Rediscoverl of the Elements

Jbns Jacob BerzeliusJames L. Marshall, Beta Eta 1971, andVirginia R. Marshall, Beta Eta 2003,Department of Chemistry, University ofNorth Texas, Denton, TX 76203-5070,jimm@unt.edu

Berzelius always seemed at thecenter of nearly every significantscientific discovery in chemistry.'

For several years now, we have been trekking

across Europe and North America follow-

ing the careers of various chemists. Duringthese wanderings, we have often crossed thetrail of Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848): atRiddarhyttan2 he was a discoverer (with

Wilhelm Hisinger) of cerium, and with H. M. T.Esmark of Norway' he was discoverer of thori-um. Spending most of his professional career in

Stockholm, he also discovered selenium, andhe was the first to prepare elemental silicon andzirconium. In his laboratories his student, JohanAugust Arfvedson (1792-1841), discoveredlithium and his assistant, Carl Gustaf Mosander(1797-1858), discovered lanthanum, didymium(a mixture of praseodymium and neodymium),erbium, and terbium.'

By the early part of the 18th century Europewas already awake to this remarkable chemist

of Sweden. Noting the breadth of Berzelius'knowledge and his extraordinary activity, thecontemporary Scottish biographer Thomson'

remarked, "There is no living chemist to whomanalytical chemistry lies under greater obliga-tions than to Berzelius, whether we considerthe number or exactness of the analyses whichhe has made."

At an early age Berzelius had beenimpressed with the chemistry of JeremiasBenjamin Richter (1762-1807)," who discov-ered the Law of Neutrality and coined the term

stoichiometry, and Joseph Louis Proust(1754-1826),', who discovered the Law ofConstant Proportions. These scientists werechallenging Claude Louis Berthollet(1748-1822)' who believed that compounds didnot have constant composition but insteadconsisted of arbitrary blends of elements. Thedecision between these two views was not

Figure 1. This statue of Berzelius stands in BerzeliPark in Stockholm, opened in 1853. This park is200 meters south of the house where he did thefamous work in his early years, the GermanBaker's House.

clear-cut because analyses were not yet suffi-ciently accurate. Berzelius felt it his mission toprove the correctness of the former view, andhe realized to do this he needed to improvechemical analysis to a new level of accuracy. Hedeveloped enhanced laboratory techniques andeven prepared his own reagents with therequired purity (he complained that commer-cial caustic alkali was fit only as a "laundryagent")." He turned his attention to the analy-sis of ores, and showed the composition of agiven mineral was constant. Being the first torecognize that silicon oxide was an acid, headdressed the composition of stony minerals,which had been previously thought to be hap-hazard and uninteresting mixtures, and heestablished the "happy idea ... that most of the

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degree in Uppsala, and lived the rest of his life inStockholm. He discovered selenium in a laboratoryin Gripsholmfrom an ore taken from the Faluncopper mine. Lithium was discovered in hisGerman Baker's House laboratory, from an oretaken from the Uth iron mine. Cerium wasdiscovered in Riddarhyttan, using thefacilities ofWilhelm Hisinger in Skinnskatteberg.D

stony minerals are definite compounds of sili-ca." His fame spread internationally and aspir-ing scientists would send samples to him toverify their discoveries. He confirmed

Sefstrom's vanadium,'* but refuted Osann's dis-covery of new platinum group elements.o r f1818 he published the accurate atomic weightsof 45 of the 49 known elements and these datawere continuously refined and expanded foranother decade. By 1826 he had revised hisatomic weights on the basis of the isomorphism

data of E. Mitscherlich and the specific heatdata of Dulong and Petit" by dividing by 2 or 4some of the atomic weight values. Remarkably,the precision of his values were such that theyvary only slightly from modem values. Thesedata were eventually critical for the develop-ment of the Periodic Table." (Note 1)

In his laboratories were trained a number ofGerman chemists, including Christian GottlobGmelin (1792-1860), who became a professor

at Tubingen; Eilhard Mitscherlich (1794-1863),who discovered chemical isomorphism;

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Figure 3. This is the home of Berzelius' mother's family (Sjbsteens), which is in the village of Vaversunda (N580 20.81 E 140 42.67). An adjacent church has existed since 1160; inside its walls are painted with beau-tiful murals dating from the 1600s. Three generations of the Berzelius family were pastors, who preached inthe province of Osterghtlands.

