jaydev kumar upadhyay

Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology,

Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229

Course Seminar on

Breeding Concept & Crop Improvement in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Speaker :Jaydev Kumar, Id. No. :A-5493/10Course No.: GPB 591, Cr. :1(0+1)Date : 04-10 -2011, Time :11.00A.M. Course Instructors: Dr. Ranjeet Singh & Dr. S.R. Vishwakarma

Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding N.D.U.A.& T. Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229

Highlights1. Introduction 2. Present use of chickpea3. Floral biology (emasculation/ pollination)4. Breeding objectives5. Breeding techniques 6. Quality components 7. Varieties released and important traits related cultivars8. Production constraints 9. Conclusion.

Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229

Introduction

Chickpea [Cicer arietinum (L.)] belongs to genus- Cicer ,family-Fabaceae, and sub family- Faboideae. It’s origin is considered in South Eastern Turkey (Ladizinsky, 1975). The name “Cicer” is of Latin origin, translated from the Greek word 'kikus' meaning force or strength. Duschak (1871) traced the origin of the word to the Hebrew 'kirkes',

where 'kirkes' means round.The word “arietinum” is also Latin, translated from the Greek word 'krios', another name for both ramhead and chickpea (van der Maesen1987).


In India, total production of chickpea was 7.48 million tonnes from of 8.21 million ha area with average yield of 895 kg/ha in year 2009-10. In area , production & productivity of Uttar Pradesh possessed 0.55 million ha., 0.56 million tonnes, 1014 kg ha-1 respectively in year 2009-10.Based on seed size and colour, cultivated chickpeas are of two types

(Cubero 1975).1. Macrosperma (kabuli type, 2n=16). The seeds of this type are large

(100-seed mass >25 g), round or ramhead, and cream-coloured. The plant is medium to tall in height, with large leaflets and white flowers.


Kabuli chana Desi chana

2.Microsperma (desi type, 2n=14 or 16). The seeds of this type are small and angular in shape. The seed colour varies from cream, black, brown, yellow to green. The plants are short with small leaflets and purplish flowers.Desi type chickpea is also known as “ Bengal gram” but Kabuli type chickpea called “ Garbanzos gram” (Spanish). In India, major chickpeas producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka etc.Globally, chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is important cool season food legume.Both cultivated chickpeas are diploid.Secondary centre of origin of chickpea is Asia minor.


Present use of chickpeaChickpea is an important rabi pulse grown in India and mature grains are uses as whole or split in Dhal, vegetable, besan etc.Chickpea is considered to have medicinal effects & it is used for blood purification.It is eaten boiled, fried, & parched. Ground into flour, it is one of the chief ingredient together with ghee & sugar in many form of Indian confectionery. The parched gram together with rice and jaggery is widely eaten as a snack, especially on long journeys, as a substitute for cooked food. The skin & broken bite of the fried gram are common cattle feed, like the husks of the pods and dry stem and leaves obtained at threshing time & the dry stem & esteemed best among all the pulses.


Various dish prepared by using of chickpea

Fried gram

Gazak

Pakori

vegetable

Gram salad

Floral biologyThe flower of chickpea is zygomorphic, solitary, axillary & polypetalous standard aestivation.Calyx is gamosepalous, lanceolate & densely covered with hairs.The outer most petal is large called standard petal.Two lateral petals are lanceolate and curved. They are called wing petals or alae. Two anterior and partly fused innermost petals are called keel petals or carina.Stamens are ten in number in diadelphous (9 anthers are fused +1 anther is free) condition and ovary is superior (G1).Majority of buds commence opening between 8.00 a.m. to 11.00 a.m. Fruits (pods) are containing one/two or three seeds.After fertilization, pod formation starts in 5-6 days.

Floral biologyThe flower of chickpea is zygomorphic, solitary, axillary & polypetalous standard aestivation.Calyx is gamosepalous, lanceolate & densely covered with hairs.The outer most petal is large called standard petal.Two lateral petals are lanceolate and curved. They are called wing petals or alae. Two anterior and partly fused innermost petals are called keel petals or carina.Stamens are ten in number in diadelphous (9 anthers are fused +1 anther is free) condition and ovary is superior (G1).Majority of buds commence opening between 8.00 a.m. to 11.00 a.m. Fruits (pods) are containing one/two or three seeds.After fertilization, pod formation starts in 5-6 days.



