association for the Study of American Philosophy which took keen interest in the philosophy of science. With financial assistance of the Rockefeller Foundation and the Japanese Ministry of Eduction a series of monographs of five volumes were completed by 1960: 1. Logical Positivism (1954); 2. Language, Meaning and Value (1956); 3. Problems of Analytic Philosophy (1957); 4. Ways to Scientific Philosophy (1958); 5. Foundations of Contemporary Philosophy (1960). The Association was very active in the beginning, but it rapidly became idle after Ueda's death following the completion of the monograph series.

Though these three associations were separate organizations, they had many common active members and in 1957 they decided to hold annual common meetings and also to issue a journal, the Annual Report of Philosophy of Science the first issue of which came out four years later in 1961. After the 11 th meeting in 1967 it was decided to discontinue the annual joint meeting and the journal. It was a common belief that the joint meeting had done its job. And at the same time a complete reorganization of the Logic of Science Society was effected at its plenary meeting and a new organization, the Philosophy of Science Society, Japan, started with a journal of its own, Philosophy of Science, and annual meetings. Since then we have two organizations and two journals devoted to the study of the philosophy of science with two annual meetings, one in the Spring and one in the Fall.

In the 1960's, the works of Japanese philosophers of science received broad recognition among Japanese philosophers and general readers perhaps for the first time. In 1962 and 1963, two large works of Hiroshi Nagai were published: The Ontological Foundation of Mathematics and Studies in Contemporary Natural Philosophy; and on the related topic of analytic philosophy, we find, in 1959 Shigeo Nagai's Analytic Philosophy - Logical Foundation of Language Analysis, and in 1963 Philosophical Analysis - Essays on the Foundations of Society, History and Logic by Saburo Ichii. In 1964 Nobushige Sawada published Philosophy and Logical Analysis. In 1964 appeared Philosophy in the Scientific Age, a collection of twenty-eight papers, the proceedings of two symposia, compiled by Junichi Aomi, Arata Ishimoto, Shozo Ohmori, No­bushige Sawada, and Natuhiko Yosida, which consisted of three volumes: 1. Logic, Science, and Philosophy; 2. Man and Society; 3. Nature and Knowledge.

xvi FRANCIS G. NAGASAKA

Hiroshi Nagai's The Philosophy of Science appeared in 1966. Shigeo Nagai and Hiroshi Kurosaki published Fundamentals of Philosophy of Science in 1967. In 1969 a collection of papers by prominent mathematicians, natural scientists, and philosophers, The Basis of Science was edited by Ohmori and others; and in the same year, Sawada published The Structure of Knowledge: Conquest of Dogmas and Scientific Thought. In 1970 Hidekichi Nakamura published another important work, The Basis of the Philosophy of Science.

It was about this time that promiment scientists such as Hideki Yukawa and Takahiko Yamanouchi took their keen interest in the philosophical aspects of modern physics. Yukawa's Creative Man appeared in 1966 and Yamanouchi's On Understanding Modern Physics: The World a Physicist Looks at in 1970. Ryuichi Vagi, an outstanding biologist, wrote History and Methodology of the Theory of Evolution in 1965.

In the field of philosophy of language Natuhiko Yosida's Language and Reality appeared in 1971, perhaps the first on this subject in Japan. In 1972 Hyakudai Sakamoto edited Philosophy of Language, a collection of articles of Japanese philosophers of language. A series of books, World and Knowledge: Lectures in Philosophy, edited by Shozo Ohmori in 1973, must be mentioned as an important contribution, which includes such important articles as "World­Soul Theory" by Ohmori himself, "The Privacy of Consciousness" by Takashi Fujimoto, "The Problems of Multivocation" by Yosida, "Fact, Law, and Theory" by Yoichiro Murakami, "Theory and Experience" by Kurosaki, "Causation, Determination, and Freedom" by Sakamoto. Murakami pub­lished another book in the following year, Beyond Modern Science. Junichi Aomi's important book, Restoration of Rationalism appeared in 1973. Another book of Kuroda, Experience and Language appeared in 1975. Ohmori's essay in volume 2 of World and Knowledge, "World-Soul Theory" provoked many discussions among Japanese philosophers. In the field of social science Junichi Aomi published Restoration of Rationalism, also in 1973.

In the field oflogic, we find several important books published in this period: Hidekichi Nakamura's Paradoxes; Shigeo Nagai's Science and Logic (1971) and Logic of Philosophical Knowledge (1974); Logic of Existence of Hiroshi Endo (1975); Logic of the Systemization Language (1975) and Methods of Mathema­tical Logic by Yoshimi Fujikawa. Shoji Maehara's Mathematical Logic appeared in 1973. Gaishi Takeuti also wrote Mathematical Logic.

