jewish communal services

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Communal

Jewish Communal Services:

Programs and Finances

M,A N Y T Y P E S of Jewish communal services are provided underorganized Jewish sponso rship. Som e needs of Jews (an d of non- Jew s) areexclusively individual or governmental responsibilities, but a wide variety ofservices is considered to be the responsibility of the total Jewish community.While the aim is to serve Jewish community needs, some services may also

be made available to the general com mu nity.Most services are provided at the geographic point of need, but theirfinancing may be secured from a wider area: nationally or internationally.T his repo rt deals with the financial con tribution of A m erican Jewry todomestic and global services and, to a lesser extent, with aid by Jews inother parts of the free world.

Geographic classification of services (i.e. local, national, overseas) is basedon physical location of areas of progra m ope ration.

A m ore fundam ental classification would be in terms of type of services

provided or needs met, regardless of geography. On this basis, Jewish com-munal services would encompass:

• E conom ic aid, mainly overseas: largely a function of governm ent in theUnited States.

• Migration aid: a global function, involving movement between coun-tries, mainly to Israel, but also to the United States and other areas in sub-stantial num bers at particula r p eriods.

• A bsorption and resettlemen t of mig rants : also a global function, in-

volving economic aid, housing, job placement or retraining, and socialadjustment. T he com plexity of the task is related to th e size of mo vem ent,the background of migrants, the economic and social viability or absorptivepotential of the communities in which resettlement takes place, and theavailability of resources and structures for absorption in the host com-munities.

• Health: mainly general hospitals, some specialized hospitals and out-

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1 2 0 / A M E R I C A N J E W I S H Y E A R B O O K , 1 9 6 9

patient clinics, in larger cities in the United States, including facilities for thechron ically ill aged. T his also includes health facilities in Israel and , to alesser extent, in E uro pe.

• W elfare services: prim arily family counseling, child care, and ca re of

the aged. Some of these services are maintained on regional as well as localbases. T hey are rarely organized o n a national basis, except for coordinatingand clearance services. Child care and care of the aged are also majoractivities in Israel.

• Y outh and recreational services: mainly Jewish centers, summ er camps,Hillel units on campuses and other youth services provided by B'nai B'rith.

• Com m unity relations: provided by a network of local agencies and aseries of national agencies, some of which also operate on regional and local

bases. Some national agencies also seek to provide aid to overseas com-m unities in relation to civil rights.• Religious agencies: local congregations, national groups of congrega-

tions, and associated rabbinical bodies.• Jewish education: provided through congregational, communal and

independent schools, coordinating bureaus of Jewish education, specializednational agencies, yeshivot, teacher-training schools, and theological semi-naries.

• Cu ltural agencies: und er Jewish sponsorship; among these are highereducation (other than theological seminaries); research in the social sciences,history, linguistics; publications; library, archive and museum facilities, andlecture bookings.

• V oca tional services: provid ed in larger com mu nities in the Un ited Statesthrough specialized agencies (Jewish Vocational Services and VocationalService of B'nai B'rith), giving individual and group guidance; in the formof sheltered workshops and sometimes as part of family agencies; overseas,in the form of vocational education progra m s conducted by O RT , Histadrut,

Hadassah, and other agencies.• Service agen cies: mainly specialized nation al agencies designed to make

for more effective clearance among national and local agencies of activitiesin each field of service.

Many agencies provide services in more than one of these areas. Forpurposes of classification, agencies have been grouped in this report accord-ing to the major focus of their activities.

T he cohesive elemen ts in plannin g an d financing these services are mainly

federations and welfare funds for local services, and federations together withnational and overseas agencies for nonlocal services.

Federations identify needs, plan for their provision through budgeting, andconduct annual fund-raising campaigns to provide the resources requisite toplan ning . A fter review of prog ram s and finances, each fed eration distributesits campaign proceeds to those local, national, and overseas beneficiary or-ganizations which are generally accepted as broad Jewish responsibilities.



JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES / 121

JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES:

INCOME AND COSTS

Estimates of income and costs of Jewish communal services can be made for

most, but not all, activities. E xcep tions, wh ere d ata are not available, arenoted below. Income and costs approximate each other roughly, particularlyfor operating programs, as distinct from capital projects.

T he aggregate value, or cost, of Jewish communal services may be looselydescribed as the "gross national product" of such services.

On this basis, the minimal estimate of the "gross national product" forJewish communal services was almost $800 million for 1966. In 1967, 1968,and 1969 the response to the Israel Emergency Fund of the UJA brought

this annu al total over the one billion dollar ma rk. E xcluded from this totalare almost all endowment income of federations and local agencies; all localcapital fund campaigns, and all internal congregational operating expenses.A lso, costs of Jewish education may be understated in this total.

T his sum is related to the m ajor sources of income: annual campaigns forcontributions, service payments, and public tax funds.

T here have been major increases in service payments and tax funds, withmoderate changes in contributed income in the last decade. A comparison of

data for 1967 with data for 1957, indicates the following major changes:• Fed erations raised $6.5 million mor e in 1967 for regular operating pur-poses, but the 1967 IEF experience resulted in an increase in total federa-tion campaign results of about $185 million beyond the 1957 level.

• Grants by community chests for local Jewish services rose by over$6 million.

• Ho spital incom e rose by at least $240 million,* income for care of theaged by over $35 million, and center income by about $20 million.

• W hile non local agencies raised abo ut $50 million m ore in 1967 than in

1957, most of this sum was earmarked for special and capital purposes(which are not included in federation annual campaigns). The major in-creases in such special and capital funds were: Brandeis University $10 mil-lion, Reform and Conservative drives $6million, higher education in Israel$5 million, secondary education in Israel $2.2 million, Y eshiva U niversityand Medical School $4.8 million. Other major increases were $3.2 millionfor the A merican Jewish Comm ittee and the A nti-D efamation League,mainly for drives in N e w Y o r k and Chicago, and $5 million for national

health agencies. Other income rose by about $40 million.While there are gaps in some of the data (mainly for congregational in-

come and local capital fund campaigns), the data summarized above indicatethat income and costs of Jewish communal services rose by over $640 million

• Excludes hospitals with income of about $90 million in 1967, for which reports were notavailable ten years earlier and which may include additional rises of $50 to $60million inincome in this decade.




from 1957 to 1967 (or about $460 million, excluding the Israel E m ergenc yF u n d ) .

Results of Jewish Federated Fund Raising

Over $3.6 billion was raised by the central Jewish com m unity organizationsof the United States in their annual campaigns in the 30-year period 1939through 1968.1 T his period coincides with the organ ization of the U J A ,which received over $2.0 billion, mainly from welfare funds.

T he annu al totals for camp aign proceeds for this period show the follow-ing major changes:

• Fr om 1939 throug h 1942, annu al levels ranged from abo ut $27 to $29million.

• Fr om 1943 throu gh 1945, there were annual rises of about $10 m illion,so that a level of $57 million was reached by the end of World War II.

• Fr om 1946 throu gh 1948, peak fund raising was reached d uring theperiod of the massive post-war DP problem, and the effort related to thecreation of the State of Israel: 1946 results more than doubled and movedforward to the 1948 peak of over $200 million.

• Fr om 1949 throug h 1955, the impact of these historic events diminished.A s a result, there w ere successive declines, until the level of a bo ut $110 mil-

lion was reached in 1954 and 1955.• From 1956 through 1964, campaign results ranged from a high of

$139 million in 1957 to a low of $124 million in 1958, with results in 1959-64 within a narrower range of $125 to $130 million. Most of these year-to-year changes reflected the introduction of special fund efforts to supplementregular campaigns.

• 1965 results of $132 m illion and 1966 results of $1 37 million were thehighest since 1957 .

• In 1967 and 1968 the regular campaigns continued to move ahead,reaching totals of $146 million in 1967 and $153 m illion in 1968. T he risewas expected to continue in 1969. Regular funds of $153 million was thehighest total since 1949, exceeded in only three out of the last 30 years.However, the rise in regular funds between 1958 and 1968 was roughly inline with the change in the price level during this period.

A threa t to Israel's existence crystallized, in late M ay 196 7, in the Un itedA rab Rep ublic blockade of Israel shipping thro ug h the Strait of T iran,coupled with military encirclement.

A s Israel faced and fought off this threa t, in which the U A R was joinedmainly by Jordan and Syria, Jews in the U.S., Canada, and overseas recog-nized that the welfare, health, education, and various related needs of im-migrants in Israel would require massive additional voluntary support for

1 UJA p artners raised funds jointly in 19 34 an d in 1935, but raised funds independentlybefore 1934 and from 1936 through 1938; JDC raised funds since 1914, Keren Hayesod since1920, and JN F since 1910.




services which the people of Israel could no longer help finance because of

their other direct responsibilities.T he result was an historic outpouring of aid for the Israel E mergency

Fund ofU JA , with $175 million obtained by the comm unity federations and

welfare funds, in addition to the proceeds of the 1967 regular campaign.T ogether, welfare funds raised the record sum of $321 million in 1967.

This campaign continued in 1968 and in 1969 in response to the con-tinuing crisis faced by Israel. Campaign results for 1968, about $85 million,were exceeded only by the 1967 peak year response. E arly indications of 1969experience point to an increase beyond the 1968 level, expected to reachabout $100 million.

With minor exceptions, federation campaigns include only maintenance

and operating needs. T hey exclude totals for capital fund or endowmentdrives conducted by federations alone, or together with local Jewish agencies,for local hospitals, homes for the aged, centers, and other structures. 2

By contrast, the data for independent efforts of national and overseasagencies include major capital and endowment fund drives, mainly for edu-cational and religious institutions and hospitals. Comparisons between totalsfor annual Federation campaigns for independent appeals would hence be

grossly inappropriate.3

The Federation of Jewish Philanthropies of N ew Y ork and its beneficiariesobtained, for itsbuilding fund, from 1961 through mid-1968, about $129million inpledges, aswell as about $36 million in government grants, $31million in loans (including $8 million in government loans), $16 million in

endowment, investment, property sales, and other income. A dditionalamounts were raised in 1968—69 for the Long Island Jewish Medical Center,and government grants were secured for the Mt. Sinai Hospital and MedicalSchool. T he plan encom passes nu m ero us p rojects, including the affiliation ofMontefiore Ho spital with the E instein College of Medicine and the organiza-

tion of amedical school at M t. Sinai Hos pital. E arlier cam paigns for capitalpurposes had raised $16.5 million in 1949, $13.5 million in 1945, and $3 mil-lion in 1943.

Systematic data on local capital fund raising are not available on an annualbasis because of the long-term nature of these efforts, but partial figuresindicate their magn itude. T hey ar e largely con ducted by federations outsidetheir annual cam paigns.

T he JWB reported that capital fund drives for local centers were halted in

2 A group of 27 larger cities, excluding N ew Y ork City, reported endow ment fund assetsof $80 million in 1968. T heir income and earnings in 1968 were $11.5 million of which abouthalf came from gifts and bequests, with most of the remainder derived from earnings and gainson sales.

3 For example, the N .Y . Federation of Jewish Philanthropies' experience of securing $16 mil-lion in capital fund pledges in 1966—67 and $15 million in 1967-68 were unique in size, butnot in occurrence; other cities frequently raised substantial capital sums beyond their annualmaintenance campaigns. In 1967—69, however, the primacy of the Israel E mergency Campaignresulted in some slow- down in local capital fund efforts.




1967 during the Israel emergency, but were resumed later. In 1967-68 therewere eight constructed or expanded community centers. JWB now estimatesthat, in the 20-year period through 1966, capital investments for local centershad reached $120 million.4

Progress on plans for hospitals and medical centers in 1968 were reportedin five cities. N ew o r expan ded ho m es for the aged w ere plan ned in sevencities, and sponsorship of nonprofit housing for the elderly was reported insix. Many of these efforts were begun before 1967, and will continue for atleast several years after 1968, with noncontributed income representing sub-stantial portions of the cost (matching federal funds, proceeds of sale of oldstructures, mortgage loans, etc .). T his was exclusive of the combined drivesof N ew Y ork Fede ration for over $250 million (including the M t. Sinai

Medical School), that of Philadelphia for $15 million (ended in 1968 butwith a new building fund effort planned), that of Chicago for $9 million,and that of Wa shington, D.C ., for over $5 million.5

Reports from cities with Jewish populations of 2,730,000 listed 540,000individual gifts, but this excluded tens of thousands of individuals coveredby organization gifts, Y iddish new spaper gifts, a nd the like, especially in thelargest cities. T hese repo rts indicate an estimated to tal of abo ut on e millioncontributions in the United States.

T he amou nts raised by federations are augmen ted by funds provided bynonsectarian United Funds and community chests for local Jewish services.T hese grants totalled $21 million in 19 67, m ainly to federated agencies. Out-side N ew Y ork City, chests provided over $18 million to federations. A mongthe largest cities, only Baltimore did not receive chest funds. Most largercities and intermediate-sized cities received such support.

Cities with the same Jewish population frequently raised varying amountsin their federated campaigns, and received widely different levels of chestsup port. T his wa s related to the relative fund- raising success of p articular

chest campaigns, the stage of development of local services in specific com-munities, the levels and sources of internal income of local Jewish agencies,and the prevailing relationships among Jewish federations, Jewish localagencies, and chests.

Independent Campaigns

E ach federa tion de termine s for itself th e beneficiary agencies which itsuppo rts through allocations. T here are about 11 nonlocal appeals which are

included by three-quarters or more of all federated campaigns, and 21 addi-tional appeals which are included by more than one-third of all federations.O the r agencies receive less extensive inclusion.

* JWB Y earbook, Volume 17, 1968.6 Reported mainly in 1967 and 1968 issues of ITA Community News Reporter. Since cover-

age is not complete, figures cited are understatements. Some projects were announced in earlieryears.




A beneficiary agency is expected to forego independent fund raising inlocalities where it receives an allocation from the federation, except wherethe federation specifically agrees to some form of limited, independent fundraising.

A gencies raise funds directly in cities where they are not included byfederations, frequently with federation clearance of the timing and otheraspects of the campaign. Welfare funds do not normally allocate funds forcapital needs of nonlocal agencies. In some cases, maintenance needs ofagencies are included by federations, while independent solicitations areconducted by the same agencies for capital needs not eligible for federationsupport.

A number of federations have developed policy statements regarding sup-

plementary appeals which stressed the primacy of the federation campaign,commitment of community leaders to such primacy, clearance procedureson approved appeals, and public reporting by these appeals.

In 1967 some 16 overseas agencies ( other tha n U JA ) independ ently raised$35.6 million for both capital and operating purposes. In most cases thesewere not additions to the allocations received from welfare funds, but rep-resented the sole funds raised by these agencies in communities for par-ticular purposes. T hus , out of roughly half the total raised independently foroperating purposes by overseas agencies, two agencies ( O R T , A m erican Red

Mogen Dovid), which did not appeal to welfare funds, raised $3.2 million;two (N ational Com mittee for Labor Israel , Pioneer Women of A m e ric a)which sought funds independently in large cities, raised $4million; and oneagency (Hadassah), which raised funds independently in half the com-munities while supplementing its Federation allocations in the other half,

raised $10 million independently.Similarly, out of $60 million raised independently by national agencies,

almost $5.6 million was raised by community relations agencies concentrated

in N ew Y ork and Ch icago; $18 million was raised by national hospitals andEinstein Medical College, and$14.2 million by Brandeis University, whichwere excluded by most or all federations but raised a major portion of theirfunds for nonoperating purposes. T hree agencies (B 'nai B'ri th N ational Y outhService A ppeal, Reform Jewish A ppeal, Jewish T heological Seminary-U nitedSynagogue) relied on membership support to augment federation allocationsby $14.4 m illion.

T he N ew Y ork United Jewish A ppeal 's inclusion is limited to the national

United Jewish A ppeal, N ational Jewish Welfare Board, and United HiasService; other nonlocal agencies raise funds independently inN ew Y ork City .While no accurate estimates of the totals raised inN ew Y ork City are avail -able, partial information suggests that half of the funds raised independentlymay have been secured in N ew Y ork City. T hese funds are not supplementaryto allocations by welfare funds .

Capital and special funds raised independently in 1967 included over $15




million for overseas purposes and about $15 million for domestic purposes.T hese appeals we re not granted federation allocations, bu t frequently soughtclearance from federations for independent fund raising in specific com-munities (mainly higher education in Israel and Brandeis University).

Operating funds raised by welfare funds in 1967 were about $146 million,compared with over $60 million raised independently for operating purposes.Welfare fund totals do not include capital or special funds in annual cam-paigns, except for minor amounts.

T he mag nitude of funds raised independ ently by specific agencies is basedon effectiveness of campaign techniques, attractiveness of the nature of theappeal, effective organization of supporting groups, and, particularly, theresponse evoked in N ew Y ork City.

T he major indep ende nt efforts do not appeal to welfare funds or receivesignificant welfare fund support (e.g. Brandeis University, national healthappeals, mem bership drives of O RT and B'nai B'rith, Jewish N ational Fun d,and Weizmann Institute); agencies which receive allocations for operations,but not for capital or special purposes (He brew University, T echnion,Y eshiva U niv ers ity); and agencies which rely mainly on their own m embe r-ship, with supplemen tation by welfare funds (Reform A ppeal, Jewish T heo-logical Seminary, Ha dassah , N ational Council of Jewish W om en, P ioneerW o m e n ) .

Restricted independent fund raising for local agencies (generally arrangedby agreement with federations) provides smaller sums for operating purposes.Local hospitals, centers, family agencies, child care agencies, homes for theaged, and vocational service agencies raised about $11.8 million independentlyfor operating purposes in 1967. T hese were supplem entary contributions,with the major share of income derived from Jewish federations and com-mu nity chests. T hese am ounts do not include capital fund campaign andendowment income (bequests, etc.) received by local agencies.

Distribution of Funds

Jewish federation campaigns are conducted on a pledge basis, with pay-ments made in installments, except for the smallest gifts. Most campaignsare conducted in the spring. Possibly one-third of cash collections on pledgesfor a given campaign year are usually paid in succeeding years. Collectionsin 1967 were temporarily accelerated in response to emergency needs inIsrael. A n allowance for "shrink age," averaging 4.8 per c ent, was made in

1967 for the difference between cash and pledges for the regular campaign.Shrinkage for the combined regular and IEF campaigns in 1967 was about2.5 per cent.6

°One hundred and twenty-five federations, which raised $85.5 million in regular campaignsin 1967 (outside N ew Y ork City ), provided for shrinkage allowances of $3.6 million, and setaside $12 .5 million for central administration, plann ing, budg eting and fund raising. A dditionalcosts related to the 1967 I E F w ere un der a million dollars for this group of cities.




Cost of administering federations, including costs of fund raising, budget-ing, planning, andother central functions, averaged 14.6 per cent in 1967for the regular campaign (exclusive of I E F ) .

T hese major elemen ts explain the difference in the figures shown for

amounts raised (T able 1) and the figures shown for amounts distributed(Table 3) . In some cities, amounts distributed also include substantial sumsfrom sources other than current campaigns: unrestricted investment earnings,bequests, unexpended income of prior years, and the like.

A bout 57 per cent of regular amounts budgeted for 1967 by welfare fundswere applied to overseas needs, 4 per cent to national agencies, and almost39 per cent to local services.7 From 1966 the percentage shifts formost fieldsof service were less than one-half ofone per cent.

T he UJ A share ( included in"Overseas") rose from 58 per cent in 1955 to65 per cent in 1957, and levelled off at 56 to 60 per cent in 1958 to 1961.In 1963 through 1967 the U JA share was from 54 to55 per cent.

Regular allocations to U JA bywelfare funds rose by about $2.7 million(to $63.3 million) in 1967, with a similar rise indicated in the 1968 regularcampaign. A llocations to the 1967 campaign for the Israel E mergency F un dof the U JA were mo re than twice the level of regular allocations toU J A . Asa result, U JA received in 1967 about four-fifths of all funds allocated bywelfare funds. In 1968, early indications were that U JA continued to receive

about 55 per cent of regular funds budgeted, andabout 75 per cent of allfunds allocated (including IE F ) .

Overseas agencies, other than U JA , continued to receive under three percent of totals budgeted. T ogether w ith national agencies, all nonlocal non-UJA agencies continued to receive about seven per cent of totals budgeted.

A major factor affecting the distribution of funds is the existence of Jewishhospitals in almost all of the large centers of Jewish population. T his isreflected in higher shares of funds for local Jewish services and lower nonlocal

shares in the largest cities. T hu s, nonlocal agencies co ntinued to receiveabout 58 per cent of regular funds budgeted in 1967 in cities with Jewishpopulation of 40,000 and over. The smallest communities (under 5,000

Jewish population), with the least developed networks of local Jewishservices, continued to give nonlocal agencies 82 per cent of their budgetedfunds. Intermediate-size cities provided nonlocal agencies with about 70 percent of budgeted funds.

Local services received from federation sources for operating purposes, about

$43 million in 19 67, com pared w ith $42 million in 1966. Increases w ere sha redby some local fields of service, where aid was secured from community chests,except hospitals and hom es for the aged. Inco m e for Jewish local services fromcommunity chests rose by about five per cent in 1967. T his was equivalent

'Note that amounts raised are larger than amounts budgeted, generally to the extent ofshrinkage allowances and costs of operating federations; therefore, percentages of amounts raisedwill be lower than percentages of amounts budgeted.



128 / AM ER IC AN JEW ISH YEAR BO OK , 1969

to about half the rise of total costs of services eligible for chest support,which had increased (family and child care, and recreation). Jewish federa-tion allocations rose by over three per cent, but this was effected mainly byincreased allocations for Jewish education; the need to provide total financing

in cities where local Jewish services received no chest support, and the needto supplement chest grants.

T here was a m odera te increase in allocations for local capital purposes in1967. Such allocations did not exceed 1.3 per cent of the total nationally, or1.9 per cent outside N ew Y ork City. Lo cal capital funds are frequently ex-cluded from the ann ual mainten ance cam paigns . T he figure of allocationsfor capital fund purposes from federations relates only to minor fundsprovided for these purposes in the annual campaigns.

Local services receiving most widespread federation support in all sizes ofcommunities were community centers and Jewish education programs. Theyreceived a greater proportion of the funds in smaller cities than in largercommunities.

T here are impo rtan t variations in local services included by federations,even among cities of the same relative size in terms of Jewish population orcampaign results. Federations do not receive community chest support forJewish education, local community relations and local refugee aid programs.

In order to determine the relative support provided by federations to

various local fields of service, it is necessary to take into account the con-tribution made by community chests.

T h u s , from the total of $34.1 million provided to fields eligible for chestsup por t in 1967 in 125 cities outside N ew Y ork C ity (hosp itals, family, childcare, centers, aged, and administration), total chest support of $18.2 millionshould be deducted. T he difference ($15 .9 million ), or about 47 per cent,represents federation support for these fields on a combined basis.

In making intercity comparisons of allocations for specific fields of service,

it is important to note whether the federations, being compared, have thesame inclusion pattern and, if not, the approximate value of services ex-cluded by one comm unity but included by another. T his is particularly sig-nificant for service areas which are not universally included by federations.

T he pa ttern of fund distribution in com mu nities results from systematicbudget review by allocations committees of federations and welfare funds.T his involves a study of agency prog ram s and finances, utilization of factualreports and intercommunity statistical comparisons prepared by CJFWF, andconsideration of recommendations by the Large City Budgeting Conference(LCBC), consisting of 25 of the largest communities. LCBC recommenda-tions deal with 15 nonlocal agencies which receive three-quarters of all non-local federation allocations, exclusive of UJ A .




OVERSEAS SERVICES

Aid to Israel and Other Overseas Areas

A id to Israel by Jews in the Un ited States is channelled throu gh the U nitedJewish A ppeal and othe r overseas agencies, and th rou gh the Israel Bonddrive. Fr om 1948 throu gh 1968 the U JA provided over 1.1 billion dollars forthe Jewish A gency for Israel (via the United Israel A ppe al, which includedtransmissions of $115 million to the Jewish N ational Fund , mainly between1948 and 19 52 ). T he JD C used about $177 million 8

of UJA funds for its

program in Israel (as part of its ramified overseas services). Hadassah raisedabout $184 million in this period. Sales of Israel Bonds were over $1,077

million in the Un ited States.United States governmental assistance and restitution payments from Ger-

many are the other major external sources of aid to Israel. U.S. governmentaid to Israel through 1966 was about $1,105 million, but this included $476million in loans, ofwhich at least $273 million was later repaid; grants andtechnical aid of $278 million; and surplus food valued at $348 million. T hisincluded grants and loans in local currency, partially repaid. In 1967 U.S.government aid, exclusively in the form of loans, rose $32 million on a net

basis, after repayment of about $21 million.

9

By the end of N ovem ber 1968 foreign currency balances were reported at

about $861 million.10 However, in the last quarter of 1968, there was a

sharp drop in foreign curren cy of ab out $130 million. Offsetting liabilities hadsimultaneously increased, mainly because of global sales of Israel Bonds in

1968. T hese balances have risen in most years since 1958, and have paralleledthe rise in foreign debt. T his deb t was rep orte d at $1,556 million at the endof 1967, and has since risen because of record sales of Israel Bonds of $348million in 1968. By September 1968 foreign currency debts were reported at

$1,666 million.11

Israel's own earnings are largely from exports of goods and services, sup-plemented by foreign investment andprivate transfers of funds. E xportsreached $532 million in 1967, orabout 73 per cent of imports of $727 mil-lion.12 T he 1967 deficit reach ed $195 million, the lowest in a decade; but

8 This was included in total receipts ofJDC ofover $603 million received from 1948 through1968. T otal JDC receipts in the 55-year period 1914 through 1968, from all sources, was about

$893 million.6 Near East Report, May 1966 and September 1966, and 1967 report of Bank of Israel.10 This includes deposits in Israel, deposits abroad, and deposits with the International

Monetary Fund. Statistical Bulletin of Israel, December 1968.11 Israel Economist, December 1968 and February 1969—Internal and external government

debt rose from $2.3 billion in March 1967 to over $3.2 billion in March 1969.12 A nnual Report of Bank of Israel for 1967, E nglish E dition, published M ay 1968. Data

for prior years revised from earlier estimate. Theannual margin of errors in these annualestimates is usually moderate. However, in 1966 this margin was about $27 million and hadrisen to $114 million in 1967 accounted for mainly by some omissions in the data which makeup the aggregate estimates.