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Figure 4. Katedralskolan (Cathedral School) in Linkbping, which Berzelius attended, and of which hisfather was principal (Hastskogatan, N 58 24.65 E 150 37.10). Katedralskolan was founded in 1627. Abust of Berzelius as a youth, depicting him as he appeared when in attendance at the school, was erected in2007 in front of the Katedralskolan. Across town is Berzeliusskolan (Berzelius-School), founded in 1953,which is devoted more to technology and less to arts and philosophy.

Heinrich Rose (1795-1864), Gustav Rose(1798-1873), and Gustav Magnus (1802-1870),who became professors in Berlin; and FriedrichWohler (1800-1882) who destroyed the con-cept of vitalism (i.e., organic compounds had aspecial "vital force" that distinguished themfrom inorganic compounds), and who eventu-ally became professor at Gottingen."

Berzelius had an incredible ability to assim-ilate all the current chemistry and understandthe significance of the important current dis-

coveries. With typical energy he launched in1806 (in partnership with Wilhelm Hisinger,1766-1852, the codiscoverer of cerium) hisown journal Afhandlingar i Fysik, Kemi ochMineralogi (Treatises in Physics, Chemistry, andMineralogy), and in 1821 when elected secre-tary of the Swedish Academy of Sciencesbegan publishing Arsberdttelser fvreVetenskapernas Framsteg (Annual Surveys ofProgress in the Sciences). In these journals hesingle-handedly reported and evaluated on all

of the recent significant discoveries, andadvanced his own personal scientific ideas. Allof these were translated into German in hisJahres-Bericht." It was Whhler, his lifelong closefriend, who faithfully and accurately did mostof the translation of Berzelius' Swedish writ-ings into German. Jahres-Bericht was instru-mental in Berzelius' growing fame in GreatBritain and the Continent: "It is impossible tooverestimate the influence by. . . the Germanstudents who went to Sweden in the 1820s,worked under Berzelius and learned theSwedish language, enabling them to translatehis writings into an international language.""

In Jahres-Bericht Berzelius rapidly recog-nized the importance of Wbhler's isomerism(inorganic ammonium cyanate into organicurea) and extended it to a general concept,including fulminates and cyanates, tartaric acidand racemic acid (optically inactive tartaricacid), etc.'' He distinguished between iso-merism (same formula) and polymerism (mul-tiple formulas, but same percentage composi-tion).'2b He perceived the significance ofMitscherlich's isomorphism and proclaimedthat it was "the most important since the doc-trine of proportions."" (By this doctrine, com-pounds which had the same crystalline struc-ture showed atoms in the same relative posi-tions, and thus indicated analogous formulas;for example, phosphates and arsenates had thesame crystalline structure, hence had similarformulas PO4 and AsO4 ). Recognizing thatthe phenomenon of "isomerism" could extendto an element (e.g., diamond and graphite), hegave it a name, "allotropy";1 d he used this con-cept to suggest that red phosphorus was actu-ally a modification of elemental phosphorus"'(a fact born out later by Anton von Schrbtter inVienna)." Berzelius conceived the idea of cata-lyst, proposing the term in a remarkable essayin his Jahres-Bericht,"'2 where he grasped thesignificance of special agents in plants thatpromoted biochemical reactions, thus antici-pating the discovery of enzymes by almost halfa century." If he sensed an inaccuracy in a sci-entific report, he would check it out in the lab-oratory before commenting on it. His com-ments in these journals were carefully studiedby others; he was so highly regarded that hecould make or break the career of an aspiringscientist with his pen.