Flower stature of Kabuli type gram & Desitype chana.

Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad‐‐224229

Figure : A typical chickpea plant

Floral diagram

Emasculation Material required: Forceps, alcohol to sterilize the forceps, coloured nylon threads, lens, pencil, and record book.The process for removal of immature stamen or anthers or the killing of pollen grains of a flower without affecting in any way of the female reproductive organs is known as emasculation.The bud to be emasculated should be held gently at the base with the thumb and fore finger. Snip off the frontal sepal. Push the keel petal downwards by slitting it with a fine-pointed forceps to expose the anthers.Remove the anthers and count them, and also check with the help of a lens to ensure that no anther is in the flower.The pedicel, style and stigma are fragile. Therefore, care must be taken not to damage these parts during emasculation. A coloured nylon thread is tied loosely around the pedicel of the emasculated flower for identification. The emasculated flowers are usually not covered with a selfing bag to prevent cross- pollination.


PollinationThe pollen grains reaching on the stigma of a flower. In other words, when the pollen lands onto stigma of a flower.Freshly viable pollen grains are collected & used for dusting on the stigmas of emasculated flower . Mature pollen is applied to the stigmas with the help of cammel hair brush, piece of paper & forceps.Singh and Auckland (1975) reported that at ICRISAT at Patancheru, India; pollination can be done at any time between 0800 to1700 hrs., and this practice gives an almost similar pod-set. The natural rate of pod-setting in chickpea lies between 18 to 59%. Singh and Auckland (1975) reported 24% pod-setting when artificial pollination was done on the same day as emasculation and 15% pod-setting when it was done one day after emasculation. Low seed-setting in chickpea is mainly due to high humidity and cloudy weather.

PollinationThe pollen grains reaching on the stigma of a flower. In other words, when the pollen lands onto stigma of a flower.Freshly viable pollen grains are collected & used for dusting on the stigmas of emasculated flower . Mature pollen is applied to the stigmas with the help of cammel hair brush, piece of paper & forceps.Singh and Auckland (1975) reported that at ICRISAT at Patancheru, India; pollination can be done at any time between 0800 to1700 hrs., and this practice gives an almost similar pod-set. The natural rate of pod-setting in chickpea lies between 18 to 59%. Singh and Auckland (1975) reported 24% pod-setting when artificial pollination was done on the same day as emasculation and 15% pod-setting when it was done one day after emasculation. Low seed-setting in chickpea is mainly due to high humidity and cloudy weather.


Breeding Objectives

Breeding for high & stable yield.Breeding for shattering resistance.Breeding for biotic (disease & insect-pest resistance) & abiotic(salinity, drought, high temperature & cold resistance) stresses. Breeding for quality traits like- grain size, colour, cooking quality & nutritive value.Breeding for development of double poddedness varieties.Breeding for development of multi-resistance varieties.Induction of response to increase fertilization.To develop efficient plant types with erect growth up-right habit & vertical leaves with profuse podding & higher protein content.


Breeding Techniques used for Crop ImprovementVarious procedures that are used for genetic improvement of crop plants are referred to as plant breeding methods or plant breeding procedure. In chickpea , mainly three methods are employed for improvement of crop:

1. Selection: A. Mass selection B. Pure line selection. 2.Hybridization: A. Bulk method (Singh & Auckland,1976), B. Single seed

descent method, (Byth et al.,1980), C. Pedigree method (Byth et al.,1980),3.. Mutation breeding

Selection MethodsSelection permits the reproduction only in those plant that have the desirable

characteristics, the plant have been selected.


Mass SelectionMass selection refers to selection of superior plant on the basis of phenotype

from a mixed population, their seeds are bulked & used to raise the next generation.

Merit: This is a good method for improvement of old cultivars & land races. This is also used for the purification of improved cultivars. Mass selected varieties provide good protection against diseases.Mass selected varieties are more stable in their performance than pure line varieties.