130 / AM ER IC AN JEWISH YEAR BO OK , 1969

preliminary data for 1968 pointed to at least a doubling of the trade deficit forthat year.

T hese figures deal only with trade in com mo dities. If services are included(tourism, transport, debt service, unspecified government costs), the deficit

was $4 45 million in 1966, and $437 m illion in 1967 . T hese deficits werepartially offset, in 1966, by $292 million in "unilateral transfers" consistingmainly of restitution and re parations, camp aign proceeds in the U.S. and othercountries, personal transfers, and U.S. government aid. In 1967 these transfersreached $522 million, and resulted in a rise of $216 million in foreigncurrency reserves.

Philanthropic Programs for Israel

Philanthropic funds have continued to be an important source of incomefor Israel's econ om y. T hese funds a re specifically earm ark ed for welfare,health, and educ ational prog ram s. A by pro du ct effect is that the exchange ofdollars for pounds is helpful to the economy of the country.

A merican Jewish philanthropic agencies, reporting to the C JF W F, h adavailable for overseas purposes about $283.5 million in 1967, and $101.2million in 1966. Over 80 per cent of these funds are generally available forIsrael purposes; this figure rose to over 90 per cent in 1967. Campaigns in

othe r overseas coun tries also prov ide funds for program s in Israel. T he Bankof Israel reported global transmissions of about $323 million to Israel in1967, compared with $97 million in 1966.

In addition, net receipts from sale of Israel Bonds in 1967 totalled $175million, after redemption and conversion, contrasted with net receipts in1966 of $11 million after similar redemptions.13

Immigration since the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 through 1968totalled about 1,300,000

14 while about 184,000 jews migrated from Israel to

other countries. Major immigration took place from 1948 through 1951,when about 685,000 Jews entered Israel. A bout 90,000 Jews imm igrated inthe following four years ( 1 95 2 - 5 5 ); in the next two years (1 95 6- 57 ) therewas a surge forward, with over 127,000 settling in Israel.

T he imm igration pace slackened in the thre e years, 1958—60, when about75,000 Jews went to Israel, but the tempo of movement again was heightenedin the ensuing four years (1961-64), when almost 230,000 Jews migratedto Israel. Movement in 1966 and 1967 declined to the 1952-55 level, butagain rose to the 1965 level (over 30,000) in 1968.

T he waves of imm igration were related to existing oppo rtunities at par-ticular times: the postwar migration of displaced persons; movements fromE astern E urope when local conditions in Poland, Hung ary, and Rumania

13 Bank of Israel A nnual Report for 19 67, T able 1 11- 26.14

Statistical Abstract of Israel, 1968 edition, published by Central Bureau of Statistics,Government of Israel, T ables D- 3, D-1 4, including tourists settling. Data for 1968 areestimated.



J E W I S H C O M M U N A L S E R V I C E S / 1 3 1

permitted; mov emen ts from N orth A frica resulting mainly from politicalchanges in A legria, T unisia, Morocco , Y emen , and E gypt, and the like.

Bond Sales for Israel

T he following State of Israel bo nd issues have been floated since 1 9 51 :Independence Issue, Dev elopm ent Issue, Second Dev elopm ent Issue, T hirdDevelopment Issue, Development Investment Issue, and Fourth DevelopmentIssue. Sales of the T hir d Dev elopm ent Issue began on M arc h 1, 1964, of theFirst Development Investment Issue on March 31, 1966, of the FourthDevelopment Issue on September 15, 1967, and of the Second DevelopmentIssue on A ugust 1, 1968.

Flotation of the Independence Issue for the three-year period from May 1,

1951 to May 1, 1954 resulted in sales of $145 .5 m illion. T he second issue,the Dev elopm ent Issue, wh ich was floated for a five-year period , from 1954to 1959, resulted in sales of $234.1 million.15 T hese issues were completelyredeemed.

Sales of the Second Development Issue were $293.7 million by 1964, theend of the five-year flotation. Sales of the T hird De velop m ent Issue began onMarch 1, 1964. A t N ovem ber 1967, $345.2 million had been sold, and werestill outstanding.

T otal bond s for all issues we re $1,27 7 million at the end of 1968 , includ-ing $1,077 million sold in the Un ited S tates. T he billion dollar m ark for salesin the United States was reached early in 1968.

A t the end of N ovem ber 1968 there were outsanding in the hands of thepublic $729 million, consisting of $53.4 million First Development Issue;$162.1 million Second Developm ent Issue; $324.5 million T hird Dev elop-ment Issue; $29.3 million Development Investment Issue, and $114.8 millionFourth Development Issue.16

From the inception of sale of Israel Bonds in May 1951 through 1968,

about $88 million wo rth of State of Israel Bo nds w ere received by U JA inpayment of allocations provided from the proceeds of individual pledges. In1968, $8.6 million worth of bonds were reported to have been received byUJA in pay m ent of individual pledges to local welfare funds.

T he T hird Deve lopme nt Issue provides that a bond must be held for aperiod of at least two years before a charitable institution may surrender itin Israel for Israeli pou nds. T herefore , these bon ds m ay n ot be used inpayment of pledges during this two-year period.

From 1963 through 1968 almost $220 million in bonds matured, and about$73 million are due to mature in 1969. Conversions for investment purposesin 1963- 68 totalled almost $10 8 million, since inception thro ugh N ovem ber1968.

A substantial portion of the funds received by bondholders on redem ption

a T his includes $5 .6 million in conversion from earlier issues.10 This includes $24.8 million in conversions from earlier issue.




of their matured bonds was reinvested in State of Israel Bonds sold in 1963and later years.

Bond sales in the United States totalled $107 million in 1968. It was ex-ceeded only by the 1967 pea k of $1 90 million. T hese results reflected the

response to the critical needs of Israel at the time of the six-day war, andcontinuing thereafter.

In Canada, 1968 sales amounted to $7.7 million, compared with $8.4million the preced ing year. E lsewhe re, $15.8 million in bo nd s were sold.Worldwide sales amounted to $130.5 million in 1968.

T he proceeds from bond sales are used for agriculture, industry, powerand fuel, housing and school construction, and transportation and com-munications.

Reparations and Restitution Funds

Foreign currency income from individual restitution payments from Ger-many constituted a major source of foreign currency for Israel during 1966and 1967. It totalled $110.4 million in 1966 and $123.2 million in 1967.

T he JD C con tinues to receive $1 million annually from residual reparationsfunds. T he M emo rial Found ation for Jewish Culture was established in 1964with $10.4 million from Claims Conference funds for the support of "Jewishhistory, religion, educ ation, tradition s." Op erations began in 1965. T hirty-eight Jewish organizations joined the Foundation, including seven from theUnited States. In 1966-67 allocations of about $1,246,000 were granted toorganizations in 13 countries and to individual scholars for activity in theareas of education, research, publication, and documentation of the Holo-caust. A llocations are granted out of current income only.

Overseas Agencies

A m eric an Jewish financial sup port for needs in Israel and in other over-seas areas is provided mainly through federation allocations to the UnitedJewish A ppeal and to about a dozen other overseas agencies. UJA continuedto receive the major share of overseas allocations by welfare funds. 17 Otheroverseas agencies raised the major portion of their funds independently.

T otal incom e in 1967 of all overseas agencies was $2 83.5 m illion, withover $3 5 million raised outside the federations. T he largest of these inde-pend ent fund-raising activities were the Israel E ducation Fu nd of the UJA ;Hadassah, which raised $10.3 million through activities of its members; the

building and special fund drives of the H ebrew U niversity and T echnion,which raised $5 million; the drives of the N ational Com mittee for LaborIsrael and Pioneer Women which raised $4 million for welfare activitiesconducted by Histadrut in Israel; the Jewish N ational Fu nd (J N F ) cam-

17 T he UJA share of all regular funds bu dgeted was 54.6 per cent in 1967. Its share ofgross regular pledges was 47 per cent in 1968; this pledge share was increased to 66 per centthrough the Israel Emergency Fund.




paign for "traditional income," which raised $2.9 million; and WeizmannInstitute, which raised $3.2 million.

United Jewish Appeal

T he United Jewish A ppeal is a partnership of the United Israel A ppeal( U I A ; formerly United Palestine A ppea l) and the A merican Jewish JointDistribution Committee (JDC) for joint fund raising. Over 90 per cent ofUJA income is received from federations. The remainder is secured inhundreds of small nonfederated comm unities where U JA enlists the coopera-tion of community leaders to take responsibility for conducting local cam-paigns for U JA or joint appeals, with U JA as the major beneficiary.

From its inception in 1939 throu gh 1968, the U JA received about $2,035

million and distributed about $1,220 million to U IA , $608 million to J D C ,and about $89 million toUnited Service forN e w A m ericans ( U S N A ) , N ewY ork A ssociation for N e w A m e ric an s (N Y A N A ) , an d U n ite d H ia s S ervice( U H S ) .

T he peak year was 1967, when U JA received $67.1 mill ion inpledges forits regular campaign and $175 million for its Israel E mergency Fund . In1968 U JA regular allocations were repo rted at $71.1 million and the IsraelEmergency Fund at $85 million.

U JA provides general camp aign services tocommunities (publicity, speak-ers, and the like) and seeks to secure from welfare funds a maximum shareof funds collected. It does not ope rate any service program s directly. T heseare conducted through the agencies which share in UJAproceeds: UIA(actually by theJewish A gency in Israe l ) , JDC, andN Y A N A , andU H S ,which received most of i ts income from sources other than U JA .

T he current distribution of UJA funds is in accordance with a formulawhich has remained unchanged since 1951, and is effective through 1973. It

provides that, after deduction of campaign expenses and allocations toN Y A N A , U I A is to receive 67 per cent and JD C 33 per cent of the first$55 million raised each year. Beyond $55 million, UIA is to receive 87.5 percent and JD C 12.5 per cent. T his formula was no t applied to the proceeds of

"special" campaigns, nor to the Israel E mergency Fund s of 1967, 1968, and1969.

UJ A initiated i ts Israel E ducation Fu nd inSeptember 1964. T he objectiveis to conduct a five-year capital fund campaign toprovide high-school build-

ings, teacher-training programs, student scholarships and related centers,equipment, and facilities. T his effort is separate from the annual UJA

campaign.

A total of $25.3 million inpledges was received from 1965 until the end

of 1968.

Large gifts are sought: $100,000 and over, payable up to five years, withno dim inution of the gift from the same source to the welfare fund providing



134 / AM ER IC AN JEWISH YEAR BO OK , 1969

suppo rt for the U JA annua l cam paign and with consultation w ith localwelfare funds in order to avoid conflict with other solicitation efforts.

JD C does not share in this fund. T he funds are turned over to UIA whichis to "own, manage and operate the schools and related institutions" to be

built with the donated funds, with the Jewish A gency for Israel, Jerusalem ,as operating agent in Israel.

T he governm ent of Israel cooperates by providing land for construction,exempts the institution from governmental tax, provides funds toward thecost of maintenance, and agrees not to make similar arrangements with otherefforts of this kind without prior consultation with U JA and U IA .

UJA Regular and IEF Funds

On a pledge basis, U JA regular income was $71.1 million in 1968, ex-clusive of the Israel E ducation Fu nd . T his was about six per cent higher tha nthe 1967 pledge total of $67.1 million. In addition, pledges for the IsraelE mergency Fu nd w ere about $85 million.

On a cash basis, U JA had receipts of almost $60 m illion in "reg ular" fundsin 1968, com pared w ith $82 million in 1967. T hese were the cash am ountsreceived each year, regardless of years in which the pledges were made. Inaddition, $3.3 million was received in 1967 and $2.2 million in 1968 for the

Israel E ducation Fun d.Cash receipts for the 1967 Israel E me rgency F un d w ere $151 .8 million bythe end of 1967, and rose to about $170 million by February 1969.

Cash receipts for the 1968 Israel E me rgency F un d (of $85 million inestimated pledges) exceeded $50 million by February 1969.

U JA seeks agreements with federations in advance of campaigns to m axi-mize its percentage share of campaign p roceeds. U JA regular allocationproceeds for 1968 were about $71.1 million, compared with regular cam-paign proceeds of about $153 million.

UJA Special Loans

C U R R E N T L O A N

Borrowing from banks has been a major factor affecting the financing ofU JA , UIA and JA FI, Inc., in the las t decade.

T he curre nt loan was negotiated in A pril 1965 for $50 million for a 15-

year period with a group of 11 insurance companies.T hese funds were borrowed by U IA and guaranteed by U JA . T he unpaid

balance at the end of 1968 was $41.7 million.T he term s of the loan also limit short-term debt (for 12 m on ths) at any

tim e to $10 m illion. T he loan for $50 million is exclusive of financing p ro -vided by some of the insurance companies for capital requirements for

housing in Israel.




U JA funds destined for the Jewish A gency, Jerusalem, are disbursedthrough UI A , one of the two official partn ers in UJ A .

Receipts of UIA f rom UJA in 1967-68 were about $211 million, andabout $36.3 million in 1 9 6 6 - 6 7 . In addition, cash receipts for the Israel

E ducation Fu nd were $3.2 million in 1966 -67 , and $3 million in 1967 -68 .Prior to 1967 the peak year of U JA fund raising had been 1948, but U IAreceived a lower share from UJA in that year ($37 million) than in morerecent years when the JDC share of UJA funds had declined. The rise in1967-68 receipts was due to the Israel E mergency Fu nd and to acceleratedcollections. T hese receip ts decre ased in 1967-68 and rose again in 1968 -69 ,and were second only to the peak receipts of 1966 -67 .

Jewish National FundT he Jewish N at ional Fund, under the UJAagreement, is permitted to

raise $1.8 million annually from "traditional collections' ' in the United States,after deduction of expenses not exceeding $300,000. Its total U.S. income,including traditional income, bequests, and other income, was about $2.9million in 1966-67, and about $3.0 million in 1967-68. Substantial portionswere raised with the help of Hadassah, the Zionist Organization of A mer ica( Z O A ) , and other organizations.

United Israel Appeal, Inc.

T he United Israel A ppeal, Inc. , resulted from merger of the Jewish A gencyfor Israel, Inc. and UIA in 1966. One hundred of the 210-member board oftrustees of the combined agency are drawn from names suggested byvariouscommunities, and100 are designated by the A me rican Zionist organizationswhich hadbeen represented in the earl ier UIA . Ten are elected at large.

T he new board of trustees elects two-thirds of the board of directors of 27,with the remaining one-third designated by the Jewish A gency-A mericanSection, Inc.1 8

T he operating agency for services to immigrants and other programs inIsrael is the Jewish A gency for Israel, Jerusalem. T hese services are providedin line with the specific allocations and instructions of UIA , Inc.

Fun ds from U JA flow directly to UIA , Inc. , and are appropriated forspecific programs.

T he United Israel A ppeal is themajor beneficiary agency of the UnitedJewish A ppeal, the latter being constituted by periodic agreements betweenUIA and JD C . T he current agreement, provides for UJA campaigns to be

conducted during the five-year period 1969-73.

UIA conducts a year-round program of stimulating interest in Israel

MThe Jerusalem Jewish A gency m aintains a separate branch in the United States (JewishAgency-American Section, Inc .) for activities which are not financed through U JA .




through the use of motion pictures, literature, and direct contact with mem-bership organizations and welfare funds.

Co mp lete responsibility for the use of A me rican Jewish philanthrop icfunds prov ided by federations to U JA for needs in Israel is centered in

A me rica. T he tax-exem pt and tax-deductible status of these contributionsrem ains unim paired, since the A me rican co ntrol of funds is in line withpolicies developed by the Internal Revenue Service for all agencies providingfunds for use overseas.

Israel Emergency Fund

T he response of the A me rican Jewish com mu nity to the crisis faced byIsrael resulted in pledges of about $175 million for IEF of the U JA in 1967,

and $ 85 million in 19 68. T his was in addition to the proce eds of the regularUJA campaign .

Preliminary estimates for the year ended March 31, 1969 indicate thatUIA hopes to have available for allocation about $150 million in cash forboth IE F and regular programs. UIA approved allocations of this sum for1968-69, subject to revision on the basis of actual funds available.

Jewish Agency for Israel, Jerusalem

Sources of Jewish A gency, Jerusalem, incom e have been prima rily U IA ,Inc.; earmarked grants from the U.S.; a share of Keren Hayesod campaignsin Jewish communities outside the U.S.; grants and loans by the Israel gov-ernment for costs of agricultural settlement; and earmarked contributions forY ou th A liyah .

Fr om 1948 throug h 1968, the Jewish A gency, Jerusalem, received UJAfunds of abo ut $1.1 billion, thro ugh the UI A and its predecesso r, the UnitedPalestine A ppeal. (In earlier years of this period, JN F had received $115

million as part of this total.) J N F received funds indirectly from the JewishA gency, Jerusalem, since 19 52, with such suppo rt ending in M arch 1965.

Before 1967, about 80 per cent of contribution income generally camefrom the United States, but the 1967 Israel crisis brought a rise in the shareof contributions by overseas Jewry. Contributions in 1966-67 accounted forabout $46 million transmitted to Israel from the United States and othercountries. T his was about two- thirds of total income (exclusive of lo an s),but less than half of total income, including loans. Israel government grantsfor agriculture and remaining receipts, mainly from reparations and heirless

property, sales of housing to earlier immigrants, and earmarked funds, cov-ered the balance of income.

T he Jewish A gency, Jerusalem, spent about $97 million in the year endedM arch 31 , 1967, including loan repaym ent of principal and interest. E x-clusive of loans, income had been about $66 million annually.

However, in 1967-68 the response of world Jewry made it possible for theJewish A gency to provide over $250 million for a larger propo rtion of the




immigrant costs which have been borne by the Jewish A gency since 1948.T he largest single area of functional expenditures was for housing, amount-

ing to almost $72 million in 1967-68, with over $70million provided fortransportation, absorption, and related welfare programs for immigrants.

A gricultural settlement am ounted to almost $55 million in 1967 -68 . Theobjective is eventual self-support for thenewcomer. Aid is provided in theform of founding new settlements, irrigation projects, citriculture, equip-ment, seed, instruction, supplementary employment, and long-term loans.

Y outh A l iyah programs formaintenance and education of immigrant andother youth activities cost about $6.4 million in 1967—68. Hadassah in theUnited States and other women's organizations in the United States andabroad provided a major share of these costs, with the remaining share of

costs born e by the Jewish A gency , Jerusalem, and U I A .Other Jewish A gency, Jerusalem , expenditu res included grants totallingabout $31.7 million in 1967—68 for institutions of higher learning in Israel(Weizmann Institute, Heb rew University, T echnion, Bar-Ilan University, andT el A viv U niv ersity). Other costs included organization and informationactivities and general administrative expenses within and outside Israel.

U IA provided financing toward specific agreed- upon p rojects co ndu cted bythe Jewish A gency, Jerusalem, bu t not those of itsA merican Section or theWorld Zionist Organization.

Programs Financed by United Israel Appeal, Inc.

T he Israel E mergency F un d m ade possible the allocation byU IA of over$188 million in 1967 -68 and$150 million in 1968-69 , for welfare and re-lated programs in Israel. T his involved increased UIAfinancing of healthservices, agricultural settlement, housing, and education.

In 196 6- 67 U IA , Inc. provided $34.4 million toward costs of programsoperated by the Jewish A gency, Jerusalem. T hese expenditures were based

upon an agreement that the Jewish A gency, Jerusalem , would m ake specificexpenditures on behalf of, and in accordance with, UIA instructions. Inaddition, U IA paid $5million in loans and in interest in theUnited States.

T he programs receiving the largest shares of UIA financing in 1967-68were for agricultural settlement, housing, education, and higher education.In each case, U IA earmark ed its funds for specific pro gram s. T entative ear-marking of UIA funds for 1968-69 included $31.9 million for highereducation, $26 million for immigrant housing, $26.4 million for immigrant

absorption, and related welfare services, $19.8 million for education (notmandated by the government), and about $18.5 million each, for agriculturalsettlement and health programs. Other costs for these programs were to bemet from gifts byoverseas Jewry and from other sources of Jewish A gencyincome.



138 / AM ER IC AN JEWIS H YEAR BO OK , 1969

American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee

JD C is an A m erican agency conducting a global program of direct aid toJews through its own staff overseas and in cooperation with indigenous Jew-

ish organizations.It assisted about 340,000 persons in 1968. Of these, 94,000 were in Israel(including some 41,000 receiving aid from Malben, 30,000 in ORT schools,and 17,000 in yeshivot), 74,000 in W estern E urope, 33,000 in E asternE urope , 51,000 in Moslem areas, and about 7,000 in other areas. T his doesnot include 81,000 aided by "relief-in-transit" programs which are lessformally organized.

In 1968 disbursements were $21.6 million. Income was $19.9 million,supplemented by use of about $2.6 million in 1967 receipts, which had been

accelerated because of the emergency in Israel that year. Regular incomeincluded $1 million in residual Claims Conference funds, $0.5 million inrelated restitution funds, and almost $0.9 million of Malben income in Israel.

T he JDC M alben program of service to sick, aged, and handicapped im-migrants in Israel continued to account for the largest single share of theagency's appropriations— $6,525 ,000, or 29 per cent of the 1968 total. A nadditional $840,000 was provided for aid to yeshivot and other traditionalinstitutions in Israel. In 1968 Malben aided about 41,000 persons. It pro-

vided care of the aged in institutions and in their own homes, and medicaland psychiatric services. Malben accounts for the greatest portion of thetotal of over $177 million spent by JD C in Israel from 1950 throu gh 1968.

T he largest num ber of N orth A frican Jew s receiving JD C aid was inMorocco, where over 20,000 Jews (more than one in every two Jews remain-ing in M orocc o) were being assisted in 1968. A bou t 26,500 Jews in T unisiaand Iran were also receiving JDC aid. In 1968 JDC appropriated $4,295,000for work in Moslem areas. JDC assistance is channelled through suchagencies as OSE for health services; the A lliance Israelite U niverselle, OzarHatorah, and Lubavitcher schools for educational work; and ORT for voca-tional training.

JD C program s operated in other E urop ean cou ntries; half of the E uropeantotal costs were centered in France, and included a large proportion ofT unisian, A lgerian, and M oroccan refugees. Jews aided in Fr an ce w ere alsoassisted by federated agencies of the Fonds Social Juif Unifie, which receiveJD C aid. T he JD C assistance prog ram in Poland was terminated at the endof 1967, at the request of the Polish government; the JDC program in

Rumania was reactivated.T he Czechoslovakian crisis and the resurge nce of antisemitism in Polan d

in 1968, resulted in JDC aid to most of the 7,000 Jews who were able toleave these countries.




ORT and Vocational Education

Vocational training overseas is provided through the facilities of O R T ,which operates in W estern E uro pe, M oslem cou ntries, and Israel. Vo cational

education in Israel is also conducted as part of theprograms of Histadrut ,Hadassah, Y outh A liyah, and T echnion, and by the Israel government andmunicipalities.

T he global expenditures of the World ORT Union were at an annual levelof about $15.2 million in 1968, and are projected at $17.3 million for 1969.Total ORT tra inees in 1968 numbered 50,200, of which 30,060 were inIsrael, 5,600 in France, 3,600 in Italy, 5,300 in Moslem countries, and thebalance mainly in E uro pe.

A merican Jewish support of the ORT program is channelled in two ways:through JDC grants to ORT ($2,100,000 for 1967, $2,250,000 for 1968, and$2,350,000 for 1969), derived from JDC participation inU J A , and throughmembership contributions of O R T in the United Sta tes. W omen's A mericanORT provided about $2.2 million in 1968. T he agreement between OR T andJDC permits ORT to recruit members at annual dues not to exceed $25,except where there is a mutual agreement for a higher level with specificfederations.

World ORT ra ised about $1 million in other countries in 1968, and

secured about $9.8 million locally in the countries of operation, mainly fromgovernment sources.

Global income of ORT was est imated at about $15.2 million in 1968, andwas expected to reach almost $17million in 1969. Less than half of theoutlay in 1968 was in Israel ($6.9 million) and over one-fourth in France($4.4 million), where local sources (mainly governmental tax revenues andschool fees) provided the major share of financing.

Migration ServicesUnited Hias Service provides a worldwide service designed toenable Jews

to migrate tocountries where they can make an economic and social adjust-ment. UHS assisted 6,250 Jewish immigrants to migrate in 1968 (including1,945 to the United States), compared with 6,242 in 1967. The numberrequiring such aid is expected to rema in 6 ,300 in 196 9.

A large proportion of the Jewish immigrants arriving in the United Statesremain in N ew Y ork City, where the N ew Y ork A ssociat ion for N e w A m e ri-

cans provides services aiding their resettlement and absorption. Hence, thefinancing of the program of N Y A N A is considered to be a national respon-sibility, as reflected inN Y A N A 's inclusion as a direct beneficiary of nationalU J A .

Current annual Jewish immigration to the United States is estimated atabout 7,000, including those aided by agencies and those arriving inde-pendently. Of those who settled inN ew Y ork City, about 2,400 received aid




from N Y A N A in 1968. U J A g ra nts t o N Y A N A in 1968 and 1967 w ereover $600,000 annually.