He resisted pressures from others to classifyminerals in terms of their geological originsand/or external appearance, but instead classi-fied them strictly on the basis of composition.Realizing from Mitscherlich's work that miner-als with similar "acid group" elements (e.g.,phosphates and arsenates) would have thesame geometrical form, he proposed a nomen-clature wherein the anion, instead of the metalcation, would determine the mineral category.'9This concept is still used today: in mineralogy

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Figure 5. The island Riddarholmen: the location of Collegium Medicum, where Berzelius in 1807 wasappointed the first professor of chemical medicine and pharmacy. He had his first tiny laboratory in theRoyal Bakery by the shore (to minimize the risk of accidental fires in the palace); the building no longerexists. This professorial appointment was providential, because otherwise Berzelius might have continuedhis career as a routine medical doctor and been lost to chemistry (he had been appointed physician to theindigent in Stockholm). The spire is Riddarholmskyrkan. View is southeast from Stadshuset, the presentCity Hall, the site of the old Glasbruket (E of Figure 6).

reference books, minerals are not organizedaccording to the "iron" group or the "silver"group (as originally suggested by miners whowere only concerned in the smelted metals),but instead they are classified according to sul-fides, oxides, carbonates, etc. Adapting Gahn's"

method of blowpipe analysis, he took hisanalysis of minerals to a new level so that their

classification by chemical content became rou-tine. He carried his blowpipe with him as hetraveled about Europe, pulling it out at amoment's notice to demonstrate its ability to

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Figure 7. Left: German Baker's House, owned by Wilhelm Hisinger, where he lodged and performed his famous atomic weight research and where his student JohanAugust Arfvedson (1792-1841) discovered lithium in 1817. His kitchen laboratory was on the second floor of the building to the right. Hisinger, an early friend andbenefactor of Berzelius, "was a jovial and original old fellow... , an ironmaster on his almost princely estate [Skinnskatteberg], surrounded by magnificent lawns,gardens, and large iron-works."' The building was torn down in 1907. Right: Today Jerns, a fashion shoe store, occupies the site.

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settle quickly a question of the identity of amineral in one's collection.

Understanding the importance of quantita-tive analysis and stoichiometry, he proposed asystem of symbolism that denoted not only theidentification of a compound, but also the com-position of the compound. It is to Berzelius'sys-tem, with some modifications (Note 2) that weowe our modern symbolism for elements andcompounds. Thus, instead of Lavoisier's®A["nitrate d'argent," silver nitrate] symbol-ism, we use AgNO 3. Berzelius international-ized the symbols and originated "natrium" forsodium, "kalium" for potassium. Berzeliusstressed that this formula represented not onlycomposition and chemistry but also amount-AgNO 3 represents one"volume,"thus anticipat-ing the concept of the mole by half a century.

Berzelius traveled about Europe often, there-by exemplifying his belief that science was uni-versal, and he admonished others when theyignored the work of other countries or cultures.His work often anticipated others; for example,his M.D. dissertation" in 1802 was on the actionof the galvanic cells (just invented by Volta in1800) on the human body, and he continued

this work into chemistry to demonstrate thatvoltaic cells could separate electropositive andelectronegative elements. When Sir HumphryDavy received credit for the discovery, Berzeliusgraciously acceded and in fact continued a vig-orous and friendly professional relationshipwith him. (Note 3)

Berzelius was so instilled with these earlyelectrochemical studies-where he observed

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Figure 6. Key sites in Stockholm associated with Berzelius.

A. Berzilii Park, near Nybroplan (N 590 19.96 E 180 04.50).B. German Baker's House, corner of 9 Nybrogatan and 14 Riddargatan(N 590 20.06 E 180 04.62).C. Riddarholmen, site of Collegium Medicum (N 590 19.51 E 18003.73), where Berzelius had his first professorship, five years afterreceiving his M.D. Berzelius had a small laboratory in the OldCourt-Bakery (Gamla Slottsbageriet).D. First Swedish Academy, 1779-1828, Stora Nygatan 30 (N 59019.44 E 180 04.17).E. Glasbruket, where the new Karolinka Institutet moved in 1816,and where Berzelius was given new quarters with a laboratory.Glasbruket was removed in 1865. The site is beside the Stadshuset(City Hall) on Kungsholmen (N 590 19.66 E 180 03.28).F. Klara Norra Kyrkogatan 22-24 (N 590 20.02 E 180 03.52).This is where Berzelius generally took his meals 1806-1809.G. Second Swedish Academy, 1829-1915 Wallingatan 2 (N 59020.26 E 180 03.52).H. Observatory Museum (Observatorie Museet), Dottninggatan120 (N 590 20.50 E 180 03.30), the future site of the BerzeliusMuseum.