Demerits- Progeny test is not carried out in mass selection.The produce of varieties developed by mass selection is less uniform

than pure lines.Varieties developed through mass selection:

JG 74, CSG 8962

Mass SelectionMass selection refers to selection of superior plant on the basis of phenotype

from a mixed population, their seeds are bulked & used to raise the next generation.

Merit: This is a good method for improvement of old cultivars & land races. This is also used for the purification of improved cultivars. Mass selected varieties provide good protection against diseases.Mass selected varieties are more stable in their performance than pure line varieties.

Demerits- Progeny test is not carried out in mass selection.The produce of varieties developed by mass selection is less uniform

than pure lines.Varieties developed through mass selection:

JG 74, CSG 8962



1.From variable population, 200-2000 plants with similar but desirable traits are selected.

2. The seeds from selected plants are composited.

1. The composited seeds are planted in a preliminary yield trials along with standard checks.2. Phenotype of the selected population is critically evaluated.

1. Promising selections are evaluated in coordinated yield trials at several locations.If outstanding, released as a new variety.

Seed multiplication for distribution.

Fig. Procedure of mass selection in self pollinated crops with out progeny test.

6th year

Ist year

2nd year

3rd to 5th

year

Pure Line Selection A large number of plants are selected from a homozygous populations of self pollinated crop & are harvested individually, individual plant progenies from them are evaluated & the best progeny is released as a new variety. A pure line variety is obtained from a single homozygous plant of a self

pollinated crop. Merit - This is a good method of isolating the best genotype for yield ,disease & insect resistance etc. from a mixed population of an old variety.Demerit- This method can isolate only superior genotype from the mixed population. It can not be develop new genotype.Pure line varieties have poor adaptability due to narrow genetic base.Varieties developed through pure line selection:

DCP 92-3, Chaffa, Dahod yellow, BDN 9-3, JG 315, KWR 108, GNG 146.

Pure Line Selection A large number of plants are selected from a homozygous populations of self pollinated crop & are harvested individually, individual plant progenies from them are evaluated & the best progeny is released as a new variety. A pure line variety is obtained from a single homozygous plant of a self

pollinated crop. Merit - This is a good method of isolating the best genotype for yield ,disease & insect resistance etc. from a mixed population of an old variety.Demerit- This method can isolate only superior genotype from the mixed population. It can not be develop new genotype.Pure line varieties have poor adaptability due to narrow genetic base.Varieties developed through pure line selection:

DCP 92-3, Chaffa, Dahod yellow, BDN 9-3, JG 315, KWR 108, GNG 146.


HybridizationThe mating or crossing of two dissimilar plants or lines is known as hybridization. In plants crossing is done by placing pollen grains from one line or genotype, called the male parent on to the stigma of flowers of the other genotype, referred to as the female parent.The seeds as well as the progeny resulting from hybridization are known as hybrid or F1 & it’s advance generations are called segregating generations. It consists of following breeding methods, given below: A. Bulk method (Singh & Auckland,1976), B. Single seed descent method (Byth et al., 1980), C. Pedigree method (Byth et al., 1980)

Bulk method: In bulk method, F2 or the subsequent generations are harvested in mass to raise the next generation. At the end of bulking period, individual plants are selected & evaluated in F8 generations & superior progenies released as a new cultivar. The method is also termed as massor population method.

.Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229

Ist year Parents Selected plants are hybridized & harvest in bulk for next generation.

IInd year F1 F1 spaced-planted; seed harvest in bulk.

IIIrd year F2Seeds harvested in bulk.

IVth to VIIth years F3 -F6

As in F2, may use artificial selection, disease, insect, etc.

VIIIth year F71.F7 is spaced-planted, 1. Individual plants selected, 3. Seeds

harvested separately.

IXth year F81.Individual plant progenies grown. 2. Undesirable progenies eliminated.

Xth year F9 Preliminary yield trials using local cultivars & quality tests done.

XIth to XIIIth years F10-

F12

Multilocation yield trials using local cultivars & select the superior lines for new release variety.

XIVth year F13 Seed increase for distribution begins.