Hadassah

T he largest incom e of an overseas service agency, other than U JA , wasthat of Hadassah which received $15.3 million in 1967-68, and $14.3 millionin 196 6- 67 . Ha dassah 's major projects are for medical services and Y outhA liyah. T he new Hadassah-H ebrew U niversity Medical Center on the out-skirts of Jerusalem was opened in 1961 at a cost of about $27.6 million.Medical services in Israel are also provided by the Kupat Holim of theHistadrut, by governmental departments, and by the Malben program ofJ D C .1 9

T he Y outh A liyah program for the maintenance and training of immigrantyouth (in the earliest years orphaned, now mainly with families in Israel)and other youth activities is conducted by the Jewish A gency, Jerusalem, atan annual cost of about $7 million. Ha dassah 's transmission to Y outh A liyahwas about $1.7 million in 1967-68. Hadassah reports that it has suppliedover $56 million for Y outh A liyah since the program was begun 35 yearsago. Other w om en's groups, in the Un ited States and overseas, provide smallersupplementary funds for Y outh A liyah. T he num ber of children cared forannually was about 10,800, including 1,800 in day centers.

Higher Education in Israel

E nrollm ent in 19 68 - 69 at all of the institutions of higher education inIsrael totalled about 35,000, compared with about 28,500 in 1967-68 and18,400 in 1964—65. W eizm ann In stitute, He brew Un iversity, and T echn ionhad receipts in A m erica of almost $13.8 million in 1967, mainly in con tribu-tions. Incom e of Hebrew U niversity and T echnion rose by $2.6 million inthat year. In addition, these three institutions, together with four otherinstitutions, received grants of over $30 million each in 1967—68 and 1968—69, from the United Israel A ppeal, a beneficiary of U JA funds, and fromthe Jewish A gency, Jerusalem. T he governm ent of Israel had been a m ajorsource of support in earlier years.

Weizmann Institute income in the United States is derived from an annualfund-raising dinner and from an investment program.20

In 1967 and 1968 Hebrew University and T echnion received about$640,000 annually from federations for maintenan ce purposes. T ogether,

18 A ll hospital beds in Israel (p ublic, voluntary, and priva te) totalled about 21,600 andprovided about 7.1 million days' care in 1967. Hadassah had about 650 beds and bassinets, andprovided about 193,000 days' care.

20 In 19 67 - 68 , Weizm ann Institute received about $2,722 ,000 from the Jewish A gency,Hebrew University $8,749,000, Technion $4,590,000, Bar-Ilan University $1 ,067,00 0, T el A vivUniversity $2 ,585,00 0, Haifa University $1 ,367,000 , and University in the N egev $790,00 0,with almost $11 million add itional subject to distribution among these agencies. T hese fundsincluded sums provided by the United Israel A ppeal.




their building fund and special fund cash campaign proceeds were $5.7 mil-lion in 1967. T he ma intenanc e appeals of the two institutions were combined;their capital fund drives were conducted separately.

Both institutions hadmarked enrollment increases in recent years, but

these slowed in 1968-69, with about 12,500 students registered at HebrewUniversity (including a T el A viv branch) and 5,600 at Technion .Hebrew University maintains schools of humanities, social sciences, educa-

tion, social work, physical sciences, agriculture, law, medicine, dentistry andpharm acy. T echnion has schools in various branch es of engineering, architec-ture, industrial sciences, aswell as a technical high school.

Bar-Ilan University was originally founded in 1955, with the support ofthe Mizrachi Organization of A m erica, but subsequently evolved as an inde-pendent institution. In 1968 -69 it had a student enrollment of 3,800 in thenatural sciences, social sciences, and humanities.

T el A viv Un iversity, affiliated to the municipality, was reorganized as anindependent agency and sought public financial support for capital needs ona limited basis, beginning in 1964. T her e were about 9,000 students enrolledin 1968-69 in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, law, andmedicine.

Haifa University began its program in 1964 -65 , and had an enrollmentof 3,000 students in 1968-69. Beersheba University opened in 1965 and had

an enrollment of 1,000 students in 1968-69.

Religious and Cultural Programs in Israel

In 1967, there were 17,750 students in 265yeshivot receiving supportfrom the government of Israel (over $1.1 million in 1968-69) . S tudents in121 of these yeshivot receive JDC support as well. Many of the yeshivothave no age limits, but most students are aged 14 to 17. T h e y are called"traditional institutions" because their roots are in the traditional religious

life in E astern E urope.Many of the yeshivot receive JDC support (about $800,000 annually).

Some of these, andothers, receive support from theFederated Council ofIsrael Institutions ($168,000 raised in 1967) , but a great number also seekfunds separately in the United States through collectors (meshulochim) andthrough m ail appeals.

Cultural programs in Israel were supported in the United States throughthe A merica-Israel Cultural Foun dation ($1.8 mill ion in 1968), including in

its appeal some 50 agencies in Israel. T hese agencies were m ainly in thefields of mu sic, thea ter, da nce , art, and literatu re. AICF seeks building funds,in addition to funds forma intenan ce. T he recent major capital projects werefor a new structure to house theN at ional Museum of Israel, and for theCentral Library in Jerusalem.




Other Overseas Agencies

W hile U JA received almost all its incom e thro ug h welfare funds and jointcommunity appeals, other overseas agencies received a smaller share of theirtotal contributions through welfare funds.

Hadassah, P ioneer W omen, and N ational Council of Jewish Wom en havetraditionally raised most of their funds through membership activities; theN ationa l Comm ittee for L abor Israel has raised funds independently in thelargest communities where its membership strength is centered, while seekingfederation allocations in smaller and medium-sized com mu nities; the A meri-can Friends of the He brew University and A me rican T echnion Society haveconcentrated their independent appeals on their building and special funds,while seeking federation support for maintenance needs.

A lmos t all these agencies we re authorized to cond uct cam paigns for Israelby the Jewish A gency Comm ittee on Control and A uthorization of Cam-paigns 21 under conditions regarding timing, goals, scope of campaigns, andcleara nce with welfare funds, set by the Co m m ittee. T he objective of theCom mittee is to help assure the primacy of U JA among appeals for Israelthrough the cooperation of other authorized campaigns, and by avoiding amultiplicity of campaigns.

In addition, efforts were begun in mid-1967 to avoid interference with

efforts on behalf of the UJA Israel E mergen cy F un d.Fifteen overseas agencies, other than U JA agencies, had incom e of $39.3million in 1967, compared with $31.5 million in 1966.

UHS and AICF participated in the cooperative budget review process ofthe Large City Budgeting Conference, a grouping of welfare funds in 25 ofthe largest cities.

T he Labo r Zionist effort in the U nited S tates is channe lled throu gh theN ational C om mittee for Lab or Israel and Pioneer Wom en, which raise fundsfor activities of the Histadrut in Israel in education, vocational training,

health, and immigrant welfare.T her e are agencies which cen ter their activities in other areas, but include

limited overseas pro gra m s: T he N ational Council of Jewish Wom en, forsocial work and education scholarships and for activities related to thedepartment of secondary and higher education at the Hebrew University,and the Jewish Labor Committee for aid to political and labor refugees inE urope and in Israel.

T he Jewish T elegraphic A gency is a worldwide news service reporting news

affecting the Jewish people.21 A uthorized agencies in recent years were: A merican C omm ittee for Weizmann Institute of

Science, Inc. (an nu al fund raising dinner onl y); A merican Friends of the Hebrew University;A merica-Israel Cultural Foundation ; A merican Red Mogen Dovid for Israel, Inc. (membershipcampaign only, no application to welfare fun ds); A merican T echnion Society; Federated Coun-cil of Israel Institution s; Hadas sah, the W om en's Zionist Organization of A merica, Inc .; JewishN ational Fu nd (tradition al collections only; no application to welfare fu nd s); Pioneer Women,the Wom en's Labor Zionist Organization of A merica, Inc.; W omen's L eague for Israel, Inc.(New York area).




Overseas concerns are also shared by some domestic agencies in the formof intervention with governmental bodies onbehalf of the rights of Jewsoverseas: A merican Jewish Comm ittee, A me rican Jewish Congress, A me ricanSection of the World Jewish Congress, B'nai B'rith, Jewish War Veterans,

and Jewish Labor Committee.

NATIONAL SERVICES-UNITED STATES

Jewish national agencies deal with the continuing needs of A merican Jews inthe areas ofprotection of civil rights, health, education (both religious andsecu lar), youth services, culture, and the like. In some of these program areas,local service agencies exist in specific communities, and the task of serving

total needs may be said to be divided between national and local agencies.T his is true particularly in comm unity relations, Jewish education, and healthand vocational services.

Some agencies operate inmore than one field of service. A s a result, thereare multiple references to specific agencies in the sections which follow.

T he local federation and welfare fund provides a link between local,national, and overseas services by means of centralized fund raising, throughfederation review of agency programs in the process of budgeting funds, and

in planning and sometimes operating local services.T he Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds serves local central

community organizations bymeans of aid in strengthening fund raising,budgeting, planning and coordination of services, public relations, intercityand national-local relations, overseas services, specialized consultation in

such services as family service, child care, care of the aged and health services,and basic com mu nity organization.

Community RelationsResponse to threats tothe status of Jews inother countries was an im-

portant factor in the creation ofmodern Jewish community-relations agencies.The current major emphasis is on improvement of domestic group relations.

E ach of the five major nation al Jewish com m unity- relations agencies servesa membership: directly, in the case of the A me rican Jewish Comm ittee,A merican Jewish Congress, and Jewish W ar V eterans ; indirectly, in the caseof the A nti-D efamation league (for B'nai B'rith membership) and the Jew-

ish Labor Committee (for t rade union membership). Some of them alsoconduct foreign-affairs activities, andcultural programs, and issue publica-tions of interest to circles wider than their own membership.

T he A merican Jewish Comm ittee and the Anti-Defamation League conductactivities which utilize mass media (radio, TV, movies, press, magazines,etc.), as well as specialized programs (interfaith and intercultural education,business and industry, labor, veterans, youth, minority groups, etc.). Both




maintain networks of regional offices as two-way channels for the integrationof their national and local programs.

T he other three agencies conc entrate on mor e specialized app roac hes:A m eric an Jewish Congre ss, on legal and legislative activities; Jewish La bor

Committee, on work with labor unions; and Jewish War Veterans, on workwith veterans' groups. Interfaith and other community-relations activities areconducted also by congregational associations, although the major portionsof their programs are centered on aid to the religious programs of affiliatedcongregations.

T he N at ional Com munity Relations A dvisory Council (N CR A C ) servesas the coordinating and clearance agency for the B'nai B'rith A nti-Defam a-tion League, A merican Jewish Com mittee, A merican Jewish Congress, Jewish

La bor Com m ittee, Jewish W ar Ve terans, N ational Council of Jewish Wom en,the three congregational associations, and 81 local and regional communityrelations councils.

T he N ational Com mu nity Relations A dvisory Council , B'nai B'rith A nti-Defam ation League, A merican Jewish Comm ittee, A merican Jewish Con-gress, Jewish Labor Committee, and Jewish War Veterans have participatedin the cooperative budget review process of the Large City Budgeting Con-ference.

T he five national operating agencies and N C R A C received $12.8 millionin 1967, compared with $11.9 million in 1966. Most of the increase wassecured by the A merican Jewish Com mittee and by the A nti-D efamationLeague through independent fund raising in N ew Y ork C ity.

Health

Living conditions of Jews arriving in the United States at the close of thelast century made for a high incidence of tuberculosis and impelled thecreation, between 1899 and 1914, of three national tuberculosis hospitals, asan itarium , and a hom e for ch ildren of T B patients (as well as a specializedarthritis ho sp ital). A n additional motivation w as the theory th at the climateof areas like Denver and Southern California was helpful in TB cases.

T hese institutions cam e into existence before m any of the presen t localJewish hospitals were organized. Improvement in the health status of Jewsand m edical adva nces in T B therapy in recen t year s led to a shift of em phasisby the T B hospitals to include heart, can cer, research, and treatment ofasthm a in adults. How ever, T B still continued to represent a major share of

days ' care provided for all ailments.A lmo st all fund raising by these agencies is con ducte d independently.

Income from federations amounts to about one-eighth of one per cent ofthe institutions' total incom e.

T he A lbert E instein M edical School, under the sponsorship of Y eshivaUniversity in N ew Y ork C ity, began functioning in 1955. Its receipts in 1967were $40 million, compared with $30.5 million in 1966. Its student enroll-




ment in 1967-68 was 455. It awarded 96M.D. degrees in 1967 -68 . A new375-bed hospital was opened early in 1966 by the medical school, at a con-struction cost of $20 million. A n agreem ent was developed, in 1969, betweenMontefiore Hospital and the hospital of Y eshiva University, involving o pera-

tions of both facilities by Montefiore Hospital and availability of teachingfacilities of both hosp itals to the E instein M edica l School.

Income of the other five agencies was $19.5 million in 1967, comparedwith $17.6 million in 1966. Two of the agencies (City of Hope, near LosA ngeles, andN ational Jewish Hospital, in Denver) accounted for almost$16.2 million of the 1967 total.

Service Agencies

Basic services to individuals areprovided by local agencies, financed inlarge measure by federations and (in some fields) bycommunity chests andUnited Fund s. T hese local agencies need toknow of the experience of othercommunities and the results of national program planning. To meet thisneed, five national organizations furnish service to local Jewish communitycenters, programs for the A rm ed Forc es, Jewish education, religion, andvocational guidance. T hese agencies serve as coordinating and consultativebodies in their respective fields.

T he N ational Jewish Welfare B oard is the largest of these agencies. In1967 JWB received $1,829,000, out of a total of $2,461,000, for the fiveagencies. In addition to the assistance it provides to Jewish communitycenters, JWB conducts a program of service to Jews in theA rmed Forcesand sponsors a number of Jewish cultural projects. T he JW B financial planis related to the magnitude of federation income for its A rm ed Services pro -gram, and community center budgets for its center services program. Sincefederations frequently provide funds to centers (as do community chests) ,JWB continues to look to federations for support of both of its basic

programs.T he A merican A ssocia tion for Jewish E duc ation serves local com mu nities

with studies andconsultation in educational trends, stimulation of studentenrollment, recruitment and placement of teachers, and pedagogic materials.It also aids the professional organization of Jewish school administrators(N ational Council of Jewish E duc at ion).

Other national service agencies are the Jewish Occupational Council, whichserves local Jewish Vocational Service (JVS) agencies and national agencies

concerned with Jewish occup ational adjustment; the N ationa l Conference ofJewish Communal Service, which serves as a forum for exchange of experi-ence of professional workers in all fields of Jewish communal service; andthe Synagogue Council of A merica which represents its affiliated Orthodox,Conservative, and Reform rabbinical and congregational associations, seekingto foster intergroup cooperation and relations with corresponding Christianbodies and in relation togovernmental agencies.



146 / AM ER IC AN JEWI SH YEAR BO OK , 1969

N C R A C also provides service to 81 affiliated local com mu nity-relationsagencies.

Jewish Culture

T he N ational Fou nd ation for Jewish Culture was established in 1960 asan autonomous operation, with an associated Council of Jewish CulturalA gencies, consisting of sixteen participating agencies.

Specific activities include a program of awards to scholars for research,earmarked grants to existing cultural agencies for high priority projects,provision of information on the Jewish cultural field, aid to the Council ofJewish Cultura l A gencies process for joint cultural agency co nsultation, andinformation on Jewish cultural agencies.

T he M emorial Fo und ation for Jewish Cu lture, financed with G ermanreparations funds, allocated $296,000 for activities in the United States in1966—67. T his included a gran t for the W orld C ouncil on Jew ish E duca tion,several yeshivot, research grants to agencies, and a grant for projects docu-menting the Holocaust.

In addition to a number of small agencies dealing with specific aspects ofJewish cultural endeavors exclusively,22 major programs in the Jewish culturalarea are conducted by agencies which concentrate their efforts in other fields(e.g., A m erican Jewish Com mittee, Jewish W elfare B oa rd ).

Sixteen agencies had total income of $46.4 million in 1967. Of these,Brandeis University had $28.2 million; B'nai B'rith N ational Y outh ServiceA ppeal, $5.3 million; Y eshiva University program s (other th an medical andrelig iou s), $9.8 million; and Zionist Org anization of A m erica, $1.2 m illion.T he remaining 12 agencies received $1.9 million in 1967.

T hre e of the agencies are institutions of higher lea rnin g: Brandeis Un i-versity, Dro psie College and Jewish T each ers Seminary, and Peo ple's Uni-versity. In add ition, Y eshiva University has university cou rses in the arts and

sciences, as well as a medical school and a theological seminary.Research and scholarly publication programs are conducted by YIVO and

by the Conference on Jewish Social Studies in the fields of sociology, eco-nom ics, and linguistics; by the A me rican A cadem y for Jewish R esearch; bythe A me rican Jewish Historical Society, the A m erican Jewish A rchives, theA me rican Jewish History Center, and the Jewish Mu seum of the JewishT heological Sem inary in the fields of history and archive s; and by H istadruthIvrith and Bitzaron in Hebraics. Population studies are conducted mainly by

the Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds (CJFWF) and theJewish Welfare Board.

T he Jewish Pub lication S ociety specializes in publishing books of Jewishinterest. T he N ational Conference of Jewish Com m unal Service publishes ajournal dealing with social work developments. Dropsie College publishes a

22 T he field also includes agencies operated under Jewish auspices with general culturalprograms as well as programs with more specific Jewish content.




Jewish quarterly review. CJFWF issues research reports oncommunity or-

ganization, health and welfare planning, campaigning and budgeting, as wellas studies of specific local service agencies.

Reference yearbooks are published in a number of fields; the American

Jewish Year Book (published jointly by theA merican Jewish Com mitteeand Jewish Publication Society) contains specialized articles on major de-velopments in the United States and other countries, statistics, and directories;the Yearbook of Jewish Social Service (publ ished by CJFWF); and the JWB

Center Yearbook. CJFWF also publishes anannual summary of major pro-gram and financial developments in all fields of Jewish communal service forwhich data are available (Jewish Communal Services: Programs and Fi-

nances). JWB conducts activities designed to stimulate interest in Jewish

books and music, and operates a Jewish lecture bureau.B'nai B'ri th N ational Y outh Service A ppeal (Hillel Foundations, B'nai

B'rith Y outh Organization, and B'nai B'rith Vocational Service) and Jew ishCha utauqua Society emphasize you th activities. BBN Y SA agencies co nductlocal operations, coordinated on a regional and national level.

Religion

N ational religious agencies provide training of rabbis, cantors, Jewish

educators, shohatim, and other religious functionaries, assist programs ofreligious congregations, including elementary Jewish education, and encour-age the enlistment of the religiously unaffiliated members of the Jewishpopulation.

Each of the three religious wings has its own rabbinical association andcongregational associations, with affiliated national associations of sister-hoods, men's clubs, andyouth groups. N ationally, they attempt to helporganize new congregations, and publish ritual and e ducational m aterials. T hethree wings are represented in the Synagogue Council of A merica . T he Re-form congregations reported 224,000 family memberships and Conservativecongregations reported over 231,000 family memberships in 1968.23 Ortho-d o x 2 4 congregations had a membership of well over 200,000 families. In

addition, ancillary sisterhoods, brotherhoods, men's clubs, youth groups, andnonmember users of synagogues were related to each of these networks of

congregations.

T he major sem inaries rely extensively on associated congregations for

their financial support, sometimes through per capita arrangements, but they

also receive federation supp ort. T hey g enerally camp aign ind epen dently inlarger cities, and in communities where federations believe such programsshould be completely a congregational responsibility.

T he Hebrew U nion College-Jewish Institute of Religion prepares religious

28 See Budget Digest series, issued A pril 1969 by CJF W F, on UA HC and U nited Synagogueof A merica.

a See American Jewish Year Book, 1965, Vol. 66, p. 25.




functionaries for Reform Judaism ; the Jewish T heological Seminary, forConservative Judaism ; and Y eshiva University and several smaller institu-tions, for Orthodox Judaism.

Most Orthodox yeshivot are located in N ew Y ork C ity. Major yeshivot

in other cities ar e: the Jewish University of A me rica- Heb rew T heologicalCollege in Chicago; the Rabbinical College of T elshe in Cleveland; the N erIsrael Rabb inical College in Baltimo re; and the Ch achm ey Lublin T heologicalSeminary in Detroit.

A id to religious day schools is a major function of the M izrachi N ationalCouncil for T orah E ducation, the United Lubavitcher Y eshivot, the N ationalCou ncil of Beth Jaco b Schools, and T ora h Um esorah.

Some of the programs conducted by the major seminaries involve inter-

faith activities designed to promote better understanding between Jews andChristians.Y eshiva University combines a theological seminary and a school for

Jewish educators with a liberal arts college, a medical school, and othergraduate schools, including a social work school.

Fourteen national religious agencies received $24.7 million in 1967, com-pared with $23.3 million in 1966. T his excludes the E instein College ofM edicine of Y eshiva Un iversity which received a total of $ 40 million in 1967,compared with the 1966 total of $30.5 million.

L O C A L S E R V I C E S

Central communal sources (Jewish federations and Chest-United Funds)provided about $65 million for local Jewish services in 1967.

Jewish federations supplied about $44.4 million in 1967, compared with$42.9 million in 1966, to local Jewish services in the fields of health, familyand child care, refugee aid, Jewish centers, Jewish education, care of the aged,

vocational services, and community relations. Federations constituted themajor source of contributed income for local Jewish agencies. Other sourcesof funds (service fees, public funds and the like) exceeded contributions inmost fields of service.

N onsec tarian comm unity chests and United Fu nd s provided an additionalestimated $21 million in 1967, in most cases through Jewish federations, butin some cases directly to Jewish service agencies. 25 Of this sum, $14.4 millionwas received in the 14 largest cities in which over 75 per cent of the Jewish

population resides.Community chests generally restrict their support to agencies operating inthe fields of health, family and child care, care of the aged, and Jewishcenters. A substantial share of con tributed co mm unal income even in thesefields comes from Jewish federations, p articularly for health and care of theaged services; federations also have the exclusive responsibility for sectarian

25 Includes Greater New York Fund and NYC United Hospi ta l Fund.



JEW ISH COMMUNAL SERVICES / 149

activities in the fields of refugee care, Jewish education, and communityrelations.

T he budg ets of agen cies in different fields of service va ry widely—as dothe proportion of these budgets provided by Jewish federations and com-

munity chests, as reflected below in data for 1967 (except for centers, 1966):Provided by

Field of service

Hospitals'1

Jewish educationA ged careCenters (excl. camps)

Child careFamily serviceVocational services

Reportedreceipts

(in millions)*$427.0

75.055.737.2

17.214.17.3

Jewish federationsand com mun ity chests

(in millions)*$12.2

7.04.6

14.1

4.010.5

2.1

Per cent2.89.38.3

38.0

23.374.530.0

A vailable data for 125 com m unities, for 1967 and 1966, show how centralcommunal funds (federation and chest income) were distributed amongvarious fields of local service (see T able 5 ) . Fed eration s continu ed to p ro -vide rough ly three-fifths and com m un ity chests two-fifths of centra l com -munal funds received by local agencies in these communities, but these totalsinclude many fields of service and agencies which receive no chest support.In the fields where chest funds are available there was approximate parity,in the aggregate, in federation and ch est levels of financing. T he c om binedrise in funds in 1967 was 4 per cent.

Rises from 6 to 10 pe r cent in 1967 in central comm unity grants w ereexperienced in the fields of Jewish education, recreation, and family andchild care. Hospital grants fell by 6 per cent and refugee care costs by 19per cent.

T he major sources of funds for local service agencies, oth er tha n central

funds, are paym ents for service by users and pu blic tax funds. T hese sourcesof funds have risen to a greater extent than community funds. Such com-munal grants accounted for 2.6 per cent of receipts of hospitals in 1967, 8.3per cent for care of the aged and for Jewish education, 23.3 per cent forchild care, 38 per cent for centers, 74.5 per cent for family services and closeto 100 per cent for refugee aid and local community-relations programs.

A n analysis of allocations for local services by 89 com m unities over afive-year span (1 96 3- 19 6 7) indicates significant chan ges:

Both chest and Federation grants rose, by 21 and 17 per cent, respectively.T he federation share of allocations was stabilized at abo ut 60 per cen t d uringthis period.

* These data are largely on a receipts rather than on allocations basis, including minor non-federated chest-supported agencies, but reflecting some minor gaps in reporting and variations infisca l periods. Hence there are small variations with data on other bases elsewhere in thisreport.

b Exclusive of about $33 million in research funds, mainly from governmental sources.




T he sharpest rises in allocations since 1963 we re for Jew ish educa tion(33 per cent), centers, employment services, family services and child care(20 to 27 per cent), care of the aged and community-relations services (16to 19 per ce n t) . A llocations for refugee ca re fell by 15 per ce nt. Ho spital

allocations fell by 4 per cent.A similar analysis for a full d ecad e indicates that chest g rants rose by 39

per cent since 19 58, wh ile federation gran ts rose by 43 per cent. T he sharpestrises in the decade 1958-1967 were for Jewish education, 73 per cent; cen-ters, 63 per cent; care of the aged, 58 per cent; employment services, 51 percent; family and child care services, 48 per cent; and local community rela-tions, 37 pe r cent. A llocations for refugee care fell by 31 per cen t.

HealthMost local Jewish hospitals are in the largest centers of Jewish population.