In 1971, Takahiko Yamanouti edited The Method of Modern Science, a collection of papers by representative philosophers of science. In 1972 Kenichi Shirakami published Biology and Method. In 1973 Hiroshi Nagai wrote Philosophical Foundation of the Theory of Life. In 1975 Nobushige Sawada published The Landscape of Cognition. In 1973 Satosi Watanabe wrote The History of Tzme. In 1974 Koji Fushimi and Mutsuo Yanase edited What is Tzme?, a collection of articles of various authors. In 1979 Satosi and Dorothea Watanabe edited Tzme and Man, Yoichiro Murakami edited another book, Time and Space, a collection of articles, in 1977; another book Time was edited by Shuntaro Ito in 1980; the concept of time in physics was discussed by Shinichi

INTRODUCTION XVll

Matsushita in his Introductory Survey of TIme and Cosmos (1980). In 1979 and 1980, Murakami published a series of books in which he

discussed Kuhn and Feyerabend; New Philosophy of Science - Do 'facts" refute theories?; Science and the World of Every Day; Science as Dynamic Pictures of the World; Dynamics of Science - A New Model of Theory-change. The dynamic aspect of scientific change was also discussed by Hiroshi Kurosaki from the Wlttgensteinian viewpoint in his Science and Man - A Wzttgensteinian Approach (1977). We find many other authors also discussed the mind-body problem in the latter part of the 1970's. Ohmori edited Matter and Mind in 1980 in which he himself contributed four articles. In the same year Sakamoto published Philosophy of the Mechanical VIew of Man - The Mind-Body Problem and Freedom.

The latter part ofthe 1970's was quite productive in the field of philosophical logic. Sawada published Philosophy of Life Science in 1976 and Logical Structure of Thought in 1977. He also edited a collection of articles, Science and Ontology, which was compiled in honor of Professor Masao Matsumoto, one of the pioneers in the philosophy of science in Japan, published in 1980. In 1979, Hidehisa Sakai's Grammar and Logic of Japanese appeared. In 1979 Shigeo Nagai published Logic of World-VIew and in the same year another collection of papers, Philosophy of Science, which more or less emphasized analysis of logical aspects of philosophy of science, was edited by Jiichiro Takeo. Earlier in 1976 Takeo together with Keiichiro Kamino published Logic: Model Theory and its Historical Background. Logic of Modalities was written by Taneomi Uchida in 1978. Arata Ishimoto published a series of articles on Lesniewski's ontology, Montagu grammar, modal logic, and other related topics. In the field of the philosophy and foundations of mathematics, Chikio Hayashi's How to Think of Data Analysis and Shoitsu Sawaguchi's Philosophy of the Continuum in Connection with Mathematics both of which were published in 1977. Introduction to the Foundation of Mathematics by Shoji Maehara, and The World of Logic and Philosophy by Natuhiko Yosida appeared also in 1977.

In the 1980's we find a rather remarkable shift in the trend of Japanese philosophers of science. Tokyo University Press started to publish two series of works on cognitive science: Lectures on Cognitive Psychology and Monographs of Science both of which contain many discussions on AI. This trend is manifest also in the New Iwanami Lecture Series of Philosophy which consists of 16 volumes and was completed in 1986 (Iwanami has long been regarded as the most reputable publisher in Japan). Though they were deeply concerned with various aspects of recent development of science and technology, yet the number of articles and books of, say, the traditional style of philosophy of science considerably decreased.

In 1984, however, an interesting book, Labyrinth of Philosophy edited by Keiichi Noe came out in 1984. This book is a collection of papers by Ohmori's former students and intended to provide a thorough analysis of the philosophy of Ohmori who was the undisputed leading figure in the development of Japanese philosophy of science, and particularly in the postwar period. Like

xviii FRANCIS G. NAGASAKA

The Library of Living Philosophers, it consists of various critical articles on Ohmori's philosophical conceptions, and the replies of Ohmori himself to each of these articles. Ohmori published another interesting book, A New "New Theory of Vzsion," the name of which was taken from Berkeley's book. In 1983 he wrote another book Structure of Knowledge.

In 1981 Shuntaro Ito published Science and Reality, a collection of articles each of which is a Koyre-type philosophical examination of the history of natural science. Earlier, in 1980, Ohmori edited Mind-Body Problems. In 1986 Sakamoto published Mind and Body. In 1980-81, Murakami completed editing a 7-volume monograph series A History of Intellectual Revolutions. Yanase's Modern Physics and the New Perspectives of the World appeared in 1984. Murakami's Science as a Dynamic Picture of the World came out in 1980 and in 1981 his Inverse Perspectives of Science was published. In 1983 Yasugi discussed his philosophical conception of evolution in The Concept of Life and Evolution. Yukio Takegasa's Linguistic Philosophy of Frege was published in 1986. In 1987, Kurosaki published a very interesting book Against the Temptations of Science: A Wzttgensteinian Approach, and in 1989 Takeo published Representation and Reality.

As far as books are concerned, the 1980's, especially their latter part, we find less productive in comparisons with earlier periods. It is academically insignif­icant, but practically has had a considerable effect on this trend that publishers suddenly lost interest in rather scholarly philosophy of science. Nevertheless, philosophy of science was more prosperous than ever. More articles were contributed to scholarly journals, particularly by younger members, and it has become more and more difficult to accept contributed papers; even accepted papers have to wait a considerable time before they are published. The number of active members of the Association as well as the Society has doubled in the past ten years. Many old-timers like Ohmori and Sawada who started as stern logical positivists have been endeavoring to view the problems with much wider perspectives. Kurosaki, for example, published Zen and Wzttgenstein in 1988. It was expected that Japanese philosophy of science would take quite an unexpected turn in the 1990's.

My debt is to Professor Hinoshi Nagai who helped make me informed about the history, particularly of the prewar days.