Fig: A scheme of bulk method for the isolation of homozygous lines in self-pollinated crops

Single Seed Descent Method A breeding procedure used with segregating populations of self pollinated species in which plants are advanced by single seed from one generation to the next is referred to as single seed descent method. This method was suggested by Goulden (1939). In this method, a single seed from each of the 1000-2000 F2 plants are bulked to raise the next generation. Similarly, in F3 & the subsequent generations one random seed is selected from every plant present in the population & harvested in bulk to raise the next generation.This procedure is followed till F5 or F6 when the plants would have become nearly homozygous. Brim (1966) suggested that harvest of two or three seeds from plant for using one seed for planting & another seeds for reserve (if seed for planted to failure to germination automatically eliminate that is F2family) & separate operations.


Ist year Parents Selected parents are hybridized.

IInd year F1 F1 space-planted , harvested in bulk.

IIIrd year F21.F2 densely planted, 2. From each plant , one random seed selected & bulked.

IVth year F31.F3 densely planted, 2. From each plant , one random seed selected & bulked.

Vth to VIth year F4-F5As in F3.

VIIth year F6

1. F6 space-planted, 2. 100-500 plants with desirable traits harvested separately.

VIIIth year F71. Individuals plant progenies grown, 2.Undesirable progenies eliminated, 3. Desirable homozygous progenies harvested in bulk.

IXth year F8Preliminary yield trial with a suitable check & quality test.

Xth to XIIth year F9-F11

Coordinated yield trials; diseases & quality test.

XIIIth year F12Seed increase for distribution to farmers begins.

Fig: Schematic representation of single seed descent method in self pollinated crops.

Pedigree MethodPedigree refers to record of the ancestry of an individual selected plant. Pedigree breeding is a method of genetic improvement of self pollinated species in which superior genotypes are selected fromsegregating generations & proper record of ancestry of selected plants are maintained in each generation. It is generally used when both the parents that are used in the hybridization have good agronomic traits or well adapted.It is more commonly used for the improvement of polygenic traits.The genetic constitution of the variety developed by this method is homozygous & homogeneous, because it is progeny of single homozygote.

ACHIEVEMENTS: T2, T1, T3, T5, Radhey, etc.Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229

P2 P1

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

F6

F7

F8 -F10

F11

Ist Year

IInd Year

IIIrd Year

IVth Year

Vth Year

VIth Year

VIIth Year

VIIIth Year

IXth-XIth Year

XIIth Year

Selected plants are planted in a crossing block and crosses are made.

Seeds are space-planted, & harvest in bulk.

1. 2000-10000 plants space-planted. 2. 100-150 superior plants selected, harvested in separately.

Individual plant progenies space-planted & superior plants selected.

As above F3. & superior plant harvested in separately and grown generation.

1.Individual plant progenies. progenies planted in multi-row plots. 2.Superior plants selected.

As in F5 & Preliminary yield trial may be conducted.Preliminary yield trials & quality tests.

Coordinated yield trials. Disease &quality tests.

Seed multiplication for farmer distribution.

Fig. Schematic representation of the pedigree method in Bengal gram.

Mutation BreedingThe genetic improvement of crop plants for various economic traits through the use of induced mutation (mutation that are induced by the treatment of mutagenic agents viz.; gamma rays, 5 B.U., E.M.S., etc. )is referred to as mutation breeding.A mutation breeding programme should be clearly planed & should be

large enough with sufficient facilities to permit an effective screening of large populations.Type : 1. Breeding for oligogenic traits 2. Breeding for polygenic

traits.ACHIEVEMENTS: Mutant G 130,BG 1003, WCG 2, WCG3,

WCG10, Sadhbhavana, BG 408, BG 413, BG 417


Ist year M1

IInd year M2

IIIrd year M3

IVth Year M4

Vth-VIIth Year M5-M7

VIIIth Year M8

1. Treated seeds are space-planted. 2.Seeds from individual plants are harvested separately.

1. Individual plants progenies grown. 2. Plants from rows containing the mutant allele (homozygous) harvested separately.

1. Individual plant progenies grown. 2.Superior mutant (homozygous) and homogeneous population harvested in bulk.

1.Preliminary yield trials & quality tests 2.Superior lines selected.