Fifteen of the 16 cities with more than 40,000 Jewish population in theUnited States and Canada have local Jewish hospitals;2 6 in the 15,000 to40,000 population group, eight out of 16 cities have local Jewish hospitals,with only three hosp itals in smaller cities. A s a result of this con centration ofhealth services in the largest centers of Jewish population, local health alloca-tions averaged abo ut 21 per cent of total com bined allocations (federations

plus United Funds) in the group of cities with population over 40,000,excluding N ew Y ork City ( a decline from 28 per cent in 19 62 ), as con-trasted with 8 per cent for the 15,000 to 40,000 population group, and lessthan two per cent for other smaller cities.

T her e were reports on 22,635 beds and bassinets in 63 general and specialhospitals in 1967 under local Jewish sponsorship. Federations and chestsprovided $12.2 million for 58 of these hospitals in 1967.

A total of 6.6 million da ys' care was provided in 1967 by 63 local (generaland special) Jewish hospitals.

"T hird P arty " paym ents for service (Blue Cross, tax sup por t) have bornethe major share of increases in recent years, while central grants from federa-tions have been rising moderately in some communities and declining inothe rs. T og ethe r with chest gran ts, federation allocations ac coun ted for lessthan 3 per cent of operating receipts in 1967. Payments for hospital service(individual patient fees and Blue Cross insurance) and tax support in 1967rose to $396 million in 58 hospitals, or about 89 per cent of operatingreceipts. T he sharpest rise was in government paym ents, which doubled in

1967 and accounted for over $126 million of the total of $396 million inservice payments.

The exception is Washington, D.C.




Fam ily and Child Care

Family service agencies provide personal and family counseling, family-life education, psychiatric services, and limited economic aid. An increasing

number of agencies provide homemaker services in relation to illness ofparents or care of the aged in their own homes, and group treatment wherethis is indicated as potentially helpful. A ctivities of family-service agenciesare frequently conducted jointly with child-care programs andwith refugeeservices. Specialized Jewish casework agencies exist in most cities with aJewish population of over 5,000. As in the case of health programs, mostservices areprovided on a local level, although there are several regionalprograms.

In 1967, reports from 76 family agencies showed on their rolls a total of

79,458 open cases served directly, with about 55,000 cases closed duringthe year, an d amonthly average active caseload of over 19,000 families.

A total of 7,975 children were under care during 1967 in 40 child careagencies for which data were available. A bou t 25 per cent of 4,523 childrenunder care at the end of the year were in foster homes and31 per cent inresidential centers, with most of the remainder living at home or withrelatives.

Central communal allocations by federations and community chests for

family and child-care services rose by 6per cent in 1967. Such central alloca-tions continued to account for about 73 percent of total receipts of familyagencies (including refugee service). Central allocations were 22 per centof the receipts ofchild-care agencies, with an additional 51 per cent providedby public tax funds.

Refugees

These services in communities are financed locally, although they may be

considered as extensions of an overseas problem. Post-war immigration tothe United States began involume late in 1946, reached its peak in 1949,and has declined since then, except for brief upturn s. T here was a paralleldecline in local refugee costs for most of these years. While refugee costsaccounted for 2.8 percent of local allocations in 1958, they accounted foronly 1.4 per cent in 1967.

Because over half of the immigrants tend to settle inN ew Y ork City , thelargest share of refugee costs is borne by the N ew Y ork A ssociation for N ew

A m ericans (N Y A N A ) , financed by the national United Jewish A ppeal.In metropolitan NewY o rk , it is the specialized refugee service agency.United Hias Service seeks to encourage resettlement in other communities,where prospects for adjustment and self-support may bebetter than in N ewY ork City.

When immigrants arrive in these cities, economic aid and counseling isprovided through local refugee programs, generally administered by the




The impact of Medicare on homes for theaged was centered on a smallnumber of such institutions certified as hospitals under Medicare. Themajority of homes for the aged were affected by Medicare mainly to theextent that they could be used for limited period service to patients transferred

from hospitals when medical treatm ent was no longer required. T he impact ofMedicaid has varied greatly from state to state because of slowness inintroducing adequate levels of aid.

Receipts of about $56 million were reported for 1967 by 69 of the homes.Payments for service accounted for $48.1 million, including public funds.Federation and chest support was reported at $4.6 million. T her e were 14homes which received suppo rt from neither sou rce.

Jewish EducationThe estimated gross enrollment of students in 1966-67 was 540.000.2 7

Ofthese, 43 per cent were attending one-day-a-week schools, 43 per cent wereattending two to five-day-a-week schools, and almost 14 per cent were inall-day schools. A bou t 9 2 per cent of them were in schools under congrega-tional auspices; communal schools account for 5 per cent of enrollment.

Over 90 per cent of children of elementary-school age attend Jewishschools (with N ew Y ork City and Los A ngeles below the av erag e), but only

16 per cent of children of secondary-school age attended Jewish schools.A n ear lie r A A JE N ational S tudy of Jewish E duca tion, issued in 1959,

arrived at an estimated cost of "over $60million" in 1958 for 553,600pupils. A lthough this total was slightly above present estimates, this wasoffset by subsequent decline of one-day-a-week schools and the growth ofmore costly, more intensive programs.

T he consumer p rice index rose by about 23 per cent from 1958 to theend of 1968. Hence, the cost of Jewish education since 1958 may have

risen by asmuch as $15 million. An estimate of "about $75 million" is ofthe grossest type, and is advanced only in the absence of more reliable data.

T he major sources of support of pie-bar mizvah education are congrega-tional and parental. Financing of Jewish education is inseparable from con-gregational financing because of joint housing, joint staffing and the pivotalrole played by bar mizvah preparation in Jewish education. Variations inscales of tuition fees are frequently dependent onvariations inprovision forJewish education from congregational m em bership dues. T he extent of thesevariations in congregational dues, in tuition scales, in allowances towardtuition from congregational dues, and the inseparability of congregational andeducational costs have heretofore accounted for the absence of meaningfuldata on financing Jewish education u nd er co ngregational auspices. T aken as

a whole, however, it is largely self-supporting. "Scholarship" arrangements

" National Census of Jewish Schools conducted by American Association for Jewish Educa-tion (AAJE).




are made by both congregational and communal schools to avoid barringstudents from low income homes.

Jewish federations provide $7.0 million annually for Jewish education.T he total budgets of the supported agencies are not repo rted, 2 8 and data are

not available on the shares of funds provided through congregations, with92 per cent of enrollm ent unde r such auspices. A llocations to local Jewishschools and to bureaus of Jewish education, reported by Jewish federations,were about $6.2 million outside N ew Y ork City in 1967. T hey rose by tenper cent in 1967. A gradu al, steady increase in allocations to Jewish educa -tion has occurred each year. T hey were 33 per cent higher in 1967 than theyhad been in 1963, and 73 per cent higher than they had been in 1958. Pay-ments by parents, either direct or through membership fees to congregations,

provided the major source of income for primary education.However, federations provided substantial shares of income for post-tarmizvah education, for teacher training and for the coordination and commonservice functions performed by bureaus of Jewish education.

Fed eration grants of $6.2 million in 1967 outside N ew Y ork City forJewish education w ere 24 per cent of total local allocations from federationsources. Community chests do not provide funds for Jewish education.

T he C JF W F Comm ittee on Federation Planning for Jewish E ducationdeveloped a "guidelines statement," with particular emphasis on the need toupgrade teaching manpower and post-elementary education.

Community Relations

Organized programs designed to improve intergroup relations and to dealwith specific instances of antisemitism exist primarily in the large and inter-m ediate comm unities. T he local activities, financed by federations, receivedabou t $1.1 million in 1967 (outside N ew Y ork C ity, which is served mainlyby national agencies)—a rise of 16 per cent since the start of 1963 (a riseof 37 per cent since the start of 1958). Local allocations in 1967 remainedvirtually unchanged in the aggregate.

In some areas, local and regional community-relations programs arefinanced by national agencies (m ainly the B'nai B'rith A nti-Defam ationLe agu e) as par t of a nation al network of regional offices.

Employment and Vocational Services

T hese program s are designed to assist Jews in finding employm ent andto guide Jewish youth and others in the selection of trades and professions.

28 N ote that it wou ld be inaccu rate to comp are the federation total of $7 m illion in alloca-tions to the total of "abo ut $75 m illion" for all costs of Jewish education (9 per ce nt ), sincemost congregational schools do not seek federation su ppo rt. N or would it be a ccurate to relatethis to federation support of hospitals: $12.2 million in allocations toward $427 million inreceipts (2.8 per cent). It is coincidental that the percentage of total Jewish educational costsbome by federation (7 pe r cent) is almost iden tical with the percen tage of enrollmen t, whichis not under congregational auspices (8 per cent).




Jewish vocational agencies or departments of Jewish family services operatemainly in the larger cities. Federations provided about $2.3 million in 1967(including N ew Y ork C ity ) . Substantia l and growing supplementary incomewas received in recent years from government sources and service payments.

A bout $5.2 million in annual noncontributed income was identified by theJewish Occupational Council. A complementary program is provided by anetwork of vocational-service bureaus, financed by the B'nai B'rith N ationalY outh Service A ppeal at a cost of over $0.4 million in 1967.

Local allocations for vocational programs increased by 3.5 per cent in1967 outside N ew Y ork C ity. T he gain since thestart of 1963 was 20 percent.

Changes in Financing Since 1958

T he major changes which took place in federation andchest support oflocal Jewish services in the ten-year period 1958-1967 are briefly noted.Only refugee costs fell, by $0.3 million . T he m ajor rises w ere fo r:

• Recreation services, abo ut $4.4 million.• Fam ily and child-care services, over $3.2 million.• Jewish education, almost $2.6 million.• Care of the aged, abou t $1.3 million.

• Ho spitals, less th an $0 .1 m illion.• E m ploym ent and vocation al service, almost $0.5 million.• Local com m unity relations, almost $0.3 million.Of total rises of about $12.4 million since 1958, chests provided about

$4.8 million; the balance of $7.6 million was provided by federations.A lmost three-q uarters of the rises ($9 million) were in fields generally

eligible for chest support. T he rise in chest support ($4.8 million) in thesefields was supplemented by federations for the difference ($4.2 million), andthe balance of the federation rise in support ($3.4 million) went to fieldsreceiving federation support exclusively—mainly Jewish education, which re-ceived $2.6 of this total of $3.4 million of federation support to fields ofservice receiving no chest support.

With a rise in the price level in this decade of about 15 per cent, theconstant value of the dollar support provided to hospitals and refugee caredecreased sharply, while the increases in the other fields of service wouldneed to bedeflated in keeping with price level changes during 1958-1967.

S. P. G O L D B E R G



156 / AMERIC AN JE W ISH YEAR BOOK, 1969

TABLE 1. AMOUNTS RAISED IN CENTRAL JEWISH COMMUNITY CAMPAIGNS

1939-1968(Estimates in millions of dollars)

New York City

Year Total* NYUJA FJPNY Total Other Cities

1939 $ 28.4 $ 6.6 $ 6.0 $ 12.6 $ 15.8

1940 27.0 5.2 6.1 11.3 15.71941 28.2 5.0 6.4 11.4 16.8

1942 29.3 4.7 7.1 11.8 17.51943 35.0 7.0 6.6 13.6 21.4

1944 47.0 9.2 9.7 18.9 28.11945 57.3 12.6 9.8 22.4 34.9

1946 131.7 32.8 11.8 44.6 87.1

1947 157.8 38.2 13.2 51.4 106.41948 205.0 56.2 13.2 69.4 135.6

1949 161.0 41.9 12.1 54.0 107.0

1950 142.1 36.6 13.5 50.1 92.01951 136.0 34.6 13.6 48.2 87.8

1952 121.1 29.7 13.3 43.0 78.1

1953 117.2 28.2 13.5 41.7 75.5

1954 109.3 25.7 14.0 39.7 69.61955 110.6 25.7 15.3 41.0 69.6

1956 131.3 33.1 15.6 48.7 82.6

1957 139.0 33.9 15.2 49.1 89.91958 124.1 28.8 16.9 45.7 78.41959 130.7 30.0 17.2 47.2 83.5

1960 127.5 28.7 17.5 46.2 81.31961 126.0 28.4 17.7 46.1 79.9

1962 129.4 27.9 17.3 45.2 84.21963 124.7 26.2 17.6 43.8 80.9

1964 126.7 25.6 18.7 44.3 82.41965 132.6 26.9 19.4 46.3 86.3

1966 137.3 27.0 19.8 46.8 90.5

1967 Regular . . . . 145.7 29.2 22.0 51.2 94.5

Emergency* 175.0 48.0 — 48.0 127.0

1968 Regular . . . . 153.3 30.1 22.5 52.6 100.7

Emergency* 85.0 21.0 — 21.0 64.0

T O T A L :

1939-1968 $3,632.3 $844.7 $422.6 $1,267.3 $2,365.0

» Total pledges exclude amounts raised annually in smaller cities having no welfare funds,but include substantial multiple-city gifts which are duplications as between New York Cityand the remainder of the country. Estimates for some prior years were adjusted by NYUJA in

1967 to secure greater year-to-year comparability. Excludes capital fund campaigns of the Fed-eration of Jewish Philanthropies of New York: S3 million in 1943, $13.5 million in 1945, and$16.5 million in 1949, and about $181 million in 1961—68, including government grants,other non-campaign income and endowment funds of beneficiary agencies. Also excludes mostendowment funds and major capital fund raising by federations for local agencies outside NewYork City.

0Provisional estimates. Excludes Israel Education Fund of UJA, with pledges of about

$25.3 million in 1965-68. Total for both regular and IEF campaigns in 1967 was $321 million,and $238 million in 1968. Subject to some adjustment for inter-city duplications. Includes someallowances by UJA for subsequent shrinkage.




T A B L E 1-A. ESTIMATED ANNU AL LEV EL OF INCOME IN 1 9 6 7 OF JEWISH

COMMUNAL SERVICES IN U.S.

(In millions of dollars)

1. Welfare Fund Contributions (excluding capital funds) $ 145.7Plus: Israel Emergency Fund of UJA 175.0

2. Grants by United Funds and Community Chests 21.0

3. Other Contributions toN ational and Overseas A gencies(including capital funds) 95.8d

4. Other Income ofN ational and Overseas A gencies 90.35. Hospital Income Including Research Funds (excluding 1 and 2) 448.0c

6. Family Service Income (excluding 1 and 2) 3.67. Child Care Income (excluding 1 and 2) 13.28. Jewish Vocational Service (excluding 1 and 2) 5.2«9. A ged Care Income (excluding 1 and 2) 51.1

10. Center Income (excluding 1 and 2) » 23.111. Jewish E ducation Income (excluding 1) b 68.0

$1,140.0

[This excludes mainly endowment income in most communities; localcapital fund campaigns, and internal congregational operating expenses.]

• JWB Y earbook, T able 13, Volume XVII, 196 8.b A pproximate; based on revision of estimate in N ational Study of Jewish E ducation, less

welfare fund allocations. See text.c Understated; excludes some non-reporting hospitals and local vocational services.d Of this sum, about two-thirds are for operating funds, and the balance for restricted and

capital funds, including $2.2 million for Israel E ducation Fu nd .



1 58 / A M E R I C A N JEWISH YEAR B O O K , 1 9 6 9

T A B L E 2 . STATE OF ISRAEL BONDS, 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 6 8

(In thousands of dollars)

Total

C a s h S a l e s S a l e s i n S a l e s

Y e a r I n c l . C o n v e r s i o n s * U n i t e d S t a t e s A b r o a d

1 9 5 1 ( M a y 1-Dec. 3 1 ) $ 5 2 , 6 4 7 $ 5 2 , 5 0 6 $ 1411952 4 7 , 5 2 1 4 6 , 5 1 6 1,0051 9 5 3 3 6 , 8 6 1 3 1 , 5 5 1 5,3101 9 5 4 4 0 , 4 0 6 3 4 , 36 1 6,045

1 9 5 5 4 3 , 5 0 7 3 6 , 68 1 6,826

1 9 5 6 5 4 , 5 25 4 5 , 6 9 9 8,826

1 9 5 7 4 9 , 8 5 4 4 0 , 6 9 6 9,1581 9 5 8 4 6 , 5 4 1 3 7 , 7 6 3 8,778

1 9 5 9 5 2 ,2 6 5 4 2 , 6 2 8 9,637

1 9 6 0 5 1 , 9 65 4 1 , 3 9 0 1 0, 57 5

1 9 6 1 5 7 , 4 0 5 4 5 , 2 8 7 1 2 ,1 1 81 9 6 2 5 8 , 1 2 5 4 6 , 3 9 6 1 1 , 72 9

1 9 6 3 * 6 9 , 2 2 1 5 5 , 5 0 0 1 3 , 7 2 1

1 9 6 4 8 5 , 4 6 0 7 0 , 3 5 6 1 5 ,1 0 4

1 9 6 5 9 1 , 5 6 4 7 6 , 6 5 6 1 4 ,9 0 8

1 9 6 6 9 1 , 1 5 0 7 6 , 1 7 6 1 4 , 9 7 4

1 9 6 7 2 1 7 , 5 4 7 1 8 9 ,9 6 7 2 7 , 5 8 0

1 9 6 8 1 3 0 , 4 9 5 1 0 7 , 0 1 9 2 3 , 4 7 6

T O T A L $ 1 , 2 77 , 0 5 9 $ 1 , 0 7 7, 1 4 8 $ 1 9 9 , 9 1 1

• Rede mp tion of bonds issued in earlier years bega n to fall due beginn ing May 1, 1 96 3. A sa result of redemption at maturity, for investment, for tourism, and for payment of philanthropiopledges and the like, outstanding bonds held by the public at the end of N ovember 1968 hadbeen reduced to $729 million. Redemptions included about $220 million at maturity; about$108 million for conversion for investment purposes; and about $88 million in payment ofpledges and allocations, received by UJA from 1952 through 19 68 .

b E xcludes conversions of $2 4.8 million of earlier issues to Developm ent In vestm ent Issue.Data for 1968 exclude conversions of $37.0 million.




TABLE 3. DISTRIBUTION TO BENEFICIARIES OF FUNDS RAISED (EXCLUDING ISRAEL

EMERGENCY FUND*) BY JEWISH FEDERATIONS*

(Estimates in thousands of dollars)

T O T A L A M O U N T Total New York Cityb Other Cities

BUDGETED TO 1967 1966 1967 1966 1967 1966

BENEFICIARIES (c a) $115,859 $111,618 $35,630 $34,037 $80,229 $77,581

Per Cent 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Overseas Agencies . . . . 66,281 63,516 18,805 17,727 47,476 45,789

PerCent 57.2 56.9 52.8 52.1 59.2 59.0

United Jewish Appeal 63,273 60,582 18,375 17,300 44,898 43,282

PerCent 54.6 54.3 51.6 50.8 56.0 55.8

Other Overseas 3,008 2,934 430 427 2,578 2,507

Per Cent 2.6 2.6 1.2 1.3 3.2 3.2

National Agencies . . . . 4,661 4,578 400 391 4,261 4,187

PerCent 4.0 4.1 1.1 1.1 5.3 5.4

Community Relations 2,528 2,479 — — 2,528 2,479

Per Cent 2.2 2.2 — — 3.2 3.2

Health and Welfare . . 26 36 — — 26 36

PerCent * * — — f f

Cultural 513 491 — — 513 491

Per Cent 0.4 0.4 — — 0.6 0.6

Religious 265 277 — — 265 277

Per Cent 0.2 0.2 — — 0.3 0.4

Service Agencies 1,329 1,294 400 391 929 903

PerCent 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2

Local Operating Needs 42,655 41,216 16,425 15,919 26,230 25,297

PerCent 36.8 36.9 46.1 46.8 32.7 32.6

Local Refugee Care* . . 701 875 — — 701 875

PerCent 0.6 0.8 — — 0.9 1.1

Local Capital Needs . . 1,557 1,425 — — 1,557 1,425

PerCent 1.3 1.3 — — 1.9 1.8

• For gross estimates of pledges seeTable 1. Net amounts comparable to data in this tablewill be available after actual shrinkage and collections are determined by experience. By early1969 about $170 million of the 1967 Israel Emergency Fund hadbeen collected in relation topledges of about $175 million.

aBased upon communities which are currently CJFWF members and some smaller cities

which are notCJFWF members, but which hadbeen included in the base group of communi-ties used in 1948when this statistical series was started. Minor differences in amounts andpercentages due torounding. Community chest support excluded from this table but included inTables 5, 6.

bFigures for New York include the United Jewish Appeal (UJA) of Greater New York and

Federation of Jewish Philanthropies. Local refugee costs inNew York City areborne byNYANA,

a direct beneficiary of the UJAnationally. Most overseas and domestic agencies which arenormally included in welfare funds in other cities conduct their owncampaigns in NewYork.The New York UJAincluded the following beneficiaries (in addition to the National UJA):United Hias Service and National Jewish Welfare Board (JWB). Data for New York UJAbased on estimates of distribution of 1967 and 1966 campaign proceeds, regardless of year inwhich cash was received.

cThe difference between this amount and "total raised" in Table 1 represents mainly

"shrinkage" allowance for non-payment of pledges, campaign, and administrative expenses,elimination of duplicating multiple-city gifts, and contingency orother reserves.

dIncludes small undistributed amounts in "total" and "other cities" columns.

• NYANA is included in UJA totals.1

Less than .05 of one per cent.



1 60 / A M E R I C A N J E W I S H Y E A R B O O K , 1 9 6 9

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TABLE 4. ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF FEDERATION AND CHEST ALLOCATIONS

TO LOCAL SERVICES IN 1966 AND 1967

(In millions of dollars)

Fields Receiving Chest Support Total New York City Other Cities

1966 1967 1966 1967 1966 1967Centers, Camps, Youth

Services $15.7 $16.9 $4.2 $4.5 $11.5 $12.4

Family and Child Care 14.9 15.8 5.1 5.4 9.8 10.4Hospitals and Health 12.8 12.0 5.2 4.8 7.6 7.2Aged 4.8 4.6 1.2 1.0 3.6 3.6

SUB-TOTAL $48.2 $49.3 $15.7 $15.7 $32.5 $33.6

Less: Provided byChests

(exclusive of adminis-

tration) $18.7 $19.6 $ 2.0 $ 2.0 $16.7 $17.7

Provided byFederations $29.5 $29.7 $13.7 $13.7 $15.8 $15.9

Chest to Federation forLocal Administration $ 0.9 $ 0.9 $ 0.4 $ 0.4 $ 0.5 $ 0.5

Fields Receiving Only Federation Support

Employment Services

(incl. Free Loans) $ 2.2 $ 2.3 $ 0.7 $ 0.8 $ 1.5 $ 1.5Jewish Education 6.5 7.0 0.8 0.8 5.7 6.2Refugee Aid 0.8 0.6 a a 0.8 0.6Community Relations 1.1 1.1 •> t > 1 . 1 1 . 1

Local Capital 1.4 1.6 « c 1.4 1.6Other 1.4 2.1 0.8 1.4 0.6 0.7

SUB-TOTAL.... $13.4 $14.7 $2.3 $3 .0 $11.1 $11.7

T O T A L $62.5 $64.9 $18.4 $19.1 $44.1 $45.8

Provided by Federations $42.9 $44.4 $16.0 $16.8 $26.9 $27.6

Provided by Chests . . . 19.6 20.5 2.4 2.3 17.2 18.2

T O T A L $62.5 $64.9 $18.4 $19.1 $44.1 $45.8

• About $0.7million provided annually by NYANA, financed by UJA.bProvided mainly by national agencies.

eMost capital campaigns areexcluded because they areconducted apart from annual cam-

paigns; chest funds innon-federated cities are also excluded.d

Includes in N.Y.C. grants by Greater NewYork Fund and United Hospital Fund tofederated agencies. In addition, nonfederated agencies receive about $0.5 million annually.



1 6 2 / A M E R I C A N J E W I S H Y E A R BOOK, 1 9 6 9

TABLE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF FEDERATION ALLOCATIONS8, INCLUDING CHEST

FUNDS, FOR LOCAL SERVICES IN 125 COMMUNITIES, 1966, 1967

(Excludes New York City)

1966 1967Per Per Per Cent

Amount Cent Amount Cent Change

Health $ 7,620,898 17.9 $ 7,155,368 16.1 — 6.1

Family, Child Service . . 9,793,151 23.0 10,386,428 23.4 + 6.1Centers, Camps, Youth

Services 11,463,136 26.9 12,447,993 28.1 + 8.6Aged Care 3,650,926 8.6 3,650,089 8.2 »>E m p l o y m e n t and

Guidance 1,475,958 3.4 1,527,581 3.4 +3 .5Jewish Education 5,653,758 13.3 6,238,205 14.1 +10.3Refugee Care 770,911 1.8 624,737 1.4 —19.0Community Relations . . 1,113,893 2.6 1,118,919 2.5 +0.5Other 561,482 1.3 633,473 1.4 +12.8

Chest to Federation forLocal Administration 498,555 1.2 543,256 1.2 + 9.0

TOTAL $42,602,668 100.0 $44,326,049 100.0 + 4.0

Sources of Income

Federations $25,450,567 59.7 $26,104,600 58.9 + 2.6Chests 17,152,101 40.3 18,221,449 41.1 + 6.2

aIncludes chest allocations for administration of local services which are part of total ad-

ministrative and fund-raising costs ($11,774,164 in 1966 and $12,472,413 in 1967) reported

for these 125 cities. Federation allocations for administration of local services are not shown inthis table because administrative and fund-raising costs cannot be segregated between localandnonlocal programs.

bLess than .05 of one per cent.