Other landmarks in Stockholm:I. Stockholm C (Central railroad station) on Vasagatan. EveryBerzelius site is within walking distance of the railway station.J. Stortorget, where Scheele had his apothecary' (N 590 19.51 E18004.23).K. Konserthuset (Concert House), Htorget 8 (N 590 20.09 E 1803.82), where the Nobel Prize is awarded every December 10.L. Djurgdrden (Zoo Garden), the site of the zoo and the historicvillage including the Scheele pharmacy."M. Humlegdrden, the location of the Scheele (N 590 20.41 E 1804.51) and Lineaus (N 590 20.34 E 180 04.37) statues.

the separations of "acids" and "bases" as they ing, and a chdrifted toward their respective electrode-that atoms (suchhe stubbornly embraced throughout his life- beyond his imtime his dualistic idea that all chemical bonding Berzelius dwas electrostatic in nature. This was probably . of Berlin vacthe only weakness in his chemical wisdom: he German diedcould not understand how electronegative Sweden hischlorine could substitute for electropositive papers in adhydrogen in organic compounds, as Dumas several editiowas demonstrating;' he rationalized Dumas' book). He nreport by doubting a correct analysis. He could remained chinot conceive of such a thing as covalent bond- and was a m

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Figure 8. This is the laboratory at Gripsholm (N 590 15.40 E 17" 12.75) where Berzeliusin 1817 discovered selenium in a sludge from a sulfuric acid plant in which he had jointownership. The selenium was from metal selenides, a contaminant in the pyrites (iron sul-fides) used as a raw material in the manufacturing process. Berzelius analyzed the sludebecause of the "odor of radishes"emanating from the selenium compounds (when he wasworking on selenium, friends reportedly avoided him). The pyrites were mined from theFalun Mine.4

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emical bond between two similaras in diatomic elements) wasagination. (Note 4)eclined the chair at the Universityated by Klaproth when the oldin 1817, and he kept his home inentire life. Overall he wrote 200dition to his Jahres-Bericht, plusns of his Larbok (chemistry text-married late in life (1835), butldless. He earned 12 royal ordersember of 94 learned societies. He

Figure 9. First site ofSwedish Royal Academy(Stora Nygatan 30), whereBerzelius moved in 1819(white building on corner).Here metallic silicon andmetallic zirconium were pre-pared in1824 and thorium'was discovered in 1828.This is where Wbhlerworked (1823-1824) andactually performed prelimi-nary ammonium cyanate tourea isomerism experiments,thus disproving the principleof"vitalism."Whler laterpublished this work whenhe returned to Berlin."Insert: the plaque which canbe seen between the first andsecond level of windows.The symbol is for iron (astrong Swedish commodity),and the construction date1675 is given.

earned so many decorations that he felt he"hadmore of these things than can be hung aroundthe neck and pinned to the coat of a scientisteven on great occasions without making himridiculous.""

Rediscovering Berzelius. (Figure 2) JonsJacob Berzelius was born during a family vaca-tion in the home of his mother's family atVdversunda, Osterg6tlands, a tiny village 200km southwest of Stockholm (Figure 3). Hisfather was a principal at the Katedralskolan

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Figure 10. Second site of the Swedish Royal Acadcniy I\ailmgatan 2), wlhrc Btr;2ims iwit m 1i29.Here his assistant C. G. Mosander discovered lanthanum in 1839, didymium (a mixture of praseodymiumand neodymium), erbium, and terbium in 1842. Top: modern view. Bottom: Drawing from about 1840. Thechurch in the background is the Adolf Fredriks Kyrka (church), inauguruated in 1774, still existent.