Coordinated yield trials. Disease, quality tests, Superior lines released as a new variety.

Seed multiplication for farmer distribution.

Fig. A schematic representation of mutation breeding (for transfer of oligogenic traits) in bengal gram.

Quality Components Chickpea is a very good source of carbohydrates & protein, which together constitute about 80% of the total dry seed weight.

Protein & Amino acid:Chickpea seeds contain protein content that ranges between 12.6 to 30.5 % (Singh et al. 1997). The protein content of dhal is noticeably higher than that of the whole seed indicating the effect of seed coat on the protein content in chickpea genotype. Chickpea seed also contains a considerable of amount non protein nitrogen (NPN), which also effect true protein content.

A large variation in NPN would overestimate the true protein content of the sample and would consequently affect the estimated protein intake in the diet. Although, genotype exists with higher protein content, no attempt has been made to combine high protein with high yield potential.

Application of nitrogen , phosphorus & sulphur fertilizers considerable increase the protein & amino acids in chickpea seed (Gupta and Singh,1982).


Nutritional composition of whole seed & dhal component of chickpea

Components (%) Whole seed DhalProtein 22 24.5Starch 47.3 56.0Sugar 5.8 4.9Ash 3.2 2.8Fat 5.3 5.7Crude fiber 6.3 1.1Dietary fiber 19 11.3


•Chickpea generally meets adult human requirement for all essential amino acids except methionine & cystine. •Based on the amino acid composition, chickpea is found to be of higher nutritive value as compared to other legumes (Gupta and Kapoor, 1980 ). The levels of different protein fractions primarily control the essential amino acid composition of chickpea seed protein, as they tend to differ with respect to their amino acid content.

Chickpea contains considerable amount of vitamins B1 and B2,ascorbic acid and niacin.

Anti-nutritional factors : It is well recognized that the majority of food legumes including chickpea synthesize certain biologically active substances commonly considered to be anti nutrition factors since they have been shown to affect animal and human nutritional factors. Chickpea grain contains variable amount of anti nutritional factors. These, chickpea is known for it’s high levels of flatulence causing sugar namely, raffinose, stachyose. When considered together, raffinose and stachyose constitute nearly 40% of the total soluble sugar present in chickpea ( Singh et al. 1982 ).


Chickpea is also known for its levels of trypsin and chemotrypsininhibitors, even though it is less problematic in comparison to soybeans, peas.Polyphenols, which are interchangeably termed as tannins, are also present in chickpea seeds, but they are mostly present in the seed coat (Singh 1984).Phytic acid is an inositol hexa phosphate, which forms complexes with minerals and protein thus interfering with their availability. Dhal samples of chickpea contains considerable amount of phytic acid (Singh 1988) which can be lowered by germination & fermentation.


Important characteristics of recently released varieties of chickpeaSl. No. Name of

cultivars Centre responsible for developing

Year of release

Average yield (q/ha)

Reaction to major disease & pest

Recommended for zones

1 Avrodhi CSAU, Kanpur 1987 22-23 Res. to wilt NWPZ, NEPZ

2 Pusa 267 IARI, New Delhi 1988 21-23 Res. to wilt NWPZ

3 Bharati ICRISAT, Hyderabad

1992 20-21 ,, SOUTH ZONE

4 Sadabahar CSAU, Kanpur 1992 24-26 Tol. to wilt NEPZ

5 BG 329 IARI, New Delhi 1993 20-23 Res.to wilt NWPZ

6 Pusa 372 ,, ,, 20-21 ,, & blight NWPZ,NEPZ7 Vardan RAU,

Sriganganagar1995 22-23 Res.to wilt NWPZ

Sl. No.

Name of cultivar s

Centre responsible for developing

Year of release




8 Pusa 362 IARI, New Delhi 1995 20-24 Tol. to wilt NWPZ

9 KWR 108 CSAU, Kanpur 1996 22-25 Res.to wilt NEPZ

10 Alok ,, ,, 20-22 ,, NWPZ11 Phule G 5 MPKVV, Rahuri 1986 22-25 Tol. to wilt CZ,NEPZ

12 Pant G 186 Pantnagar 1997 16-20 Tol. to wilt & grey mold

NEPZ

13 JG 315 Jabalpur 1984 18-20 Res. to wilt CENTRA INDIA

14 Kranti ICRISAT, Hyderabad

1989 19-22 Res. to wilt CZ, SZ

15 CSG 8962 Karnal 1998 20-22 Res. to wilt NWPZ

Sl. No.