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168 / A M E R I C A N J E W I S H Y E A R B O O K , 1 9 6 9

T A B L E 6 - C . DISTRIBUTION OF FEDERA T ION ALLOCATIONS8 FOR LOCAL SERVICES

IN 92 COMM UN IT IE S, 1958, 1967

(.Amounts in thousands of dollars)Index

1958 1967 of ChangePer Per 1958,1967

Am ount Cent Amount Cent 1958=100%

Health $ 7,064 23.5 $ 7,151 16.9 101.2Family and Child Services 6,704 22.3 9,950 23.5 148.4Centers, Camps, Y outh

Services 7,035 23.4 11,449 27.0 162.7A ged Care 2,203 7.3 3,481 8.2 158.0E mployment and Guidance 1,007 3.4 1,526 3.6 151.5Jewish E ducation 3,535 11.8 6,125 14.4 173.3Refugee Care 836 2.8 573 1.4 68.5

Comm unity Relations 742 2.5 1,020 2.4 137.5Other 499 1.7 578 1.4 115.8Chest to Fed . Local

A dministration!" 409 1.4 543 1.3 132.8

TOTALS $30,033 100.0 $42,396 100.0 141.2

Sources of Income

Federations $17,514 58.3 $25,010 59.0 142.8

Chests 12,519 41.7 17,386 41.0 138.9• Includes both federation and com munity chest funds; excludes N ew Y ork City.b A dm inistrative costs of federations are not segregated be tween local an d nonlo cal programs.c Slight difference due to rounding.



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T he Rediscovered Po lity: Selections from the

Literature of Jewish Pub lic A ffairs, 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 6 8

J UN E 1967 marked a watershed in contemporary Jewish publicaffairs *—the climax of a generation, the sealing of an era, and theculmination of a 1,900-year cycle. T he historical generation, whichbegan with the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, reached its climaxin the liberation of Jerusalem after 1,900 years of foreign rule . T he

six-day war united the members of the generation that witnessed thefounding of the state with those of a new generation, one that grew upaccepting the existence of Israel as a matter of fact, only to encountersuddenly the harsh possibility of its destruction, making both generationsdeeply aware of the shared fate of all Jews, and of the way that fate isnow bound up with the political entity that is the State of Israel.

T he events of May and Jun e also sealed the conclusion of the modernera that began just over three centuries earlier. In Jewish terms, thehallmark of that era was emancipation, the rejection of the idea that theJewish people had a corporate existence of its own, and the abandon-ment of diaspora Jewry's limited control over its own destiny through itsautonomous communal structure. But the shattering of the formal bondsuniting Jews could not change the reality of Jewish peop lehood. T heresurgence of Jewish political life, that began with the rise of Zionism atthe end of the 19th century and expanded when the Holocaust re-

awakened the sense of community among Jews, culminated in theestablishment of an independent Jewish state. It took a new turn withthe six-day war, which reunited Israel and the diaspora communities(themselves just emerging from a period of reconstitution after WorldWar II) within a commonwealth, no less real for its lack of properstructure and its very special character.

T he 19 67 - 19 68 literature of Jewish public affairs ** reflects the cross-

ing of this watershed; its most recent products already deal with the

* For a definition and discussion of Jewish public affairs, see the author's reviewarticle, "T he Pursuit of Com munity: Selections from the Literature of JewishPublic A ffairs, 1965- 66," American Jewish Year Book, 1967 (Vol. 68), pp. 178-221.

* * Full bibliographical notations of the books and articles mentioned here will befound in a separate section at the end of this paper.

172



THE REDISCOVERED POLITY / 173

changes wrought by the war. N ot the least of the em erging concerns is theredefinition of the psychological and institutional ties binding Jews into a

polity of a unique sort, one formed and sustained byconsent alone (or,

in other terms, by voluntary reaffirmation of the covenant) within anobjective framework that encourages such consent bymaking the Jewsa distinctive group, with a common interest in the survival of all of its

parts.

T he 1967 crisis brou ght this feeling of consensus to a peak. EvenJews farthest removed from Jewish associations "instinctively" realizedhow crucial the survival of Israel was to their own welfare as individuals.A s one rather casual Jew put it, "itwas not only a matter of identifying

as Jews, but of being Jews."

For those with more permanent Jewish associations, being Jewish no

longer was merely a sociological or psychological question; it was a

political one as well, giving rise to thoughts of the Jewish people as a

polity, that had long lain dormant in the "emancipated" West. (MiltonHimmelfarb points out some of the implications of this, in his usualtrenchant manner, in his Commentary article, "In theLight of Israel's

Victory." *) Hence a survey of the literature of Jewish public affairs,196 7- 196 8, properly begins with a consideration of the political writingson the six-day war.

SIX-DAY WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH

The literature of the war, the crisis that preceded it, and its aftermath, is

already voluminous. T he num ber of battle reports in the first year alone

places it among history's better chronicled wars; the number of com-munity relations manuals that followed is equally impressive. Here we

are only concerned with this period in its political aspects, howeverbroadly construed. T his political literature has several faces: polemics,analyses of immediate issues for immediate consideration, and examina-tions of the events in the larger context of Jewish and world affairs. The

three categories are not always distinct ones, nor are the published items

always easily placed within them. For example, General Samuel L. A.Marshall's Swift Sword, a book chronicling themilitary campaign and

written with maximum speed, is also a contribution tothe understanding

* Other good sources documenting this phenomenon among the young are Winter1967 issue of Campus: A Hillel Newsletter, and Jack Luria, "A s theY oung SawIt."




of Jewish society because of its author's deep insight. T he append ix tothe book, describing the mode of operation of the Israeli army, is im-portant because it shows the way the Israeli military system is based on

the particularly Jewish use of individual responsibility and voluntaryconsent to obtain maximum effort in the achievement of common pur-poses. Similarly, Yael Dayan's Israel Journal: June 1967, a differentkind of battle report, raises important questions about Israel's emergingpolitical culture in light of its young people's constant exposure to war,or threat of war.

Most of the relevant material is more obviously so than the aboveitems. Commentary quickly provided four probing articles on the war asa political phenom enon : T heodore Draper writes on "Israel and W orldPolitics," W alter Laqueur examines "Israel and the A rab s," and A rthurHertzberg deals with "Israel and A merican Jew ry," while A mos Elonoffers "Is rae l: Le tter from the Sinai Fro nt ." T hese a rticles, in effect,define the major aspects of the war's political impact and, incidentally,serve to demonstrate the peculiarly important role of the Jewish peopleon the world scene. Special issues, or sections, of Midstream, Near East

Report, The Wiener Library Bulletin, Orbis, Encounter, and NewPolitics, as well as intensive coverage in Atlas and the summaries ofpublic reaction in Patterns of Prejudice provide much information andanalysis in the first and second categories that add to the understandingof the political impact of the war and this peculiar importance of theJewish people.

The Middle East in the Contemporary World, the proceedings of the

first annual conference of the A merican Professors for P eace in theMiddle E ast, is just as clearly in the second category. It is an attem pt byan organization of academics, established in the heat of the crisis, toexamine Israel's security problem in the light of the world situation.A lso , in the second category is the detailed, primarily politically orientedreview of the war and the preceding crisis in a special section of th e 1968A M E R IC A N JE W IS H Y E A R BOOK , emphasizing Israeli and diaspora, Jew-ish and non-Jewish perspectives. David Kimche and Dan Bawly con-tribute The Sandstorm: The Arab-Israel War of June 1967; Prelude and

Aftermath, perhaps the best book in the second category. In the samecategory is James P. W arburg's Crosscurrents in the Middle East. WalterLaqueur's very serious study, The Road to Jerusalem: The Origins of the

Arab-Israeli Conflict—1967 sees the war as ending the "Zionist" phaseof Israel's statehood. T he great task of the restoration of the peop le to



T H E R E D I S C O V E R E D P O L I T Y / 175

its land accomplished, Israel, in Laqueur's view, is entering a period ofconsolidation and "normalization," one of establishing more institu-tionalized relationships with the world around it.

A mos Perlm utter's article, "Sources of Instability in the Middle E as t,"delineates the sources of A ra b oppo sition to Israel and the W est as"colonialist" pow ers. It is a useful com panion to Ro bert A lter's "R heto ricand the A rab M ind," a discussion of the very real nature of the A rabpsychosis regarding Israel, based on a study by Y ehoshafat Harka bi, theformer Israeli chief of intelligence ("Basic Fac tors in the A rab CollapseDuring the Six Day W a r " ) . Samuel Decalo's "Israeli Foreign Policy an dthe T hird World " is a scholarly trea tm en t of a major aspect of the first

of the facets, the extent to which Israel's efforts in A sia and A frica bo refruit after the war.

Maurice Samuel's Light on Israel places the war in the larger perspec-tive of Jewish and Zionist history. Sam uel's article, "T he Shock of Self-

Identification," looks at the massive Jewish response to the war fromthe perspective of a Jew who did not need the events of June to achieveself-recognition.

T he hostility of the old Left toward Israel is matched by tha t of th eN ew Left. T he Jews in the ranks of the N ew Left seem to be reliving afamiliar syndrome, which encourages hatred of Israel as a reflex of theirown Jewish self-hatred. M . S. A rnon i, a serious m an of the Left—

neither "old" nor "new"—deals with the immediate responses of theLeft to Israel in "T he A m erican Left and the Middle E ast," pointing outthe inconsistencies of its position. A rno ni also presents the case for Israe l,

from the perspective of the Left, in his book, Rights and Wrongs in theArab-Israeli Conflict. Its effectiveness among the young has been hailedin many quarters. A shorter statement by A rnoni, under the same title,appeared in his journal, Minority of One. Joseph N eyer's article " 'AState Like A ny O ther State'? " is perha ps the best reply, from a m oretraditional Zionist perspec tive, to N ew Left attack s on Is rael. It is fullof documented information demolishing the myths about Israel, theMiddle E ast, and the A rab refugees, that continue to dom inate world

thinking on the problem. In a somewhat similar vein, Ronald Sandersdiscusses "Israel and A m erican Y ou th" and R obe rt A lter deals with"Israel and the Intellectuals."

A mo ng the im portan t, if more conventional, statements of the pro -Jewish position on Israel is that of Frank Gervasi, a non-Jew, in The

Case for Israel, a very positive reaffirmation of Israel's legitimacy and a




negation of the threats against it. T erence Prittie's Israel: Miracle in the

Desert is an example of what has become a new genre—the sophisticatedtraveller's report on the Jewish state.

Stalemate

Since June 1967 the hardening stalemate has produced a rash ofarticles of varying quality. A mong the better ones are Joel Ma rcus, "T heLong Seventh D ay" ; Y ehuda A michai's "Letter from Jerusalem"; A lanDow ty's "N egotiations or W ar," and a panel discussion on "Prospectsfor Peace" by five Israelis, among them Y itzhak Ra bin and Y igaelY adin . Longer works dealing with the larger problem s of the war's after-

m ath include A ubrey Hodes's Dialogue with Ishmael: Israel's Future inthe Middle East and A rthur La ll's "unintentionally devastating" studyof The UN and the Middle East Crisis, 1967. E specially sensitive isShlomo A vineri 's "T he N ew Status Quo ."

Perhaps the best summary of the reasons for the stalemate that hadbecome fixed by the end of 1968 is The Arabs Need and Want Peace,

But—, the impressions and conclusions of a mission of A merican Profes-

sors for Peace in the M iddle E ast to Jordan and the United A rab R e-public from June 24 to July 5, 1968, where they interviewed membersof the government as well as nongovernmental people in positions ofinfluence for creating and molding public opinion. Members of the mis-sion were Professors A lbert B . Sabin, David S. Lan des, A llen Pollack,and Herbert S troup. A clear picture emerges of an A rab leadership thatbelieves its own myths and cannot conceive of entering into a reasonablesettlement with Israel.

In light of the 1967 events, Samuel Merlin exhaustively examines anearlier effort to seek a peaceful solution in The Search for Peace in the

Middle East, the story of T unisian P resident Hab ib Bourguiba's effortsto bring about negotiated peace between Israel and the A rab states.

Israel's relations with the A rabs in the administered territories arediscussed by A mos Elon in "T he Israeli O ccupation."

Jerusalem

One immediate consequence of the war was the restoration of Jeru-salem to physical and psychological, as well as religious and politicalprimacy in the Jewish world. A side from num erous flossy publicationson Jerusalem that appeared after the liberation of the city, there havebeen some serious efforts to examine its place in the Jewish and general




worlds. E . A . Bayne authored Jerusalem: Israel Capital as a backgroundreport for A merican Universities Field Staff. Hadassah Magazine's ex-ceptionally serious Jerusalem issue features articles by A braham J.Heschel and James A . M ichener, and othe rs. T he question of the futureof the non-Jewish holy places is discussed in Commonweal from a Jewishpoint of view in William Korey's "T he Holy Pla ces"; Sylvan M . Bermananalyzes the annexation of Jerusalem as a problem in international lawin "T erritorial A cquisition by Conquest in International L aw and th eUnification of Jerusalem," and concludes that Israel's action was justi-fied within tha t contex t. Pinchas E . Lap ide sees the reunification ofJerusalem as enhancing the possibilities for Jewish-Christian dialogue

(p . 178) in "Ecumenism in Jerusalem."

In Israel

A very sensitive account of the situation in Israel before the war, w itha postscript on the war's impact, is provided by H ugh N issenson in ajournal of his stay in a kibbutz near what once was the Syrian border,Notes From the Frontier. More personal than political in tone and

purpose, it is doubly effective in portraying how private life in Israel isinextricably bound up with public life in the continuing crisis of Israeliexistence. Perhaps even more sensitive and revealing here, because oftheir source, are the views of Israel's soldiers, some of which are nowavailable in E nglish. "Israel's Soldiers T alk" excerpts a very movingdiscussion by young kibbutz war veterans of "justice and power" in lightof the war, which struck a very deep chord with the larger Israeli public.M ission Survival: The Peop le of Israel's Story in Their Own Words,

edited by Ruth Bondy, Ohad Zmora, and Raphael Bashan, is a massivesampling of Israeli attitudes.

T he six-day war led Israelis, as well as diaspora Jews, to discover theiressential Jewishness and their primary connections with the Jewishpeople. Moshe Dayan, the very embodiment of the new Israeli, ex-pressed this new sense of Jewish unity in very traditional ways, as sum-marized in "Moshe Dayan on Peace and War—An Interview." Ruth

Gruber, in Israel on the Seventh Day, speaks of the demonstration ofnational unity within Israel, one of the most positive consequences of thewar. A shkenazim, Sephardim, and O riental Jews alike set aside as trivialthe differences that seemed to divide them, in their common will to de-fend their homeland.

Qu ite a different note was struck by Uri A vnery in bis book Israel




Without Zionists: A Plea for Peace in the Middle East. E ditor of asex-and- sensation Israeli weekly and mem ber of the Keneset, A vneryespouses an Israeli assimilationist position, often labeled "Canaanite,"that negates the legitimacy of the existence of the Jews as a people fromwha t he calls a "new " perspective. A ctually, it is based on the sameold tendency toward national self-denial he has been espousing for adecade or more.

In the war's aftermath, sober questions were raised, especially regard-ing the need to renew the flow of Jewish settlers to Israel. Professor E liGinzberg, one of the A merican Jews called by the Israeli government tosurvey the situation after the war, submitted a report on manpower

utilization to the Israel Ministry of Labor. A n ex tract of the reportappears under the title, "A liyah: Israel's M anpower Problem ." Indeed,manpower, the Jews' perennial problem, is a number one public issue inIsrael; even the most valorous army needs men to replenish its losses.Aliyah therefore has become the topic of many articles, popular andanalytical, and has earned top billing on the agenda of such diverse or-ganizations as Hadassah and the Council of Jewish Federations and

Welfare Fu nd s. T he Israeli view of the problem appears in Midstream,und er the title of "Israel— Imm igration, Politics and E cono m ics."

T he war's aftermath also saw the first steps toward institutionalizationof the new ties between Israel and world Jewry. In "Letter from Israel"in Commentary E dw ard G rossman discusses the economic conferencecalled by Prime Minister E shko l to mobilize Jewish economic resourcesfor Israel's developments.

Christian-Jewish Dialogue

A fter twenty years of dialogue and the app arent "era of good feeling,"Jews were shocked to find the bulk of the Christian religious leadershipstudiously refraining from "taking sides" over a "mere political matter,"in May and June of 1967, while a number of spokesmen for the more"libe ral" Protestant denominations were actively pro - A rab . (Fo r an ex-cellent critique of the Christian reaction by leading Protestant theo-

logians, see A . Roy and A lice L. E ckardt, "A gain, Silence in theChurches.") It became apparent that the dialogue had not been quitethat, for it had avoided the matters most crucial to the Jewish people.

It was widely recognized that the Jews had not even begun to conveyto the Christians the centrality of Israel, the land and the state, in Jewishreligion. N or had they begun to understand the theological difficulties the




very existence of Israel entails for Christians. T his issue, above all otherscoming out of the war, brought to the fore theuniquely theo-politicalcharacter of Jewish peoplehood and Jewish religion to confront Jews andChristians alike with the necessity of recognizing that land and statehave anunusually important religious significance in a religious systemthat places the attempt to build the good society (hence, the good com-monwealth) here on earth at the very center of its faith and practice.This misunderstanding is summarized, inpart, inMalcolm L. Diamond,"Christian Silence on Israel: A n E nd toDialogue?"

A fter an initial feeling that Jewish-Christian dialogue should be

abandoned (for the best statement of that position see Jacob N eusner's

letter to the editor of Judaism, "Reconsideration"), a new realization ofthe necessity to keep talking took hold, but there was also a new

skepticism about the consequences of such dialogues and a resolve not

to hold back in future discussions for fear of offending Christian sensi-bilities. T his position was expressed by Marc H . T ann enba um , one of themajor "dialogists," in "Israel's Hour of Need and the Jewish-ChristianDialogue."

More substantively, efforts to understand both the Jewish position andthe Christian problem were initiated by such writers as Robert F. Drinanin "Israel: T heological Implications forChristians"; Balfour Brickner in

"No E ase in Zion for U s: C hristian-Jewish R elations A fter the A r a b -Israeli War," and Judith H. Banki inChristian Reactions to the Middle

East C risis: New Agenda for Interreligious Dialogue. Papers by threethoughtful men, Mordecai M. Kaplan, A vraham A vi-H ai, andElwynSmith, presented at the Jewish Reconstructionist Foundation and later

published in The Reconstructionist as "Israe l: T he Jewish People andthe World: A Post-War Symposium," in a most penetrating manner tie

the question of dialogue to the larger question of thedeep relationshipbetween Israel and the Jewish people.

However, the fact remains that misunderstanding alone is not the

source of the difficulties. A s A . Ro y E cka rdt says inhis CCAR Journal

article, many anti-Israel Christians understand the Jews' attitude to

their land only too well. His analysis is confirmed by Jam es L . Kelso whoconcludes in "Perspectives on A rab-Israeli T ensions" that A mericansupport for Israel makes missionary work among theA rabs well-nighimpossible, thus representing "perhaps the most serious setback thatChristiandom has had since the fall of Constantinople, since 1453."

One bright light in the otherwise dismal response by Christian leaders




is the stand taken by D r. E ckard t, who not only unde rstands the placeof Israel in Jewish life, but appreciates it. His widely distributed state-m ent of tha t view appears as "E retz Israel: A Christian A ffirmation."

Response of American Jews

M any A m erican Jews also were confronted with the problem ofjustifying their pro- Israe l stand in light of their opposition to the A m eri-can involvement in Vietnam. Regardless of the objective validity of theproblem, it took on subjective reality for many people, from Jewishstudents with pacifist leanings to President Lyndon B. Johnson, himself.

One attempt to dispose of the problem was Morris Laub's "Vietnam

Dove and Israel Hawk."T he record of A merican Jewish mobilization for Israel and the overall

impact of the crisis can be read in the 1968 volume of the AMERICAN

JEWISH YEAR BOOK and Hertzberg's "Israel and A merican Jewry."Other useful sources include Bernard Postal, How the Jewish Com-

munity Centers Mobilized in Support of Israel and Saul Goldberg,compiler, The Campus Response to the Israel Crisis.

N o segment of A merican Jewry was m ore deeply affected by thecrisis than the synagogue movements. While always supporters of Israel,the three major movements were, in some respects, ambivalent in theirattitude toward the state as a Jewish phenomenon, and toward its Zionistprinciples. T heir own need to become better rooted in the U nited States(with its emphasis on religious, rather than national, pluralism), andtheir struggle to make religious affiliation the dominant mode of attach-ment to Judaism, mitigated against unequivocal support of a Jewish state.T he 1967 events brought them face to face with this ambivalence and,more than that, helped them transcend it to discover the intimate con-nections between their institutions as centers of Jewish life in the largestdiaspora community, and Israel as the center of the totality of Jewishlife. One of the literary reflections of this discovery is The Religious

Dimensions of Israel: The Challenge of the Six-Day War, a collection ofthe major papers presented at the third annual conference of the Syna-

gogue Council of A merica, edited by Henry Siegman.Israel and American Jewry—1967 and Beyond is a collection of

articles and documents and a study guide on the background of the con-flict, postwar issues, and the war's impact on Christians and Jews. Pub-lished by the Union of A merican H ebrew Congregations, it reveals somereactions of Reform Judaism . A mo re immed iate aspect of this relation-



THE RED ISCOVER ED POL ITY / 181

ship, bearing directly on that movement, is Mendel Kohansky's "ReformJudaism Meets in Israel." He describes the equivocal aspects of theWorld Union of Progressive Judaism meeting in Jerusalem after the war,arising from the opposition of the Orthodox in Israel to giving equalstatus to non-Orthodox synagogues and rabbis.

From the Orthodox side comes "T he Religious M eaning of the SixDay W ar: A Symposium" in Tradition, whose participants reflect A m eri-can and Israeli Orthodox viewpoints trying to come to grips with thelinkage between the military-political event and larger theological ques-tions. What is perhaps most exciting in that symposium is the beliefheld by both Israeli participants that we are living in the beginnings of

the messianic era.Something of the o ld Zionist—anti-Zionist argument can be found in the

exchange between Michael Rosenak and Jakob J. Petuchowski in theirrespective articles "T he Old-N ew A nti-Zionism " and "Zionist Polemicsin a Post-Zionist A ge ," regarding Petuchowski's b ook, Zion Recon-

sidered. T o this writer, at least, recent events have shown Petuchow ski'sposition to be even wider off the mark than one would have been ready

to argue before June 196 7.* A m ore positively pro- Israel dim inution oftraditional Zionism is presented by G ilbert Kollin in "A Loo k B ack atZionism."

However, in the last analysis, the reaction of the Jewish man in thestreet to the discovery of his fundamental connection with the Jewishpeople was the really crucial one . M arsh all Sk lare gives us a capsule viewof that reaction in "Lakeville and Israel," a partial resurvey of the

suburban Jewish community he and his colleagues studied after the war(p. 2 1 2 ). Sklare confirms what every A m erican Jews knows, that thecrisis generated a feeling transcending "identity" that can only be de-scribed as solidarity with the Jewish state as the fundamental organ ofJewish peoplehood. Bernard Lazerwitz published the results of a surveyhe conducted in the metropolitan Chicago area in "Some Reactions tothe Six-Day W ar," which dem onstrate essentially the same thing. A moreimpressionistic picture of the war's impact on the institutional aspects of

A merican Jewish life, tha t also attemp ted to forecast future trends, isLeonard J. Fe in's "Israel's Crisis: Its E ffect on the A merican JewishCommunity and Its Implications for Jewish Communal Services."

* It should be noted that Petuchowski had modified his own position substan-tially since the publication of his book, which appeared in 1966, apparently inresponse to the six-day war. See his opening statement in "M ore T han a Plank."




Response in Other Countries

T he A merican Jewish commitment to Israel as the center of the Jew-

ish people was more or less expected. Far more surprising was the re-action in F ranc e. E ven among the substantially assimilated Fren ch Jewishintellectuals, there sprouted the same identification with Israel that wasencou ntered through out the Jewish world. T he shift in Fre nch policy inthe Middle E ast , given ideological justification by Presiden t Charlesde Gaulle in his press conference of N ovem ber 2 7, 1967 in which hemade his now notorious remark about the Jews as a people, gave FrenchJewry a new self-consciousness. (Joel Marcus examines this policy from

its roots in "T he Rift Between Israel and Fra nc e." D avid Ben Gurionset forth an important and dignified restatement of the Zionist posi-tion, republished in "Ben Gurion and D e Gau lle: A n E xchange ofLetters.")

T his "new nation alism " is reflected in "Fre nch C itizenship and JewishIden tity: A Discu ssion," the record of views on the subject expressed bysix Frenc h Jewish intellectuals of varying persuasions. T he discussion

itself is reenforced in "Jewish Students and the Paris Rebe llion: A Con-versation with A lbert Memmi" describing some of the concrete stepstaken by young Jews to come to grips with a new, and still very con-fusing, Jew ish consciousness. T here is no consensus among the six ontheir future relationship with the Jewish people; but all accept the factthat they are fated to remain Jews—the "beginning of knowledge" ofidentification with the Jewish community.

T his new consensus stands in sharp contrast to the widely read bookof another French Jew, The End of the Jewish People? by GeorgesFriedmann, published on the very eve of the six-day war (or to MichelSalomon's article, "A 'Jewish Vo te' in France?" , with its skeptical toneregarding the possibility of French Jews voting as a bloc). Friedmann'ssomewhat confused book reflects the feelings prevalent just before hostili-ties began that, as Israel was becoming more normalized, its connectionswith diaspora Jewry were weakening, and the demands for a Jewish

entity, as something more than an Israeli one, were disappearing. Thenew literature proves the obsolescence of the Friedmann thesis.