(cathedral school) in Linkoping, whichBerzelius attended 1793-1796 (Figure 4). Hisfather died when he was four, and his motherwhen he was nine, and he was moved aboutfrequently among the homes of various rela-tives. After receiving his M.D. in 1802 atUppsala, by writing a dissertation on the effectof the galvanic cell on ailments such as paraly-sis, varicose ulcers, and the Saint Vitus' dance,"he joined the Collegium Medicum, presently onRiddarholmen in Stockholm (Figure 5), and heremained in Stockholm the rest of his life(Figure 6).

His famous first work, concentrating ondetermining the atomic weights of the elements,

was performed in a kitchen-laboratory of hislodging at the German Baker's House (Figure 7),which was rented to him by the owner WilhelmHisinger, with whom he discovered cerium. AtGripsholm where he had an investment in a sul-furic acid factory, he discovered selenium in 1817(Figure 8). In 1819 he moved to the first site ofthe Swedish Royal Academy of Science in theGamla Stan (Old City) (Figure 9) and in 1829moved to the second site of the Swedish RoyalAcademy (Figure 10).

Berzelius suffered from migraine headacheswhen young, gout when old. As his healthfailed, to his devoted friend Wohler he wrote,"Dear Wohler, please work hard as long as you

Figure 11. The present Swedish Royal Academy ofSciences since 1915 (Lilla Frescativdgen 4A),where the voting for the Nobel Prize is carried out.Directly across the courtyard from the old locationof the Berzelius Museum, the new museum will beat the Observatory (Observatorie Museet).

have the strength. You cannot imagine what acreature man becomes when he begins to getold." His memory failed; he could not remem-ber the chemicals in some of his bottles, leadinghim sadly to destroy the contents. He diedAugust 7, 1848.

Berzelius' legacy lies with us in the BerzeliusMuseum, which was directly across from themodern Swedish Royal Academy of Science(Figure 11). This museum comprises manyrooms, and holds many citations, paintings,books, furniture, and other personal memora-bilia (Figures 12-16) of Berzelius, along withequipment and apparatus, chemical samples,and models from his laboratory. The museum isnow being moved, and soon will be at theObservatory Museum (Observatorie Museet),constructed on a hill in north Stockholm in1753. 0

Acknowledgments.The authors are indebted to Karl Grandin,

acting director, Center for the History ofScience at the Swedish Royal Academy of

Science (Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien) for fur-nishing much material in the preparation of

this article, including a tour of the BerzeliusMuseum and detailed biographical data aboutJ. J. Berzelius.

Notes.Note 1. As discussed in an earlier

"Rediscovery"article,' a completely correct tableof elements was possible only after the distrib-

ution of Cannizarro's paper at the Karlsruhe

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Figure 13. Models of atoms carved from boxwoodby Berzelius. Berzelius in his earlier years did notaccept Dalton's atomism, but later was convincedof its validity and performed his atomic weightdeterminations to confirm it. He later consideredthe isomorphism work of Mitscherlich and thespecific heat research of Dulong and Petit as themost important corroboration of the atomichypothesis.

Conference of 1860. The values of Berzelius thatwere not corrected until that time were thealkali metals, silver, boron, silicon, and somerare earth elements. Berzelius' errors were dueto his incorrect assumptions of oxide formulas,e.g., AgO and NaO, not Ag 2O and Na20.