Name of cultivar s


Year of release




16 BG 256 IARI, New Delhi

1984 19-22 Res. to wilt & Blight

NEPZ, NWPZ

17 Pragati CSAU, Kanpur 1994 17-20 Tol. to wilt U.P

18 L 550 Ludhiana 1999 18-20 Tol. towilt NWPZ

19 PBG 1 Ludhiana 1988 16-18 Tol. to blight NWPZ

20 KPG 59 (Udai) CSAU, Kanpur 1992 18-20 Tol. to wilt NEPZ,

21 GCP 105 JAU, Junagarh 2000 16-19 Tol. to blight NEPZ,

22 WCG 10 SVBPUA&T, Meerut

2008 10-22 Tol. to wilt NEPZ,

23 WCG 3 ,, ,, 16-22 ,, ,,24 Sadhbhavana ,, 1998 20 ,, ,,25 BG 1003 IARI, Delhi 2000 22 ,, ,,

Sl. No.

Name of cultivar s


Year of release




26 JGK 1 JNKVV, Jabalpur 2003 19-21 Res. to wilt CZ

27 MNK-1 ARS, Gulberga 2010 12-14 ,, SZ

28 PKV Kabuli4

PDKV, Akola 2010 19-20 ,, M.P

29 Gujarat Junagarh Gran 3

JAU, Junagarh 1010 14-15 ,, Gujarat

30 Pant Kabuli Chana 1

GBPUA&T, Pantnagar

2010 23-25 ,, Uttarakhand

31 WCG 2 SVBPUA&T, Meerut

1999 21-23 ,, U.P


Production constraints Shrinkage of area due to increase in number of canals and other sources of irrigation and diversification of chickpea area under other crops.Area became unfit for pulse cultivation due to excess moisture around canals and increase in salt level.Large area under rainfed cultivation (75%).Biotic and abiotic stresses (up to 30% losses).Poor response to high input conditions and better management.Moisture stress at terminal growth stage.Fluctuating high temperature at reproductive phase.Crop damage due to blue bull.


ConclusionChickpea(Cicer arietinum L.; 2n=14 or 16) grains provide about 23% protein, 4-10% fat & 52-70% carbohydrate and traditionally consumed after processing into various products.Chickpea by goodness of its resilience under rainfed conditons has a greater role to play in coming years, as even with best efforts, successful cultivation in sizeable area will remain dependent on monsoon besides steady & consistent decline in water availability for agriculture operations due to higher allocation of water to other activities such as industries & drinking purposes. Through breeding methods & selection procedure, it is possible to develop new

cultivars for chickpea growing areas.Selection has played very important role in the development of high yielding varieties of chickpea from local varieties / wild species.Bulk method, pedigree method & single seed descent have been employed in the handling of segregating generations for the development of high yielding varieties. Varieties viz. JG 315, DCP92-3, Chaffa, Dahod Yellow, BDN 9-3, KWR 108, GNG 146 are developed through selection & T2, T1, T3, T5,Radhey by pedigree method and mutant variety is Mutant G 130,BG 1003, BG 408, BG413, BG417.



Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology,

Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229

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edition . Agrobios (India).Chaturvedi; S.K. and Dua; R.P. (2001). Improved Varieties of Chickpea in Kanpur. IIPR.Kanpur. Gowda; C.L.L. and Gour ; P.M. (2003). Global scenario of chickpea research-present status and future thrust. Pulses in new perspective.Gupta; S.K. (2005).Practical Plant Breeding. IInd edition. Agrobios (India).Singh; D.P. (1991). Genetics and Breeding of Pulse Crops. II nd edition. Kalyany Publishers India.Singh; F; and Diwakar; B; (1995). Chickpea Botany and Production Practices . Skill Development Series no. 16 , ICRISAT.http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/chhabra61‐532434‐flower‐s.