Something of the reaction of English Jewry to the war can be seen in"H ow the Six-Day War A ffected Jewish Identity: A 'Writers for Israel'Symposium," in which Lionel Davidson and Wolf Mankowitz, amongothers, reaffirm what Jews were reaffirming in every country.




One of the few scientific studies of diaspora Jewry's reaction to the

crisis is Ron ald T aft's "T he Impa ct of the Middle E ast Crisis of June1967 onM elbourne Jew ry." T he comp letion, just before war broke

out, of a major demographic study of Melbourne's Jewish community

provided a fortuitous opportunity for a follow-up survey of the samesample. T he results prov ide more ha rd evidence th at the less scientific

assessments of the deep impact of the crisis on virtually all Jews are fullycorrect.

T he continuing repercussions of the war are sum marized in a series ofcountry-by-country reports, "World Jewry Since the Six-Day War," a

small but useful follow-up to the more detailed reports published in the

1968 edition of the A M E R IC A N JE W IS H Y E A R BO OK .

Perhaps the most fitting "last word" in this exhaustive literature is

that provided by the A m erican Reform rabbinate in the CCAR Journal

of June 1968, an issue focusing " O n Israel's T wen tieth A nnive rsary."The seven articles in this special section (six by Reform rabbis), are allfervent with love of Zion and emphatic in their consideration of thepolitical implications of that love. Inhis introductory comments, the

Journal's editor Daniel Jeremy Silver speaks of Israel's crucially indis-pensable role in "the task of creating a voluntary religious nation," andcalls for aliyah programs in congregational schools; emphasis of nationover denomination, and encouragement of a sense of Jewish peoplehoodin all Reform institutions and actions.

T he steps from emancipation to voluntary nationhood are long ones.We know that our generation has witnessed the completion of the firststep, when the oldest heirs of the antinational bias of th e E m ancipationtell us that, after all, there is aJewish polity.

JEWISH POLITICAL THOUGHT

Little of the literature of the six-day war is devoted to theoretical ques-tions about the Jewish polity as such, though hints and echoes of suchquestions abound, at least in the more serious pieces, particularly in the

two symposia mentioned above. David Polish reviews the highlights ofthe political aspects of Jewish messianic thought inhis article, "Israeland the Christian Conscience," in the CCAR Journal Israel anniversaryissue. E very oth er article at least touches upon the philosophical ques-tions arising from the fact that the destiny of Am YIsrael is inseparablefrom that of Medinat Yisrael. In "Y israel Goralenu" (Israel Is Our




Destiny), Leon Kronish emphasizes the historical turnabout in Jewishpolitical thought since the denationalizing days of the N apoleonicSanhedrin and the Pittsburgh Platform, and raises questions about thepractical steps to be taken to "convert the crisis reaction into apermanent peoplehood" in light of these old-new and still murky politicalideas. T he Tradition symposium (p. 181), too, is infused with suchquestions. Of course, Zionist writers, like Maurice Samuel, touch upontheoretical principles of Zionism, as they bear on the subject.

A recen t book com ing closest to systematically dealing with the Jewishpolity as a theological question is E ugen e B . Borow itz's A New Jewish

Theology in the Making. A distinguished and pioneering work in every

respect, it represents a serious effort to build a theology of contemporaryrelevance around the Jewish concepts of covenant and peoplehood.However, the fact remains that the systematic revival of Jewish politicalthought is a task yet to be accomplished. It is possible that the restora-tion of a sense of polity will also lead to the restoration of systematicpolitically-oriented inquiry into its nature and purposes.

In the meantime, theoretical works dealing directly or indirectly with

Jewish political ideas and institutions continue to appear. Kingship ofGod, Martin Buber's major effort to ground his political creed onbiblical sources, was published in E nglish translation in 196 7. A s muchconcerned with the social—or, more correctly, the political—as with theimmediately personal aspects of human relationships, Buber properlywelds the two into a single whole grounded, as Jewish political thoughtmust be , in the Bible. T his theory, w hich in this w riter's view is bestdescribed as thearchic federalism,* sees the ideal human polity as a"direct theocracy," created through a covenant between God, the tran-scendent yet immanent king, and a community of men, which, by its veryna ture, binds men to one another in real comm unity. T he political com-munity created by that covenant is a "direct theocracy"—the politicalequivalent of the more immediately personal I-Thou relationship whichprovides the social precondition for it.

Buber's ideal commonwealth, which he sees as having been the

Israelite vision during the period of the Judges, seems quite anarchicwhen conceived as a purely human form of political organization.T hough in its original form it is a federation of tribes as well as a federa-tion of men, it has few permanent political institutions and sanctions

* T he term "federal" is derived from the Latin foedus, meaning covenant.




almost no political coercion, relying on spontaneous charismatic leader-ship and voluntary consent to provide and sustain specific acts of gov-ernance, as well as the general shaping of the polity. But it transcendsand escapes the pitfalls of anarchy because of the kingship of God "who

leads the community" (Buber's emphasis). Whether Buber's conclu-sions about the early Israelite vision of the ideal commonwealth arecorrect or not, he does give significant expression to what might becalled the radical wing of traditional Jewish political thought by extend-ing its thearchic and federalist principles to their greatest extremes.

One aspect of Buber's thesis is supported by N elson Glueck's study,Hesed in the Bible, an E nglish trans lation of his doc toral dissertation

first published 4 0 years ago. G lueck shows hesed—definable as "cove-nant love"—to be the activating principle of brit (the covenant), de-termining proper conduct in a covenant relationship, personal or political.Thus, hesed adds the requisite procedural dimension that can transformthe principle of mutual obligation inherent in the covenant into realityof performance. From this principle flow the Jewish requisites for thegood political life, as Glueck himself indicates.

Recent translations of two other books by Martin Buber, dealing withpolitical ideas, increase our understanding of the importance of suchideas in his thinking because of his Jewish frame of reference. On

Judaism, edited by Nahum N . Glatzer, is a collection of Bub er's Z ionistessays. Largely written before World War I, they remain among the mostsensitive and lasting statements of the Zionist world view. Glatzer alsoedited Buber's On the Bible, a collection of eighteen studies on various

biblical themes, including discussion of the political meaning of thecovenant at Sinai, an important essay on "Biblical Leadership," andmany other items of political concern.

In "A merican Political T heory and the Political N otions of A mericanJews: Convergences and Contradictions," this author attempts to identifythe basic elements in Jewish political thought and to trace their place inthe shaping of the political notions of m odern, p articularly A m erican,Jews. In a somewhat similar vein, Gerson D. Cohen discusses "Messianic

Postures of A shkenazim and Sephard im ," showing the differences in theirapproaches to political solutions of the galut problem in premodern eras.Cohen shows that the Sephardim were far more willing to seek politicalsolutions than the A shkenazim who looked to divine intervention as theonly real source of relief.

Three works by Leo Strauss, published in recent years, also contribute




to the literature on Jewish political thought. T he E nglish translation ofhis Spinoza's Critique of Religion is significant not only for the discus-sion of Spinoza's relationship to classical Jewish political theory, but

for the intellectual autobiography of the author—the leading student ofJewish political thought in our times—that introduces it. "Jerusalemand A th en s" continues Strauss's protracted discourse on the funda-mental differences between the biblical and Greek approaches to socialand political inquiry. In Liberalism, Ancient and Modern, Strauss in-cludes several essays on Jewish philosophy and contemporary liberalism.

E m anuel Rack m an discusses "Judaism and E quality." Several ofSimon Greenberg's collected essays on Jewish themes for the con-

temporary reader, Foundations of a Faith, attempt to relate the politicalideas he sees in Jewish tradition to contemporary democratic ideals.

A b raham Ibn Daud's classic work, Sefer Ha-Qabbalah, superblyedited and translated by Gerson D. Cohen as The Book of Tradition, isa kind of medieval Jewish political history in that it discusses importantquestions about the internal governance of Jewish communities par-ticularly in Moslem Spain. Cohen's accompanying essays probe deeply

into the power structure of medieval A ndalusian Jewry in light of thebook's contents, and pave the way for the development of politicaltypologies of Jewish community power in that period.

A ryeh N ewm an discusses one aspect of the theopolitical thought ofone of the great medieval thinkers in "T he Centrality of E retz Y israelin N achm anides," showing tha t N achmanides was responsible for thedevelopm ent of the most full-blown "ideology of E retz Y israe l" amongthe m edievals, an ideology based on the idea that th e T orah is, first andforemost, the constitution of the land of Israel.

N ath an Rotenstreich touches on the efforts of modern Jewish thinkersto come to grips with political questions in their theoretical formulations,in Jewish Philosophy in Modern Times, From Mendelsohn to Rosen-

zweig. T he book deals largely with the work of those G erm an Jews whobrought about the exclusion of the political dimensions from Jewishthou ght. T he most actively political thinkers among those analyzed are

Ra bbi A braham Isaac Kook and A aron David Gordon, the Zionistpioneers in the land of Israel. Despite their "religious" differences, bothshared a common Jewish basis; their political philosophy was groundedin Jewish mysticism and was, in essence, a continuation of the Jewishtradition of theopolitical thinking.

Jac ob N eusne r focuses on what he considers the discontinuities in




Jewish political thought, in"From T heology to Ideology: T he T ransmu-tation of Judaism in Modern T imes," a chapter in Churches and States:

The Religious Institutional Modernization, edited by Kalman H. Sivert.N eusner examines what he believes aremajor differences between hisconception of theological messianism of premodern Judaism and theideologically-based efforts to achieve secular redemption that have cometo dominate modern Jewish life and thought. One starting point for

investigating N eusner's thesis is the influence of Spinoza on modernJews. Strauss's previously cited book is an important introduction toanysuch inquiry. A nothe r useful volum e is R ob ert J. M cShea's, The Political

Philosophy of Spinoza.

T he Commentary symposium on The Condition of Jewish Belief(p. 41f.) reveals even more fully the extent towhich political concernsare reentering Jewish thought. At least 12 of the 38 contributors ex-plicitly state that there can be no meaningful separation between Jewishbelief and the Jewish people as a community, freely using such termsand phrases as "peoplehood," "Jewish community inbeing as a distinc-tive entity," "communal responsibility," "covenant," and "the mitzvah-

performing Jewish community" todescribe the theopolitical componentsof Jewish existence.

Even more directly concerned with the problems of community weresix articles brought together under the heading "On Jewish Survival" in

CCAR Journal. Continuing many of the themes set forth in the journal'sIsrael twentieth anniversary issue, they emphasize the problem of Jewishsurvival as being the survival of a people especially endowed throughthe covenant, "on its own" in a hostile world, yet charged with specialtasks in world history. T he auth ors ' percep tions of these tasks vary widely,from those arising out of a kind of modish "peacenik" messianism tothose emerging from a more traditional sense of Jewish mission. Char-acteristic of allbut one of the authors is a concern with thepolitical,mainly with the way a Jewish state makes survival more meaningful by

giving the Jewish people a means to participate actively, as a specialkind ofnation, in the process of human redemption.

Similarly, Milton Himmelfarb's powerful article, "Secular Society? AJewish Perspective," published in the special issue of Daedalus on "Re-ligion in A m eric a," is another effort to restate the traditiona l Jewish viewof the necessary and proper connection between moral values and thesocial order as it applies in contemporary A m erica.

Jewish life in the modern diaspora is rarely examined from the per-




spective of the relationship of the Jews as an entity to the larger society.T his author, in a preliminary way, tries to come to grips w ith this p ro b-lem as it exists in the United States, in "T he Kenites of A m eric a." Headvances the thesis that the relationship between the Jews and the largerA merican society has something of a precedent in the socially separa te,but morally symbiotic, relationship between the Kenites and the ancientIsraelites, as described in the Bible, and that this relationship can serveA merican Jews as a model for defining their own role in A mericansociety.

T he years 196 7- 19 68 witnessed the continued growth of efforts toapply the principles of Jewish tradition to contemporary political issues.

T he Commentary symposium attempts this, in part. A m ong the otherserious materials that appeared are Gilbert S. Rosenthal's article "CivilDisobedience," and A lbert Vorspan's book, Jewish Values and Social

Crisis: A Casebook for Social Action. A aron Samuel T amaret 's "Pass-over and N on- Violence" is a selection from the classics, chosen for itsspecial relevance to today's problems.

A braham J. Heschel is co-author, with Robert M cA fee B rown and

Michael N ovak, of Vietnam: Crisis of Conscience. A mong other relevantmaterials on the Vietnam issue are Morris Laub's pamphlet, Maimonides

on W ar and Peace (With Special Application to Vietnam); Meir Kahane,Joseph Churba, and Michael King, The Jewish Stake in Vietnam; andRa bbi A braham L . Feinberg's "Interview in Han oi." T he opposing view-points in the growing controversy in Orthodox ranks on the properJewish attitude toward the Vietnam war are explained by Charles S.Liebman in "T he O rthodox Rabbi and V ietnam," and Michael Wyscho-

grod in "T he Jewish Interest in V ietnam ."

Re lated to this category is Zosa Szajkowski's "T he Pacifism of JudahMagnes," an account of the ideas of the greatest modern Jewish pacifist.E ugene B . Borowitz addresses a larger them e, the political charac ter ofman's expectations for a better future, in "Hope Jewish and HopeSecular." A more devastating contrast of Jewish and modern ideas, in-volving a discussion of the Jewish commitment to community, and the

demand for social responsibility that flows from it, is Milton Himmel-farb's "Paganism, Religion and Modernity." Himmelfarb calls a pagana pagan , and explains why. E qually comparative, bu t far less critical isthe CCAR Journal colloquium "Judaism and E thics." He re A brahamE del, Michael A . Meyer, and Irwin M. Blank deal with the question ofmoral law and the community as the implicit or explicit core of the




Jewish approach to "ethics," and contrast that approach with Christianand modern approaches. Borowitz considers another contemporary issueof more than passing importance in "Judaism and the Secular State," an

elaboration of the political aspects of his theology.

T he years 196 7- 196 8 witnessed a growing desire among OrthodoxJewish intellectuals to deal with questions of contemporary political andmoral concern from the perspective ofhalakhah. Tradition, the quarterlyjournal of the Rabbinical Council of A merica , hasbecome the majorvehicle for doing so. T he W inter 1968 issue was particularly rich in thisregard with, two articles, Jacob J. Ross's "Morality and the Law" and

N orman Lam m 's "T he N ew Morality under Religious A uspices," deal-

ing with the new morality and society, and two others, Solomon Simon-son's "Violence: From the Perspective of the Ethics of the Fathers" andJoseph Grunblatt's "Violence andSome A spects of Judaic T radition,"with Jewish traditional responses tosocial violence.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS ANDPUBLIC PERSUASIONS

One of the most significant byproducts of the six-day war was therenewal of the recognition of the links between "religion" and "politics"in Jewish life. Linked as they always have been in fact, the moderntendency to separate them has been far stronger than the willingness to

perceive the reality of their interrelation. T he previously cited symposiaon Israel in the CCAR Journal and Tradition offer examples of the newrecognition of this reality. N orm an Lam m makes the connection in the

most explicit terms:. . . we must acknowledge—humbly and happily—that "they,'' the nonobservantIsraelis, were right when they argued that Jews must forge their own destinyactively and not wait passively forheavenly miracles. Power, we must admit, isnot necessarily antithetical to holiness. The "impulse from below," as theZohar calls it, isnecessary inorder toevoke the "impulse from above."

What is most striking about this rediscovery of politics (that is tosay, the organized and conscious use of power) is the way it is tied in

with the revival of the mystical impulse in Jewish thought. Reform andOrthodox contributors alike couch their discussions of the most mundaneconcern (for that indeed is what politics is, in its most immediate sense)in the language of the Kabbalah and the Zohar. In doing so, they are

restoring one of the most important and enduring intellectual alliancesin Jewish history. In every great period, the concern with politics has




been closely tied to the Jewish mystical tradition. R ab bi A kiva is the

classic example of this link, and it was never stronger than in the Jewish

intellectual community of medieval Spain. Its reemergence in moderntimes as a phenomenon of Zionism is illustrated in Rotenstreich's pre-

viously cited work. (p. 186).T he war also had m ade it patently clear how narrow the theological

gap between the representative thinkers of the various religious move-

ments has become. While this intellectual coming together had been inprogress for some years, the war effectively sealed it by demonstrating

that the questions Jews hold in common are far more basic than those

dividing them. T he Commentary symposium is an excellent illustration:

One of its most striking aspects is that, with the exception of the fewReconstructionists, ideological differences are narrow and do not followmovement lines.

A ll this stands in sharp co ntrast to the situation portrayed by David

Rudavsky in Em ancipation and Adjustment: Contemporary Jewish Re-

ligious Movements, Their History and Thought. He traces the intellectual

sources of the divisions, which seemingly have now become entrenched

in Jewish life, even as their intellectual basis is disapp earing. T he insti-tutional consequences of this development continue to have a certain

kind of intellectual impac t, as Charles S. Lieb m an demonstrates in "T heT raining of A merican R ab bis ." Liebman also discusses the sociological

(as distinct from ideological) bases of Jewish religious divisions in

A merica in "Religion, Class, and Culture in A merican Jewish H istory."

A t the same time, two books appeared in 1967 to remind us of the

penchant for sectarianism within Jewish life in the past. Leah Bronner'sSects and Separatism During the Second Commonwealth and Marcel

Simon's Jewish Sects at the Time of Jesus take somewhat contrasting

approaches to the problem, but both illustrate the extent of the divisionsin Jewish life during that crucial period, when a certain kind of plural-

ism was the keynote of "civilized" society.

OrthodoxyContinuing his campaign to help the Orthodox movement come to

grips in a positive manner with the realities of m odern A merican life,

Irving Greenberg offers an agenda of problems and possible solutions in

"Jewish Values and the Changing A merican E thic."

A cross-section of current modern O rthodox thought is provided in A




Treasury of "Tradition," edited by N orm an Lam m and W alter S. W urz-burger.

Jerry Hochbaum looks at "T he Changing Socio-Religious Profile ofA merican Orthodoxy." Zalman D iskind reports on a study of the Ortho-

dox preference for day schools in "Views on Jewish-Religious E ducationby A merican Orthodox-Jewish Leaders."

N ot the least of the new concerns of Orthodox intellectuals is the

nature of the Orthodox sub-com munity. E rich Isaac discusses the As-

sociation of Orthodox Jewish Scientists, a group whose influence withinOrthodoxy has been growing rapidly in the past fewyears, in "TheLoneliest Jews of A l l."

Conservatism

The publication of the anthology, Roads to Jewish Survival: Essays,

Biographies, and Articles Selected from the Torch on Its 25th Anni-

versary, edited by M ilton Berger, Joel S. Geffen, and M . David Hoffman,provides a good picture of the ideological patterns within the Conserva-tive movement. The collected pieces were written by the best-known

"names" in the Conservative movement for a magazine geared to theaverage member of the average Conservative congregation, andshouldbe read in that spirit. T hey deal with such subjects as the nature of theJewish community, Jewish education, relations with Israel, and otherfactors in contemporary Jewish life, each with substantial editorial com-ment. T he volume should be read in conjunction with The Maturing of

the Conservative Movement byBernard Mandelbaum, president of the

Jewish T heological Seminary. A statement of what might well be called

the mainstream view of the movement's schoolmen (to use MarshallSklare's terminology), it complements the anthology.

In The Waking Heart, Herman H. and Mignon L. Rubenovitz offer a

personal look at the development of the Conservative movement, par-

ticularly in N ew E ngland where the late R ab bi Rubenovitz served formany years.

T he N ational Womenys League of the United Synagogue published an

institutional history, They Dared to Dream: A History of the NationalWomen's League, 1918-1968, on the occasion of its 50th anniversary.

Reform

The ending of the modern erahas had the greatest significance for

Reform Judaism, the movement most completely dependent on the




assumptions and values of modernism. N owhere is this dependence m oreclearly expressed than in David Philipson's The Reform M ovement in

Judaism, reissued in 1967; and nowhere does the contrast between the"orthodoxy" of classical reform and contemporary Reform thinking be-

come more apparent, as Solomon B. Freehof points out in his introduc-tion to the book.

N ot surprisingly, then, the Reform movem ent is the leading producerof self-analytical literature, among the various religious movements inthe United States. While each issue of CCAR Journal usually carriesseveral such pieces, the A pril 1968 issue is particularly rich. Con-

temporary Reform Jewish Thought, edited by Bernard Martin, offers a

sampling of the diversity of approach and the unity of theme in thisself-analysis.

Solomon B. Freehof continues to encourage his fellow Reform Jews toconsider questions of Jewish law in Reform Judaism and the haw and inhis third collection of responsa, titled Current Reform Responsa. T hemovement's periodical literature seems to indicate that he is makingsome headway. Lawrence Siegel writes, not altogether happily, aboutthe changes in Reform Judaism in the past generation in "Reflectionson N eo-Reform in the Central Conference of A merican Rab bis." JayKaufman, once one of the higher civil servants of the Reform movement,confirms Siegel's tale, albeit far m ore positively, in " A n Unbiased Lookat Reform Judaism."

A representative sampling of mainstream thinking in the Reformmovement is made available in The American Judaism Reader, editedfrom the pages of American Judaism by Paul Kresh.

One of the few empirical studies of Reform Judiasm is Joseph R.Rosenbloom and Paul S. Dobinsky, "Student A ttitudes in a ReformJewish Religious School," dealing mainly with attitudes toward God.

Reconstructionism

T he Reconstructionist movem ent's publication, Reconstructionist,

rem ains the main so urce of m aterial on it and its thought. T he events of

1967 affected that movement least; long before the six-day war it hadpioneered the idea of Jewish peoplehood as the basis for a renewal ofJewish polity.




Zionism

Marie Syrkin edited the volume, Hayim Greenberg Anthology, whichincludes some of his more familiar essays, as well as an appreciative

intellectual biography by the editor. One of the handful of Zionisttheoreticians to write in E nglish, Greenbe rg deservedly rem ains a popularfigure in Jewish publishing circles. Ber Borochov, a Labor Zionistthinker who has been undergoing something of a revival of late, par-

ticularly in N ew Left circles, is discussed by Gersho n W iner in an article,"Ber Borochov." On a more popular level is the Jewish Frontier

Anthology, a selection of thewritings of labor Zionists who have ap-

peared in the pages of that periodical since 1945.African Zion by Robert G. Weisbord may well be the definitive study

of what is know n in Zionist history as the U ganda scheme (as he dem on-strates conclusvely, the British really suggested Kenya). In documentingits failure, the author offers strong evidence for the attachment of the

Jews to the Land of Israel. Weisbord's article, "Israel Zangwill's JewishT erritorial Organization an d the E ast A frican Zion," is even more tell-ing in this regard.

In a long and heavily documented article, Charles I. Goldblatt re-

views "T he Im pact of the Balfour Declaration inA m erica," from 1917to 1948. He examines Jewish and Christian, official and unofficial, pressand governmental reactions, and finds them generally well disposedtoward the idea of a Jewish national home in Palestine, with themostvigorous opposition coming from certain Jews, the proponents of the

depoliticized Judaism of the emancipation era.

B. Z. Sobel presents a strange phenomenon, a missionary movementattempting to capitalize on Zionism in "T he T ools of Legitimation—Zionism and the Hebrew Christian Movement." Rightly sensing whatZionism would mean to the Jewish people, the Hebrew Christians re-

peatedly sought to identify with the idea and the movement, as a meansof securing their acceptance as a Jewish group within what one of theirleaders called "the national bond, with its accompanying citizen rights,

unbroken." The article is particularly important for its picture of amarginal group precisely assessing the national aspects of Jewish people-hood, and the role Zionism would play, as early as the 1890s, in definingand activating Jewish nationalism.



194 / AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK, 1969

DEFINING THE B OUNDARIES OF

JEWISH SOCIETY

T he problem of defining the boundaries of Jewish society continues to

have three a spects: the identity problems of individual Jews, the questionof conversion, and the problem of disassociation from the Jewish people.T he first two still rank at or near the top of the list of contemporary

Jewish concerns, while the last, at best, is considered only indirectly.

This , initself, reflects the social malaise of contemporary Jewry; nearlyeveryone seems to beeither searching for his own "Jewish identity," or

is theobject of someone else's search. T he revival of interest in con-

version is invariably an antidote to the identity problem. A ctual dis-association is so easy and informal (and usually so unnecessary) that

it is hardly even discussed. One consequence of all this is the continu-ing expansion of the gray area surrounding Jewish society, where it is

becoming increasingly more difficult to determine who is a Jew. Inter-

marriage is tied into all three aspects, and generally serves to link themtogether in real life situations. It therefore is also the great source of the

semi-Jews inhabiting the gray area.T he recent literature quite clearly mirrors this situation. T he last bookby the late A lbert I. Gordon, The Nature of Conversion: A Study of

Forty-Five Men and Women Who Changed Their Religion, shows howall religious groups in A merica have been Protestantized to the point

where most of their members accept as their own Protestant canons of

what constitutes religious commitment and group identification. Confir-mation of this thesis is found in a report by Irving Jacks of Illinois State

University ofhis research on "A ttitudes T oward Interfaith Heterosexual

Socializing in a Group of Jewish T eenagers." Only 59 per cent of the

group he interviewed considered it essential to marry within the Jewish

faith in order to be agood Jew.

Moshe Davis focuses on the marriage question from an historicalperspective in "Mixed Marriage in Western Jewry: Historical Back-

ground to the Jewish Respo nse." His concern w ith the "Jewish corporate

reaction to the contemporary challenge ofmixed marriage in the westernworld" makes the study, and especially his bibliographical appendix,

very valuable to students of Jewish public affairs.

Stephen Sharot presents a caricature of the gray-area Jew in "AJew-

ish Christian A dventist Mo vement." The Orthodox concern with the

consequences of thegray area for halakhically legitimate Jewish unity



T H B R E D I S C O V E R E D P O L I T Y / 195

is discussed by A lbert Ehrman and C. A braham Fenster in "Conver-sion and A merican Orthodox Judaism : A Research N ote."