Note 2. Berzelius stressed that the symbolicrepresentation of a compound should defineits composition and chemistry; example, theformula of copper sulfate would be CuO + SO3[superscript intended]. Eventually he simpli-fied by denoting oxygen atoms by dots andrepresenting two elements of an atom by a barthrough the symbol. For example, water was Hwith a dot over it. The response of some, par-ticularly the British, was vehement; Dalton,who preferred to denote water as O, calledthe symbols "horrifying," "like Hebrew let-

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4Figure 14. The galvanic apparatus that Berzeliusused to demonstrate the differential migration ofionic species. This work was actually done beforeDavy's famous preparation of metallic potassiumand sodium, and Berzelius made to Davy to helpthe latter in his preparation of the alkaline earthmetals. The ability of a battery to separatecompounds into positive and negative species soimpressed Berzelius that to his dying day heembraced the "principle of dualism"whereby hethought all compound bonding was electrostatic innature (i.e., present day concept of ionic bonding).

ters."" Typesetting difficulties were an addi-tional burden for transcribing the special sym-bols, and finally Liebig and Poggendorff (inLiebig's Annalen der Pharmacie) declared thatthey were no longer willing to use special typeand would subscript numbers; henceforth cop-per sulfate would be CuSO 4 , and butylenewould be C4H (not C2 I4 with horizontal barsthrough the letters).

Note 3. Berzelius studied the migration ofelectropositive and electronegative speciespromptly after the invention of the voltaic cell;some believe his early work on the voltaicaction on aqueous solutions is not as fully cred-ited as it should be. In 1802-1803 he andHisinger wrote on the action of an electricalcurrent on salts." Davy duplicated this workand in 1807 prepared metallic potassium andsodium.' The preparation of the alkaline earthswas not as easy, and Berzelius gave Davyimportant suggestions on how to proceed bysuggesting the use of a mercury amalgam."Vauquelin, president of French Academy ofSciences, told Berzelius in 1819, "We consider itour duty to inform you that we would havedivided the first prize awarded by us toHumphry Davy between him and both of you,had we learned earlier about your and Mr.Hisinger's work on chemical reactions of thevoltaic pile.""

Note 4. Berzelius' view that all acids containoxygen kept him from accepting Davy's classi-fication of chlorine as an element. After the dis-

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Figure 13. Berzelius learned glassbiaum anearly age and used this skill to prepare his ownglassware. Note this was before the use of fittedconnectors and corks.

75

Figure 16. Berzelius' wheelchair, in the BerzeliusMuseum

Figure 12. Berzelius'furniture from his office,exhibited in the Berzelius Museum. Above his deskis a painting of his home in Viversunda (seeFigure 3).

cover of iodine in 1811, and the evidenceobtained by Davy that iodine truly was an ele-ment, Berzelius graciusly acceded-in 1823 heinstructed his cook to no longer call bleach"oxymuriatic acid"but instead"chlorine.""

References.1. P. B. Moore, The Mineralogical Record, 1988,

19, 293-295.

2. J. L. Marshall andV. R. Marshall,The HEXAGON of Alpha Chi Sigma, 2003,

94(1), 3-8.

3. Marshall, op. cit., 2001, 92(4), 70-73.

(continued on page 76)

1

Rediscovery (continued from page 75)

4. J. E. Jorpes, Bidrag Till Kungl. SvenskaVetenskapsakademiens Historia VII. Jac.Berzelius, 1966, translated by B. Steele,Almqvist and Wiksell, Stockholm. (a)61-77; (b) 46; (c) 68; (d) 98; (e) 108-109;(f) 109-112; (g) 79-81; (h) 51-59; (i) 120;(j) 25.

5. T. Thomson, The History of Chemistry,Vol. 2, 1830, Henry Colburn and RichardBentley, London, 221-223.

6. J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry,1961, Vol. III, Macmillan, London. (a),674-688; (b) 640-653.

7. Marshall, op. cit., 2007, 980), 4-7.

8. J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry,1961,Vol. IV, Macmillan, London.(a) 153; (b) 499; (c) 205-212; (d) 309["enzyme" coined by Wilhelm Kuhne(1837-1900)]; (e) 159; (f) 168.

9. J. J. Berzelius, Afhandlingar i Fysik, Keninoch Mineralogi, 1818, Vol. 5, Stockholm.

10. J. J. Berzelius, [Poggendorf] Annalen, 1826,

7, 397-416; 8, 1-24; 9, 177-180.