Milton Himmelfarb suggests an active proselytization policy as an im-portant element in ma intaining interest in Judaism among Jew s, no dou bt

on the theory that the best defense is a good offense. In"T he JewishCollege Student and the Intellectual Community," he suggests that oneway to make young college students "want in" to the Jewish communityis through active proselytization, particularly amo ng N egroes w ho canbe reached precisely because of their alienation from white Christiancivilization. T he problem of integrating the thousands of existing con-verts into Jewish life is discussed by A llen S. Mailer in"From Gentile

into Jew." He cites asurvey of Conservative and Reform rabbis, indicat-ing an addition of over 4,000 converts a year. T he survey itself is

presented by Benjamin W. Mehlman in "Who is a Jew? Report of a

Survey."

Ultimately, even the studies of Jewish demography must come to

grips with the problem of defining the boundaries of Jewish society. T hisbecomes abundantly clear insuch articles as S. J. Prais and Marlena

Schmool, "T he Size and Structure of theA nglo-Jewish Population,1960-65 ," and E rnest Krausz, "T he E dgware Survey: Dem ographicResults." Historical perspective for all this is provided by Bernard J.

Bamberger in Proselytism in the Talmudic Period, reissued in 1968.

T he literature on Jewish identity continues to grow. Agood summaryof the contemporary discussion is available in Lucy S. Dawidowicz andMilton Himmelfarb, eds., Conference on Jewish Identity, Here and Now.

POLITICAL CULTURE

T he bits and pieces tha t increase our still extraord inarily fragmentaryknowledge of the deepest political expectations and demands of Jews,as produced by Jewish acculturation processes, are found in many places,some authoritative and some much less so. T his writer's article on

"A merican Political T heory and the Political N otions of A merican Jew s"(p . 185) deals with the subject directly, if briefly. N athaniel Weyl's The

Jew in American Politics provides some useful data and documentationof the Jewish penchant for liberalism from a nonliberal perspective.Lloyd Gartner raises some interesting questions about Jewish politicalculture with his suggestion that Jews seem to have an impulse to followa certain kind of liberal messianic figure (Adlai Stevenson and E ugeneMcCarthy inrecent A merican history) in "Candidates, Messiahs, and




A ristocrats ." Recent Jew ish political behavior in N ew Y ork C ity is

analyzed by Milton Himmelfarb in"A re Jews Still Libe rals?", an d heconcludes that they are. Michael Parenti's "Political Values and Re-ligious Cultures: Jews, Catholics and Protestants" attempts to make the

connections implied in its title, but fails because he misunderstands boththe political values and religious cultures involved.

T hough not directed toward political m atters, M oses Kligsberg's ex-cellent article, "Jewish Immigrants in Business: ASociological Study,"offers great insights into the cultural basis of Jewish behavior and its

consequences which can be applied to the realm of political activity.Kligsberg looks at the concept of takhlis—the idea that human activity

should be directed toward purposive ends—as the key to this aspect ofJewish behavior, and makes aconvincing case for his thesis.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AND INSTITUTIONS

T he great bulk ofmaterial on the political organization of the Jewish

community, published in 1967 -1968 , is historical innature; the mostsignificant items are reprints or new translations of much earlier ma-

terials. A m ong them are important studies of Israelite political organiza-tions and institutions in the biblical period, and information on the

structure and dynamics of Jewish political life in the M iddle A ges.

One of the most illuminating volumes on Israelite political institutionsis acollection of studies by the late E . A . Speiser, Oriental and Biblical

Studies, edited by tw o of his students, J. J. Finkelstein and Moshe

Greenberg. Speiser was one of the few great biblical scholars who had a

direct interest in the political and governmental aspects of the biblicalperiod. His detailed and penetrating analyses of the national and localinstitutions of the Israelite polity under its various constitutions reveal

how sophisticated the supposedly primitive tribal democracy of biblical

accounts really w as. T hey are most useful in studying the institutionalexpressions of Jewish political ideas (e.g. hesed, as discussed above),

and their impact on political life and thought in general.

Before Speiser, A lbrecht A lt and M artin N oth pioneered the study ofthe political and constitutional aspects of the Bible and the Israelite

tribal confederacy, with modern critical m ethod s. T heir m ajor essays onthe subject are now available in E nglish: A lt's in Essays on Old Testa-

ment History and Religion, and N oth's in The Laws in the Pentateuch

and Other Studies.



T H E R E D I S C O V E R E D P O L I T Y / 1 9 7

Solomon Zeitlin's The Rise and Fall of the Judaean State: A Political,

Social and Religious History of the Second Com monw ealth, of whichthe second volume covering the period 37 B C E - 6 6 C E appeared in

1967, represents a conscious effort to write Jewish history as politicalhistory, and to emphasize the political institutions and processes of aperiod that in itself is defined through a political institution—whatZeitlin terms "the Judaean state." While Zeitlin's analyses and conclu-sions are frequently controversial, the structure of his synthesis is ofcrucial importance to students of Jewish public affairs.

The first volume of Shelomo D. Goitein's monumental study ofJewish community life, as portrayed in the public papers found in theCairo Genizah, appeared as A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Com-

munities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo

Geniza, Vol. 1: Econom ic Foundations. It is a major contribution to theunderstanding of the Jewish communities of the Mediterranean worldas polities from the tenth throug h the thirteenth centuries. T he picturedrawn by Goitein is reenforced and extended to the three followingcenturies, in The Responsa of Rabbi Solomon ben Adreth of Barcelona

and The Responsa of Rabbi Simon b. Zemah Duran, edited by IsidoreE pstein. Both men were vitally concerned with the government of theircommunities, and their responsa reflect this.

A rthur Hertzberg's prize-w inning study of the Jewish community inlate medieval France, The French Enlightenment and the Jews, docu-ments the differences between the Sephardi and Ashkenazi communitiesin organization, scope, and jurisdiction, showing the transition from

premodern to modern forms of Jewish organization, and the Sephardim'spioneering role in it.

In a highly personal survey, A Peculiar People: Inside the Jewish

World Today, Barnet Litvinoff discusses the structure, atmosphere, andstresses of con tem porary Jewish communal life. T he organization of th eA merican Jewish comm unity is com pared with the general pattern oforganization in the United States in the chapter on "Religious Organiza-tions: T he Jewish Development," in W. Lloyd W arner, editor, The

Emergent American Society, Vol. 1: Large Scale Organizations.

T hough the family is generally conceded to be a prepolitical institu-tion, at least in Jewish life a particular kind of family structure andenvironment is a precondition for maintaining the Jewish polity in anyof its forms. While serious study of this aspect of Jewish family life hasbeen rare, the raw material for such an investigation continues to



198 / A M E R I C A N J E W I S H Y E AR B O O K , 1969

accumulate. Ben- 'A mi (pseud.) demonstrates in Between Hammer and

Sickle that the destruction of open community life in the Soviet Unionhas placed theburden of "organized" Jewish life entirely on thoseextended families willing to take it on. In the United States, too, the

family's role in creating the environment for Jewish community lifecontinues to be of first impo rtance. T he "Lakev ille," Providence, andN ew Y ork City studies cited below (p. 212, 21 3, 214 ) emphasize anddocument this fact, while giving apicture of the changing structure andlife of the A merican Jewish family.

T he persistently stronger character of the Jewish family, as com paredwith that of its non-Jewish counterpart, is discussed by Robert F.

Winch, Scott Greer, and Rae Lesser Blumberg in "E thnicity and E x-tended Familism in an Upper-M iddle-Class Subu rb." T he important roleof family commitment to things Jewish in transmitting Jewish ties to thenext generation and shaping positive attitudes toward the Jewish com-munity, is documented in Vera W est's article, "T he Influence of ParentalBackground on Jewish University Students."

T he influence of premo dern family ties on Jewish com munal organiza-

tion is discussed in a case study by Harvey Goldberg, "PatronymicGroups in a T ripolitanian Jewish Village: Reconstruction and Interpre-tation." Benjamin Kaplan provides an overview of the history of Jewishfamily life in The Jew and His Family.

POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

Bernard K. Johnpoll's study of The Politics of Futility: The General

Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917-1943 is a case study, thoughhardly a definitive one, of a certain form of Jewish political behavior

that has become classic in the modern era. He describes a type of as-

similationism, justified on messianic grounds, that has repeated itself so

often that it must be considered an authentic, if heretical, Jewish mani-

festation.

Very different, and equally authentic, was theJewish response to

the disintegrative pressures of the N azi terror. E ven in that extremity,what must be recognized as the Jewish genius for communal organiza-

tion asserted itself. A lbert H. Friedlander's magnificent andmoving

anthology, Out of the Whirlwind: A Reader of Holocaust Literature,

includes a section on Jewish community life under stress inGermany

and Polan d. T hree pieces in Explorations: An Annual on Jewish Themes,




edited by Murray Mindlin with Chaim Bermant, deal with this theme:Marie Syrian's "Diaries of the Holocaust" on the Warsaw ghetto, andthe mem oirs of two survivors, as presented in Ilselotte T hem al's "M other

and Child" and Kurt Lindenberg's " E scape to Sweden." Year of Fear,the Holocaust diary of Philip Mechanicus, describes the negative as wellas positive aspects of this genius in his picture of the communal organiza-tion in Westerbork, the Dutch deportation camp.

Whatever the final judgment about the functionality of the Jews'emphasis on maintaining cohesion, and even creativity, under conditionsof terror, the very fact of the effort inspires a degree of awe. They Fought

Back: The Story of the Jewish Resistance in Nazi Europe, a collectionof mem oirs of some resistance fighters, edited an d translated by Y uriSuhl, describe Jewish efforts to maintain a cohesion in the camps and,beyond that, in the resistance. In From Doom to Dawn: A Jewish

Chaplain's Story of Displaced Persons George Vida adds to the recordof the restoration of Jewish communal life at the war's end.

PUBLIC LAW

Relatively few of the increasing halakhic concerns of A me rican Jews

deal directly with questions of public law. Over the past two years,

Tradition, which has become the major English-language forum for

halakhic discussions, has dealt most intensively with such questions as

medical ethics, organ transplants, and abortion. In its pages, Immanuel

Jakobovits offers a "Survey of Recent Halakhic Periodical Literature,"

a good starting point for the exploration of contemporary developments

in this field; Leo L and m an discusses "G ambling in th e Synagogue" from

the perspective of Jewish law, and concludes that occasional gambling,

where part or all of the winnings went to charity, aroused no condemna-

tion and "frequently had the approval of the Jewish communities."

The Reconstructionist published papers on "T he Problem of H alakhah

T oday: A Symposium," presented by Rabb is Bernard Bam berger (R e-

form), Theodore Friedman (Conservative), and Sidney Steiman (Recon-

structionist), at the 1967 Reconstructionist-sponsored Conference onJewish Life and T houg ht. T he pap ers deal mainly with ritual and

observance.

T he problem of defining the Jewish people in non-Jewish public law

has been raised anew in connection with legislation on race defamation.

A s A nthony Dickey points out in "E nglish Law and Race Defamation,"




published in the New York Law Forum, theEnglish authorities are

opera ting on the assumption that the E nglish law, forbidding defamationof groups identified by "race, ethnic or national origins," covers the

Jews, even though the Jewish Board ofDeputies, which prefers a more"religious" definition, has expressed doubts. It should be noted that thesame issue of the New York Law Forum contains three other articles onthe legal problem of race defamation that are related to defining thestatus of Jews in the countries of the diaspora.

COMMUNAL AND PUBLIC WELFARE

INSTITUTIONS

In a modest but very interesting contemporary study, Paul Weinbergerand E ugene Brussell report on "Religious Le ade rs' A ssessment of JewishSocial Service Priorities ." T heir data , drawn from San Francisco , pointup the differences in ranking various Jewish communal services by rabbis

and synagogue presidents. T he former give higher priority to education,the latter to hospitals. A critical analysis of the study is offered by E . G .Verm ont in "A ssessing Group A ttitudes T oward Federation A llocations:

A Critique of the Weinberger-Brussell Study."Louis Kraft, a leading figure in the Jewish center movement in the

United States, provides a personal view of 40 years of the movement'swork in light of its objectives, inThe Development of the Jewish Com-

munity Center. The Reconstructionist comm emorated the "Fiftieth A n-niversary of the N ational Jewish Welfare B oard" w ith a special issue.

The Journal of Jewish Communal Service remains the major outlet

for serious discussion of Jewish communal institutions in the UnitedStates, even though somewhat circumscribed by its strong residual roleas the professional organ of Jewish center workers. ItsWinter 1968issue, for example, reflects both sides of its character in three articles onthe possibilities for interagency cooperation: "Jewish Social ServiceA gencies and the Jewish School" by Benjamin L. Y ap ko ; "C onsultative

Casework Services to an A fternoon Hebrew School" by N athaniel Good-

man, and "Casework Services to Hebrew Day Schools" by RosalindE delstein. A mong other more significant articles to appear in the journal'spages were Herbert M illman, "T he R ole of the Jewish CommunityCenter in Planning and How Federations Can Support It"; Donald Feld-

stein and William Kahn, "Helping Our Members to Function as Part ofthe Community"; Judah J. Shapiro, "T he Current Manpow er Crisis in




Jewish Communal Services: Its Impact and Its Implications for the

Future of the Jewish Comm unity"; W illiam A vrunin, "Voluntarism—

Philosophy and Role."Jacob Freid contributed another in the still slender, but increasing,

supply of anthologies oncontemporary A m erican Jewish institutions,

Judaism and the Community. T houg h primarily devoted to social work

issues it includes several articles on the larger concerns, among theminter-institutional relations, the role of Jewish values and the problem oftheir transmission, the role of the public servants in the community, andthe Jewish principles underlying Jewish communal institutions.

June Rose discusses in "A Jewish 'M ayhe w' " traditional Jewish pro-

fessions (e.g. mohelim, mikvah attendants) which, she believes, are onthe wane in the United States (and, no doubt, in other modern societiesas w ell). T he changing status of one Jewish profession under new condi-tions is discussed in "T he Status of th e Anglo-Jewish Rabbinate, 1 8 4 0 -

1914" by Michael Goulston.Obsolescence and the need for adaptation are also constant problems

for the more modern social services, inview of the expanding role of

government in this field. T hu s, Leon Bernstein discusses "M edica re andthe Future of Homes for the A ged"; Morton I. Teicher asks, "How

Should Jewish Com mu nal A gencies Relate to the Jewish Family N owand in the Future?"; Charles Miller and Morris Grumer discuss "T heRole and Function of the Jewish Vocational Service in a ChangingSociety"; Bertram H. Gold looks at "T he Urba n Crisis and Its Effect

upon Jewish Communal Services."

A self-portrait of the N ational Council of Jewish Women by Bernice S.Graziani appeared under the title, Where There's a Wom an: 75 Years of

History As Lived by the National Council of Jewish Wom en.

CIVIC EDUCATION

"The Community Organization Component in Jewish E ducation" by

Bernard Olshansky and a "Discussion: Community Organization Com-

ponent in Jewish E du catio n" by Louis Schw artzman raise crucial ques-tions regarding Jewish education in the Un ited States. T he Philip W.

Lown Center for Contemporary Jewish Studies at Brandeis University

sponsored the publication ofThe Education of American Jewish Teach-

ers—essentially the proceedings of a conference under the center's

auspices—edited by Oscar Janowsky. Generally reflecting the views of




the Jewish educational establishment, the volume reveals almost no

concern with civic education in teachers' training programs.A major problem in Jewish civic education is teaching "Israel,"

which has become even more pressing in the aftermath of the six-day

war. A merican Jewish educators, who for years had avoided or buriedthe issue, suddenly realized that Israel is the aspect of Jewish existencemost compelling to young and old alike ; tha t this visibly po litical concernis far more real than much of what passes for Jewish religious life today,and that Jewish education is self-defeating if it fails to do justice to

Israel's place in the lives of all Jews. Samuel Dinin, in "T he Role ofIsrael inA merican Jewish E ducation," emphasizes the bond of polity

that should unite Israeli and A merican Jewish curricula.Elias Charry and A braham Segal authored an attractive history of the

Jews for teenagers, The Eternal People, emphasizing Jewish peoplehoodand its manifestations.

PUBLIC PERSONALITIES

T he shelf of biographical materials about pub lic figures whose work was

crucial in Israel's development continues togrow, both in quality andquantity, bringing to light the inner workings of the great political

revolution of modern Jew ry. T he first volume of The Letters and Papers

of Chaim Weizmann, edited by Leo nard Stein with Gedalia Y ogev under

the auspices of the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot, deals with his forma-

tive years. Weizmann's character and personality are further illuminated

by the mem oirs of his wife, Vera, as told to David T utaev, inThe Im-

possible Takes Longer.Joan Comay's Ben Gurion and the Birth of Israel examines the

creation of the state from the perspective of its first great leader. Michael

Bar-Zohar's more complete biography, Ben Gurion: The Armed Prophet,

treats Ben Gurion with a sympathy made possible by prolonged close

contact between author and subject. A lmost supplementary to that

volume isAmram Ducovny's David Ben Gurion inHis Own Words.

The Hill of Life, a fictionalized b iography of Joseph Trumpeldor byRom an Freulich and Jean A bramson, is presented in larger-than-life

fashion, with considerable romantization. Far more exciting and im-

portant in understanding the founding generation of Zionist political

figures, is Forward From Exile: The Autobiography of Shmarya Levin,

whose electric personality shines through the book, thanks toMaurice



T H E R E D I S C O V E R E D P O L I T Y / 2 03

Samuel's skill as translator. Morning Stars, the autobiography of ZalmanShazar, Zionist pioneer, bearer of hasidic tradition, and president ofIsrael, is less a political document than a work evocative of the milieuof the men and women of the Second Allyah, the group that was decisive

in shaping the character of modem Israel. E zekiel Rabinowitz compiledthe Zionist papers of Louis D. Brandeis under the title Justice Louis D.

Brandeis: The Zionist Chapter of His Life, emphasizing his role in build-ing A merican Zionism, winning A m erican government suppo rt for Zionistaims, and securing a better northern boundary for mandatory Palestine.

Biographical materials on important, if less well known, builders ofIsrael include: Ben Halpern and Shalom W urm , editors, The Responsible

Attitude: Life and Opinions of Giora Josephthal, a pioneer administratorof development in Palestine and Israel, who was personally responsiblefor founding many of the country's "new towns"; Odyssey of an Opti-

mist: Meyer Weisgal; An Anthology by His C ontemporaries, honoringWeizmann's associate and builder of the Weizmann Institute.

Some interesting docum entation of the role of even a hum ble A m ericanJew in the establishment of the state of Israel can b e found in "T wo

Presidents and a Haberdasher—1948," a record of Chaim Weizmann'scontacts with E dw ard Jacobson, Ha rry S. T rum an 's friend.

Reminiscences by A m erican Zionist leaders included Sam Lonsch ein'sMy 83 Years: The Memoirs of a Veteran Zionist and Bernard A . Rosen-blatt's Two Generations of Zionism: Historical Recollections of an

American Zionist. Leo n I. Feu er's "A bba Hillel Silver: A PersonalMemoir," offers a glimpse into the personal attitudes and relations of thelast of the great A m erican Zionist leade rs. Silver's role was further de -scribed by E m anuel N eum ann in A Galaxy of Zionist Rishonim: Abba

Hillel Silver. A collection of Silver's own writings, primarily serm ons,appeared as Therefore Choose Life.

The death of Pierre Van Paassen brought back memories of the daysof the struggle for statehood, with that great Christian Zionist in theforefront. His role and his later virtual abandonment by the Jewish com-munity are discussed in Joseph Brainin's "Pierre Van Paassen: A

Memoir."A lbert H . Friedlander's Leo Baeck—Teacher of Theresienstadt,

though a moving portrayal of a man whose efforts to sustain the Jewishcommunity in N azi Germ any make him one of the great Jewish leadersof the century, falls short of a proper analysis of Baeck's contributionsto contemporary Jewish life and thought. A braham Regelson and Ger-




trude Hirschler translated Shimon Kushnir's The Village Builder: A

Biography of Abraham Harzfeld.

In the area of A m erican Jew ish pub lic affairs, several articles on IsaacLeeser and his contribution to the organization of Jewish life appeared

on the centennial of his death. In "Isaac Leeser: Centennial Reflections,"Bertram W. Kora, a Reform rabbi, calls Leeser's contribution "to the

creation of a viable A m erican Judaism " greater than that of any other

single Jewish religious leader. Saul I. T eplitz reveals in "Isaac Leeser:A Spiritual Lea der W ho Le d" how Leeser, though the architect of

traditional A merican Judaism and the precursor of the Conservative

movement, consistently reaffirmed the necessity toreestablish a Jewish

state in the land of Israel, as the real home of all Jews. Leeser, accordingto Maxine S. Seller's "Isaac Leeser's Views on the Restoration of a Jew-ish Palestine," wanted the Jews to be "a nation, a unit, apeople with a

government and a state of their own in no other country than the land of

Palestine." Dr. Seller traces the evolution of Leeser's views during hiscareer from simple religious faith in amessianic restoration to a proto-

Zionist political position, and outlines the A merican Jewish community's

responses to his practical suggestions and exhortations.M ax S. N ussenbaum discusses another A merican Jewish pioneer,

"Sabato Morais—Sephardic Defender of Jewish T radition in A m erica."Maurice Bisgyer, the retired executive vice president of B'nai B'rith,

gives an account, albeit a cautious and limited one, of his activities in

Challenge and Encounter: Behind the Scenes in the Struggle for Jewish

Survival. InJustice—Not Charity: A Biography of Harry Greenstein,

Louis L. Kaplan an d T heodo r Schuchat chronicle the Jewish activitiesof a nonprofessional community leader. Philip W. Lown: A Jubilee

Volume, edited by Judah Pilch, contains a chapter on the Maine Jewish

Council, which Lown pioneered, describing an important—and ne-

glected—effort at statewide Jewish community organization in the UnitedStates.

Some previously unpublished correspondence on Jewish communal

affairs is made available by James N . Rosenb erg in Unfinished Business:The James N. Rosenberg Papers.

SUBDIVISIONS IN JEWISH SOCIETY

T he Jewish people is divided organizationally and sociologically along

several lines. Under the system ofpolitical organization developed very




early in Jewish history, the local community or congregation became,and has remained, the foundation of the entire structure of Jewish com-munal life. Local congregations or com mu nities h ave grouped themselvestogether in different ways at different times, depending in large measure

on the external circumstances. From these groupings emerged the majorworldwide religio-cultural bifurcation into Sephardim and A shkenazim,and regional cultural divisions such as "German" and "Polish" Jews,"Litvaks" and "Ga litzianer," Y emenites and M oroccans. With the riseof the modern nation-state, countrywide groupings of local communitieshave taken on historical permanence and legal status that mark onefrom the other within the overall confederation of Jewries.

E xcept in the study of its earliest beginnings, predom inantly A sh-kenazi A merican Jewry has almo st totally neglected the Sephardi wo rld.Today there are over 100,000 Sephardi Jews in the United States, withat least 32 permanent congregations in 15 states. In cooperation withA merican and world Sephardi leadership, Y eshiva University has e stab-lished a Sephardi Studies program, to serve the special religious andcommunal needs of the A m erican Sephardim. In 1967 the program

started regular publication of The American Sephardi, which includesmaterial on Sephardi history and culture. In it, Moshe Carmilly-Wein-berger offers a documented look at "Sephardic Jews in the Developmentof T ransylvania," illustrating the diaspora pa ttern of Jewish colonizationof "new" territories under princely patronage.

Other publications on the subject include Victor D . Sanua's " A Studyof the A djustment of Sephardi Jews in the N ew Y ork M etropolitanA rea," and "Syrian Jews in T hree Social Settings" by Walter P. Z enner,who rapidly is gaining recognition as the specialist on Syrian Jew ry. T heA shkenazi discovery of the Jews of the M editerran ean world is reflectedin the E nglish edition of A ndre Cho uraqui's Between East and West, asemi-scholarly history of N orth A frican Jewry and an invaluable addi-tion to the E nglish- language literature on Jewish comm unities and theirgovernance.

Lucy S. Dawidowicz edited The Golden Tradition: Jewish Life and

Thought in Eastern Europe, a fine book which has become a model forpresenting regional and cultural characteristics of historic Jewish com-munities to the A me rican Jewish pu blic. T he m aterial deals largely withthe social and intellectual life of the community, but only peripherallywith the institutions of communal self-government and public affairs.T he situation of E astern E uropean Jewry today is illuminated by The




Jewish Communities of Eastern Europe: A First Hand Report by a Study

Mission of the American Jewish Congress.

Judaism published a special issue "O n Judaism and Islam : T he A nti-pathetic Symbiosis," with E rich Isaac as guest editor. T he n ine articles

in it range in concern from "T he Jewish Qua rter in Muslim Cities andBerbe r A re as " ( a very useful contribution to Jew ish political studies byH. Z. Hirschberg) to "Political Philosophy in Islam and Judaism."T hough the contributions are somewhat uneven, they constitute a pioneer-ing effort in th e field of regional studies of Jew ish com munities.

ISRAEL

T he six-day wa r did not halt the flow of publications abo ut life in Israelund er conditions of relative calm. With the publication of Y ehoshu 'a

Freudenheim's Government in Israel, the best available delineation ofthe "basic s" of Israeli governmental structure reached E nglish-speaking

readers. It depicts a system that has begun to inject Jewish politicalprinciples into a basic structure substantially borrowed from others.Henry E . Baker's The Legal System of Israel is a largely structural treat-

m ent of this subject, no t unlike Freude nhe im 's, as is A sher Zidon'sKnesset: The Parliament of Israel.