11. Marshall, op. cit., 2007, 98(2), 23-29.

12. J. J. Berzelius, Jahres-Bericht uber dieFortschritte der physischen Wissenschaften,1822-1841; Jahres-Bericht uber dieFortschritte der Chemie und Mineralogie,1842-1848, Tubingen : Heinrich Laupp,translated by C. G. Gmelin (1822-1824)and by F. Wbhler (1825-1841) from theoriginal Swedish. (a) 1832, 11, 44; (b)1833, 12, 63; (c) 1823, 1, 67-74; (d) 1841,

20, 13; (e) 1844, 23, 51; (f) 1836, 15,237-245 [Katalytische Kraft ("catalyticforce") was coined on p 243].

13. A. von Schr6tter, J. prakt. Chem, 1850,51, 155; Compt. rend.1850, 31, 138; M.Kohn, J. Chem. Ed., 1944, 21(11), 522,554.

14. Marshall, op. cit., 2004, 95(3), 46-50.

15. J. J. Berzelius, De Electricitatis GalvanicaeAparatu Cel. Volta Excitae in coporaOrganica Effectu [Dissertation], 1802,Upsala [old spelling of Uppsala].

16. J. J. Berzelius, Afhandlung omGalvanismen, 1802, Stockholm; [Gehlen]Neues allg. Journal der chimie, 1803, 1,115-149.

17. H. Davy, Phil. trans., 1807, 98, 1-44.

18. J. J. Berzelius, and M. M. Pontin, [Gilbert]Ann. der physik, 1810, 36, 247-280. J. J.Berzelius, letter" to H. Davy, May, 18o8.

19. J. J. Berzelius, "SelbstbiographischeAufzeichnungen," published by H. G.S6derbaum, Swedish Academy ofSciences.

20. Marshall, op. cit., 2005, 96(1), 8-13.

ADAMS, Richard Luther, Beta Alpha 1949ARIGHI, Amile Louis, Sigma 1932ATKINSON, Edward Redmond,

Alpha Zeta 1931BARBOUR, Fleming Arnold, Alpha Upsilon

1931BARNHILL, Matthew Talbot, Alpha Omega

1932BATES, Roger Gordon, Alpha Pi 1946BAUMGARTNER, Robert H., Chi 1958BEARDEN, Peggy Neal, Alpha Omega 1947BLACK, Rodney Elmer, Alpha Gamma 1952BOHNE, Philip William, Alpha Tau 1937BOWDEN, Edward Eley, Alpha Kappa 1951BROWN, George Earl, Alpha Chi 1933BUTTNER, Frederick Howard,

Alpha Upsilon 1943CAIN, Charles Eugene, Rho 1953CANTOR, Stanley, Alpha Tau 1953CARLL, Paul Loudon, Gamma 1948COMEFORD, John J., Beta Beta 1951CONKLIN, David LeRoy, Beta Delta 1951CORNWELL, Edmund Homer,

Alpha Psi 1945CORWIN, Alsoph Henry, Omicron 1928DAVIDSON, James R., Pi 1948DEW, John Norman, Alpha Eta 1943DICKERSON, Joseph Bancroft, Alpha 2000DOBSON, Donald Dean, Gamma 1947DREYMAN, Edgar Woldemar, Pi 1944DUNCAN, Blanton C., Beta Beta 1955EBERHART, Jr., Jason Edward,

Beta Omega 1995EDWARDS, Stephen Paul, Alpha Phi 1949EGLY, Richard Samuel, Zeta 1937ELLIOTT, Jr., Robert Emmett, Nu 1936ESCUE, Jr., Richard Byrd, Beta Eta 1952FEDERLINE, Charles Donald, Alpha Rho 1951GAFFRI, Robert LeRoy, Alpha Chi 1952GANSOW, Otto A., Upsilon 1964GEIGER, Richard Davis, Alpha 1954GEORGE, Edward Thomas, Chi 1951GERGESHA, Edward Alex, Epsilon 1960GILBERT, Jr., Theodore W., Beta 1952GOLDSTEIN, Jack M., Alpha Pi 1952GRESKOVICH, Charles David, Nu 1962HALLIGAN, John Francis, Alpha Tau 1942HAMPFORD, John Edward, Alpha Iota 1955HATCHER, Harry Richard, Alpha Beta 1938HELLMANN, Richard J., Chi 1945HOHNSTEDT, Leo Frank, Alpha Epsilon 1949HOPPER, Paul Frederick, Alpha Pi 1954HOWARD, Lonnie Taylor, Beta Epsilon 1952JACOBY, Ellsworth Reily, Delta 1935JAFFER, Jr., Joseph Henry, Chi 1952JAMES, Franklin Ward, Rho 1948JOHNSON, Roger Alvin, Beta Iota 1953KUNTZ, Urban Edward, Alpha Theta 1954LADENDORF, Ray Henry, Alpha Beta 1949LARSON, Richard William, Chi 1948LIGHTON, Robert E., Beta Alpha 1947

LONG, John Paul, Alpha Theta 1949MACDOUGALL, Donald Blackhall, Chi 1949MARQUARDT, James Erwin, Alpha 1957MASTERTON, William Lewis, Mu 1945MATTERN, John Arthur, Zeta 1943MCCULLOUGH, Robert William,

Gamma 1933MCISAAC, Lyle Delbert, Alpha Chi 1951MILLER, Paul Charles, Nu 1947MILLER, Robert William, Nu 1934MODI, Theodore William, Alpha Upsilon 1950MONCURE, Jr., Henry, Alpha Kappa 1949MOORE, Jr., Paul L., Beta Delta 1947MORCK, Roland Anton, Nu 1938MORIN, Robert Gibson, Mu 1949NASH, Martin Edward, Delta 1941NEUSS, Norbert, Upsilon 1950NICKERSON, Richard G., Upsilon 1951ONCLEY, John Lawrence, Alpha 1929PARKS, Albert Fielding, Alpha Phi 1930PARRY, Robert Walter, Alpha Beta 1947PETRIE, Edward M., Alpha Psi 1950PODNAR, Jr., Tom, Beta Lambda 1952POOL, Monte J., Alpha Delta 1956POTTS, John Calvin, Beta Pi 1966RABIDEAU, Sherman Webber, Alpha Theta

1948RACKIS, Joseph John, Alpha Theta 1951RAGBORG, William Henry, Gamma 1949RAKES, Samuel Lee, Alpha Sigma 1954READ, Walter Frank, Alpha Zeta 1931REMSBERG, Dean Aldrich, Alpha Upsilon

1954REYNOLDS, Jr., Frank Irving, Kappa 1950RICKETTS, John Adrian, Epsilon 1947RIEMEN, William Pugh, Alpha 1949ROOS, Charles William, Alpha Epsilon 1947RUDRAUFF, Alfred Heebner, Nu 1937SARGENT, John William, Zeta 1948SAWYER, Paul Barton, Alpha Zeta 1947SCHWARTZ, Arthur Jay, Alpha Rho 1964SCRIBNER, Bourdon Francis, Alpha Pi 1929SLOTTERBACK, Edward Earl, Nu 1934TALBOTT, Ted Delwyn, Beta Eta 1954THIELE, Jr., Robert Edward, Alpha Delta 1950THOMAS, Robert Gordon, Nu 1973TUHY, Mirko Joshua, Alpha Omega 1938UPP, Edmund Loy, Psi 1948VALDEZ, Elias, Alpha Theta 1951VANNEMAN, Clinton Ross, Rho 1942VETTER, Ronald Frank, Beta Delta 1956WALKER, George Edward, Gamma 1954WARD, Wallace, Alpha Theta 1954WEEKS, Charles A., Beta Delta 1951WEIR, James R., Alpha Delta 1952WERBER, Frank Xavier, Zeta 1947WILKINS, Archie M., Alpha Omega 1947WILLIAMS, Arvis Guinn, Alpha Sigma 1948WILSON, Jr., Gordon, Beta Nu 1955WITTE, Monte Dale, Alpha Eta 1956

THE HEXAGON76