Martin Seliger's "Positions and Dispositions in Israeli Politics" de-scribes Israel's politics as sui generis because of its basis in Jewish politi-

cal culture which begins with "the most fundamental question of Jewishexistence: T o be like or unlike, any other n atio n?"

A n excellent study of Israel's political system is Le on ard J. Fein's

Politics in Israel, reissued after the June war in an updated version asIsrael Politics and People. Using the analytical tools of political science,coupled with his own insights into Israeli political life, Fein avoids many

errors of earlier writers who tended to approach Israel's politics from theperspectives of A merican politics. However, the book fully portrayingIsrae l's political system and cu lture remains to be written. A basic con-

tribution to that end is A lan A rian's m onograph, Ideological Change in

Israel, which examines the growing gap between the "official" ideologies

of the settlement movement, as expressed through the political parties,and the attitudes of the Israeli public that are becoming the actual basisfor public policy-making.

On the economic front, the prestigious Comm ittee for E conom ic De-velopment published Economic Development Issues: Greece, Israel,




Taiwan, Thailand. T he chap ter on Israel is written by N adav H alevi, anIsraeli development economist. Halevi is also co-author, with RuthKlinov-Malul, of The Economic Development of Israel. David Horo-

witz's The Economics of Israel, is a more basic book on the subject, andis especially useful because its author is one of Israel's leading eco-nomic policymakers. Meir Heth presents The Legal Framework of

Economic Activity in Israel. Volume IV of Harry Viteles' massive seven-volume documentary study, A History of the Cooperative Movement in

Israel was published in 196 8. T he work is a coherent account of thepolitical, economic, and social aspects of all forms of cooperative settle-ments and organizations, which are the core of Israel's social system.

In the same vein is "T he Industrialization of the K ibbu tz," written byJoel Darom who points out that, in order to survive today, the kibbutzimare increasingly turning to industry (which provided 30 per cent ofkibbutz income in 1966). In the process of successfully industrializing asmall society, the kibbutzim may well be helping Israel pioneer in theintroduction of the most modern technologies, while maintaining aneconomy organized to human scale and along federative, rather than

hierarchical, principles.Synthesizing politics and econom ics, A brah am Cohen discusses "T he

E mergence of the Public Sector of the Israel E con om y." H e delineates atripartite economic system, with state, workers (Histadrut), and privatesectors reflecting a combination of principles and forces that give Israelits distinctive character.

T he U.S. Bu reau of L ab or Statistics published Labor Law and Prac-

tice in Israel, prepared by Morris Pollak.T he noted Israeli sociologist Shmuel N . E isenstadt wrote a compre-

hensive analytical sociological portrait of the Jewish state in 1967, titledIsraeli Society. Its discussion of political matters is especially helpful.A n article, "Israeli Identity: Problems in the Developm ent of the Collec-tive Identity of an Ideological Society," based on a segment of E isen-stadt's book, appeared in The Annals of the Am erican Academy of

Political and Social Science.

A m o s Perlmutter discusses "T he Institutionalization of Civil-MilitaryRelations in Israel: T he Ben Gu rion Legacy and Its Challengers (1953—1967) , " as well as "T he Israeli A rm y in Politics: T he Persistence of theCivilian Over the Military."

A mong the studies of Israeli history to ap pear is E rnest Stock's Israel

on the Road to Sinai: 1949-1956, a political scientist's examination of




the state's security policy from the end of the war of independence tothe Sinai campaign. The Hand of Mordecai by Margaret Larkin is anaccount of the battle of kibbutz Y ad M ordechai in the war of indepen-dence. Samuel Katz's Days of Fire: The Secret History of the Irgun Zvai

Leumi and the Making of Israel examines one aspect of the foundingof the state in light of military and political history. Herbert Parzen'sarticle, "A Chapter in A rab-Jewish Relations During the Mand ate E ra "adds to the general understanding of the growth of hostilities between thetwo peoples, as Jewish settlement expanded. William Braiterman, anA merican Jew , writes of his Memories of the Palestine Jewish Legion of

1917.

Going further back in the history of modern Israel, Isaiah Friedman, in"Lord Palmerston and the Protection of Jews in Palestine 1839-1851,"probes the beginnings of Britain's active involvement in Jewish resettle-ment efforts. Dealing with the same period, Moshe Ma'oz's Ottoman

Reform in Syria and Palestine 1840-1861 gives an extensive account ofthe introduction of limited local government in the area, and its adjust-ment to the needs of a population organized by religious communities.

Studies of specific topics include Chasya P incus, "T he Story of Y outhA liyah" and Sylvia Haffner, The History of Modern Israel's Money,

1917-1967.

T he creation of an Israeli society out of (o r rooted in ) the variouscom munal subgroups remains a great concern in Israel, though in a quitedifferent way since June 1967. Harold R. Isaacs discusses one suchgroup, American Jews in Israel, based on his New Yorker articles onrepresentative A merican settlers in Israel, their difficulties, and the

special character of their adjustment to an environment that makesA mericans stand out among most other imm igrant groups as peoplefrom a new and different w orld. A . A . W einberg provides some statisticalbackground for the Isaacs book in "Immigration from Western Countriesin Israel." Letters from Israel, edited by Jay David, adds immediacy tothese writings by bringing together the responses of A m ericans, visitingor living in Israel from World War II to the present, to the land and its

people.In the same general vein is Walter P. Zenner's Syrian Jewish Identifi-

cation in Israel, a study of the Syrian, particularly A leppo , Jews inIsrael. A postscript on the Halabi (A leppo ) Jewish community of N ewY ork adds some interesting comparisons. Zenner's article "SephardicCommunal Organizations in Israel" breaks new ground by focusing on




the communal organization of a subgroup, and not on its problems ofidentity alone. T his author w rites abo ut the role of the Sephardi Jews inthe development of Israel in "Israel's Sep hardim: T he M yth of the 'T woCultures. '"

Some non-Israeli views of Israel's "integration" problem are presentedin Harry Salsinger, "Israe l: Its Schools T ry Much L ike Ours to Help theDisadvantaged" and J. Hoc hba um , "Social Planning for Imm igrant A b-sorption."

A case study of cultural continuity un der th e new conditions of Israelis provided by M oshe Minkovitz in "O ld Conflicts in a N ew E nviron-ment: A Study of a M oroccan A tlas M ountain Comm unity T rans-

planted to Israel." Percy S. Cohen reviews recent literature on "Israel'sEthnic Problem." Much of what he concludes has been made obsolete bythe intercommunal solidarity generated by the six-day war.

T he perspective of yet anoth er kind of sub- comm unity is provided byMorris Mandel and Leo Gartenberg in Israel Through Eight Eyes: An

Orthodox View of the Holy Land.

E rnest Stock's From Conflict to Understanding, examines the social

and political aspects of Arab-Jewish relations in Israel since 1948 fromboth the A rab and Israeli sides, and concludes on a cautiously optimisticnote in view of the cooperative responses of Israeli A rabs during thesix-day war.

A mong the general books on Israel to appear in 1 96 7- 19 68 wereChaim Bermant's Israel; Oden Meeker's Israel: Ancient Land, Young

Nation, region by region view; Israel: A Reader, edited by Bill Adler, andThe Generations of Israel, edited by Neal Kozodoy.

T he six-day war also dem onstrated th at Israel wa s, in its own way, agreat power—perhaps the smallest great power in the world, entirely inkeeping with the reco rd of the Jewish peop le in the past. T his is beingdemonstrated in many fields, not the least of them Israel's techni-cal assistance to underdeveloped countries. A sober repo rt of some ofits aspects is found in Stuart H . Sch aar, Patterns of Israeli Aid and Trade

in East Africa, and in Leopold Laufer's more general survey, Israel and

the Developing Countries: New Approaches to Cooperation. A list ofmaterials on the subject is available in Samuel Decalo, "Israel andA frica: A Selected Bibliography."

Irving Heym ont's "T he Israeli Nahal Program" shows the attractionof A frican, A sian, and Latin A m erican countries to this unique projectcombining military service and agricultural pioneering. E dw ard Berna rd



210 / AM ER IC AN JEWISH YEAR BOOK, 1969

Glick's Peaceful Conflict: The Civilian Uses of the Military not only

speaks of Israel's utilization of its army for important educational and

pioneering purposes within its own borders, but identifies Israel as one

of the two major sources of assistance (along with the United States) to

other nations seeking to use their armed forces for such pursuits.

Welfare State and Welfare Society: A Symposium byAmerican and

Israeli Experts in the Fields of Housing, Urban Development, Social

Service, Adult Education, Leisure, edited by Judd L. T eller, brings

Israel's expertise to the attention of A merican experts in the field.

AREA STUDIES

United States

N A T I O N A L S T U D I E S

Resea rch on the A merican Jewish comm unity, published in 1967 and

1968, generally fell into patterns established in the pas t. Judd L . T eller's

Strangers and Natives: The Evolution of the American Jew from 1921

to the Present is aJewish insider's look at the acculturation of A merican

Jews, from the end of World War I to the present. Mostly about Jewishlife in N ew Y ork City, it traces the shift of power in communal affairs

from the Germ an to the E ast E uropean Jews; the rise of overseas prob-

lems to the forefront of A merican Jewish concerns, and the growth of

the synagogue as a source of comm unal influence. T he bo ok can be read

in conjunction with Samuel Joseph's Jewish Immigration to the United

States, which examines the causes of Jewish emigration from E astern

E urope and the character and movements of those who came to theUnited S tates. T he record of adjustment of a much later group of

imm igrants is provided by Philip Soskis in "T en Y ears L ate r: AReport

on the Integration of Jewish Hungarian Refugees inthe United States."

Since being Jewish has become the "in" thing in some circles, the

A merican Jewish community has become the subject (or th e victim) of

a number of profiles, done by people of varying degrees of Jewish

knowledge and comm itment. T he two most widely sold books of thistype were Roger Kahn's The Passionate People: What It Means to be a

Jew in America, and James Y affe's The American Jews, Portrait of a

Split Personality. Both end up as personal reports revealing more about

their authors than their subjects; both are marred by errors based on

gross ignorance of things Jewish, contemporary and traditional, making




both excellent illustrations of the ignorance problem of A merican Jewry.Both authors therefore missed, or misinterpreted, themassive amountof undoubtedly good information and ideas they may have elicited fromthe impressive groups of people they interviewed. A lso, since they view

the Jews with the bias of radical assimilationists, both miss much of thereal spirit and problem of the A m erican Jewish comm unity. Y affe, it

should be acknowledged, is a perceptive person who at least senses thecommunal bonds uniting Jews into a kind of polity and the dilemmasarising from them for A m erican Jews, dilemm as which the Jewish "es tab -lishment" often papers over too casually.

Morris N. Kertzer's Today's American Jew is of the same genre,

written inmuch the same "profile" style, but from an insider's perspec-tive. Less successful is Morris Gutstein's Profiles of Freedom, apparentlya collection of sermons on commonplace topics in A merican Jewishhistory that rehash old stories an d sources. A nothe r k ind of portrait ofA merican Jewry is Louis A . Bennan's Jews and Intermarriage, A Study

in Personality and Culture, a compendious volume going far beyond its

title to summarize virtually all the available studies of A merican Jewish

life.T he continuing problem of organizing the A merican Jewish com mun-ity, even for such limited activities as kashrut supervision, is highlightedin A aron Rothkoff's "The A m erican Sojourns of Ridbaz: ReligiousProblems Within the Immigrant Community," anaccount of the failuresof the second great E uro pean rabbi who tried to create a European-stylecomm unal regime in radically individualistic turn-of-the-century A merica .

In sharp contrast toRidbaz's experience, Jacob R. Marcus describes"T he Quintessential A merican Jew ." He chooses as examples, fromeach of the conventional three periods of A m erican Jewish history, oneman, who rejected or simply neglected things Jewish in his youth yet,

once he took on familial responsibilities, found hisway back into thecommunity to become a leader and, in some way, an observant Jew.These men, each a pioneer on one of A m erica's successive frontiers,helped forge a newkind of Jewish community, rooted in A merica 's

emergent society and attuned to its basically individualistic culture.This theme is expanded in Marcus's The Am erican Colonial Jew: A

Study in Acculturation.

S. P. Goldberg authored apamphlet, The American Jewish Commun-

ity: Its Structure, Role, and Organization.

A welcome addition tothe list of A m erican Jewish historical periodi-



2 1 2 / A M E R I C A N J E W I S H Y E AR B O O K , 1 9 6 9

cals is the Western States Jewish Historical Quarterly, published by theSouthern California Jewish Historical Society since October 1968.

STATE, LOCAL, AND REGIONAL STUDIES

While various community studies, some very important, were pub-lished during 1967 and 1968, none really concerns itself with theorganized Jewish community as an entity. Rather, the predominance ofsociological and demographic studies remain pronounced.

Alaska: In "Jews of A lask a," Bernard Postal gives a brief summ aryof their history and present activities.

Arizona: Don W. Wilson's article "Pioneer Jews in California andA rizona, 1 84 9- 18 75 " discusses individuals rather than the developmentof Jewish community life.

California: N orton B. Stern's California Jewish History: A Descriptive

Bibliography is a treasure trove of A merican Judaica. It cites over 55 0selected works dealing with nineteenth century California Jewry, fromthe Gold Rush to the end of World War I. Stern's annotations make the

listing especially useful. A no the r good bibliography is Pioneer Jews ofthe California Mother Lode by Sara Cogan. Stern and Justin G. T ernerco-authored "Marco Ross N ewm ark, 18 78 - 19 59 : First Jewish Historianof the Southland," which establishes the connection between the veryfirst Jews in Los A ngeles in the 1850's and the development of today'sorganized community. Stern also edited the "Memoirs of Marcus Katz—San Bernardino Pioneer."

District of Columbia: Ro bert Shosteck's article, "T he Jewish Com-munity of Washington, D.C., During the Civil War," adds to the slimcollection of materials on local Jewish history in the nineteenth century.

Illinois: T he most imp ortant Jewish community study that appearedin 1967-1968 were two volumes of the long-awaited "Lakeville Studies,"for which the field work was completed in 1959. Jewish Identity on the

Suburban Frontier, co-authored by Marshall Sklare and Joseph Green-blum, is the core volume in the series. It summarizes the sociological

investigation of the Jews of "Lakeville" (Highland Park, Illinois—asuburb of Chicago), the kind for which Sklare is justly famous. Theauthors delineate an "associational Jewishness" (their term) involvinga high level of synagogue membership; little personal Jewish observance;a commitment to Israel and the usual Jewish welfare "causes"; a desireto transmit a sense of Jewish attachment to the children, without seeming




too obviously "clannish," by giving them a Jewish education of sorts,and a continuing, if often h aph aza rd, search for "Jewish iden tity." A sidefrom these more or less expected conclusions, the authors indicate that"by-and-large" Lakeville Jews "identify the source of their ethic as a

Jewish on e," which "in the m odern history of the Jew was not alwaysso." T hough telling them so would undoub tedly frighten the Jews ofLakeville, what Sklare and Greenblum have described is not really a"religious community," as the official ideology of A merican Jewry wouldhave it, but a family (a term used by one of the respond ents ) or tribe(this writer's term), whose common concerns are primarily political—Israel, "defense," communal welfare, and the like. When added to earlier

studies of greater Chicago Jewry, the Lakeville study makes that com-munity one of the best studied in the United States.

Kansas: T he attem pt to create a Jewish agricultural colony is furtherchronicled in "Beersheba, K an.: 'God's P ure A ir on Governm ent L an d' "by A . James Rudin (see A JY B 1967 [Vol. 68] , p . 2 1 2 ) .

Maryland: Milton Goldman's article, "Characteristics of the JewishPoor Served in a Fam ily A gency: A Case Study," provides useful in-

formation on the Baltimore Jewish Family and Children's Service, andits clients.

Massachusetts: A demographic basis for community studies of thegreater part of Massachusetts Jewry is provided by A Study of the Jew-

ish Population oj Greater Boston by M orris A xelrod, Floyd J. F owler,Jr., and A rnold Gu nn, and A Population Survey of the Greater Spring-

field Jewish Com munity by Sidney Goldstein.

Michigan: In 1967 and 1968 the Jewish Historical Society of Michi-

gan published Volumes 7 and 8 of Michigan Jewish History, whichcontain material ranging from brief historical reports on Jewish com-munity activities, to documents of interest to social historians.

New Jersey: A picture of the Jewish farmers of N ew Jersey emergesfrom E va Sher's reminiscences of growing up on her father's farm, Life

with Farmer Goldstein.

New York: Lee Hershkowitz's Wills of Early New York Jews (1704-

1799) contains some da ta on the public life of 18th century N ew Y orkJews.

A new source of data on N ew Y ork City Jews is Ethnic and Educa-

tional Data on Adu lts in New York City, 1963-1964 by Jack Elinson,Paul W. Haberman, and Cyrille Gell. Kinship and Casework, by HopeJensen Le ichte r and William E . M itchell, explores aspects of the family




relationship among clients of the N ew Y ork City Jewish Family Service.Ru th Landes takes a look at the "N egro Jews in Harle m ," and

How ard Waitzkin examines "Black Judaism in N ew Y ork ," an in-creasingly popular topic.

Rhode Island: A work of high standard is Sidney Goldstein and CalvinGoldscheider, Jewish Americans: Three Generations in a Jewish Com-

munity, the full report of their study of Providence, Rhode Island, thatfocuses on the change in the style and level of Jewish life across thegenerations. Data from their study is presented by the authors in twoarticles "Fertility of the Jews" and "Generational Changes in JewishFamily Structure."

South Dakota: A genealogical work of some importance to SouthDakota Jewish history is The Loevinger Family of Laupheim: Pioneers

in South Dakota by Ludwig D. Kahn.

Texas: Some information on the founding and early development ofthe E l Paso Jewish community is contained in the m emoirs of one of itsfounders, "Samuel J. Freudenthal: Southwestern Merchant and CivicLeader," edited and annotated by Floyd S. Fierman.

Wisconsin: A lbert J. M ayer's Milwaukee Jewish Population Study1964-1965 adds to the small, but growing, body of literature on Wis-consin Jewry.

Other Countries

Australia: Peter Y . Medding's study of Melbourne, From Assimilation

to Group Survival joins the very select list of first-rate community studies.Political in orientation, it goes beyond the attitudinal to look at thecommunity as a functioning entity.

Austria: The Jews of Austria, edited by Josef Fraenkel, attempts topresent a record of a major community that is no more. It is little morethan compilations of names of men born Jews who, in some way, par-ticipated in A ustrian life.

Belgium: Jacques Gutwirth analyzes "A ntwerp Jewry T oday."Canada: T he Jewish Digest (May 1967) devotes a special issue to "A

Salute to Canada on Her C entennial Y ear an d to the Canad ian JewishCommunity," a fine selection of articles.

Czechoslovakia: T he Society for the H istory of Czechoslovak Jewspublished the first volume of the projected series, The Jews of Czecho-

slovakia, which deals with the first 20 years of Czechoslovakia as a state(1919-1938). It includes essays on the history of the Jewish communi-




ties of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia, and Ruthenia; on their legalposition, religious and organizational life, and economy.

Germany: Leo Katcher's Postmortem: The Jews in Germany Today

deals with Jews in both G erm anies. Based on several hun dred interviews,it concludes that the German Jewish community is slowly dying out.Generally, studies of the community in Germany take the form ofmemorial volumes which, in the process of commemorating what hasbeen destroyed, add to our knowledge of organized Jewish communitylife. Such a volume is William A ron , Jews of Hamburg: Memoirs.

Some insight into the character of German Jewry at the height of its"emancipation" is provided by Lamar Cecil in his biography of Albert

Ballin: Business and Politics in Imperial Germany, 1888-1918 , whichdiscusses Ballin's mostly superficial relations with the Jewish community,and the status of the Jewish elite at the tim e. A nother biography illumi-nating the pre-N azi Jewish community is John K. Dickinson, German

and Jew: The Life and Death of Sigmund Stein.

The Leo Baeck Institute Studies, edited by Max Kreutzberger, con-tains articles on Dr. Baeck and German Jewish life, four of them

authored by eminent scholars.Hungary: Randolph L. Braham edited Hungarian Jewish Studies.

Mexico: Seymour B. Liebman examines the connections (or lackthereof) between "T he Mestizo Jews of M exico " and the M arranos , amajor element in Spanish Mexico after the conquest.

New Zealand: Ida G. Cowan describes a dying Jewish community,once the largest in N ew Zealand, in "Jews Down U nde r: Du nedin."

Portugal: T he life of the Ma rrano comm unity in Belmonte is describedby A nita N ovinsky and A milcar Paulo in "T he Last M arranos."

USSR: T he plight of Soviet Jewry continued to be a ma tter of highestpriority on the agenda of world Jewry. For obvious reasons, studies ofJews and Jewish life in the Soviet Union were few, and even those wereproduced from afar. One, Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Union, editedby E rich Goldhagen, consists of 11 pap ers th at were presented at asymposium of the Brandeis University Institute of E ast E urop ean Jew-

ish Studies, whose scholarship adds to the limited literature in a difficultfield. T he best book on the subject to appear in man y years is Ben- 'A m i'sBetween Hammer and Sickle (p. 198), a penetrating account of theconditions of Soviet Jewry by an Israeli, who spent considerable time inthe Soviet Union and visited Jews in all parts of that country. He dis-cusses the substitutes for communal life devised by Soviet Jews, which,




in the main, are grounded in a return to the extended family as the basicunit of "organization." Joshua Rothenberg investigates "How ManyJews are T here in the Soviet Union?", using Soviet census data and othersources.

Most publications about Soviet Jewry are enlarged travelers' reports.A mong the better ones is Shelomo Ben-Israel, Russian Sketches: A Visit

to Jews Without Hope. Elie Wiesel asks "Will Soviet Jewry Survive?".Ronald I. Rubin is the editor of The U nredeemed: Anti-Semitism in the

Soviet Union.

T he little information available on the situation of the Jews in thevarious Soviet republics continued to confirm the worst. In"A n A ppeal

to Com rade A . Snietskus, First Secretary of the Central Committee ofthe Lithuanian Communist Party," 26anonymous Jewish residents of

Vilna protest the growing antisemitism in the Lithuanian S.S.R., anddocument the systematic destruction of its Jewish comm unal life. A vra-ham Kariv writes of an earlier Lithuania, Land of My Birth.

A slightly less depressing picture ispresented by Joshua Rothenbergin "T he Special Case of the Georgian Jews," describing the one sur-

viving organized Jewish community in the Soviet Union.Yemen: T he history, dissolution, and possible rem nant of Y emenite

Jewry are given considerable attention in a full chapter in Dana A damsSchmidt's Yemen: The Unknown War.

INTERCOMMUNITY RELATIONS

Systematic research on the intercommunity relations of the Jews still

does not go beyond a handful of historical case studies, not directly aimedat the question as such. Zosa Sajkowski, who is becoming the leading

A merican historian in this area, coijtributes several meticulously docu-

mented studies: "Private and Organized Jewish Overseas Relief and

Immigration (1 9 1 4 - 1 93 8 )" ; "Private A merican Jewish Overseas Relief

(1 9 1 9 - 1 9 3 8 ): Problems and A ttempted Solutions" (emphasizing the

role of Landsmanschajten), and "Paul N athan, Lucien Wolf, Jacob H.

Schiff and the Jewish Revolutionary Movements in Eastern Europe(1 9 0 3 - 1 9 1 7 ). " T he general theme of the first and second studies is that

financial aid by A merican Jews was the first step in making possible the

emigration of many Central and E ast E urop ean Jews in the period from

the outbreak of World War I to 1939.

M orton T enzer discusses the successful drive byA merican Zionists




to secure for the Jews "due consideration in the making of the peace"

in a chapter on "T he Jew s" inThe Immigrants' Influence on Wilson's

Peace Treaties, edited by Joseph P. O'Grady. Moshe Gottlieb talks of

A merican Jewry's organized response to the initial N azi measures against

the German Jews in "T he F irst of A pril Boycott an d the Reaction of the

A merican Jewish Co m m unity." H e chronicles the problems of formu-

lating a common course of action in a terribly fragmented community,

and the N azi responses to the action taken.

The institutionalization of intercommunity relations is of first concern

in reconstituting the Jewish polity. But little has been done to study

existing institutions. Jacob Seegar and A zriel E isenberg present a brief

picture of the beginnings of one group in The Early History of the World

Council on Jewish Education, 1960—1966: A Story ofGroping and Ex-

ploring. Elie Kedourie reviews the work of a pioneering institution, "T he

A lliance Israelite Universelle, 1 8 6 0 -1 9 6 0 . "

In "T he Israeli Shaliach in the Jewish Community Center," Irwin

Shaw discusses a concrete aspect of intercommunity collaboration be-

tween Israel and A merican Jewry in the program of the Detroit Jewish

Community Center, which is now becoming institutionalized in others

as well.

EXTERNAL RELATIONS

The six-day war undoubtedly was the most important factor in Jewish-

Gentile relations in 1967 and 1968. Its ramifications have extended to

the second most important factor, the N egro-Jew ish confrontation. Inthe minds of the black militants, their "war" against their Jewish neigh-

bors is akin to the struggle of the A rabs in the so-called third world

against Israel. By making this connection and basing their anti-Jewish

doctrines upon it, the black militants have generated the first crisis in a

generation within the United States (ifnot the first in A merican Jewish

history ), that forces A m erican Jewry to look upo n itself as an entity and,

beyond that, as one tied to the Jewish people in Israel and in the world.The most pronounced consequence is a reenforcement of the emerging

sense of polity among Jew s. T hus, defense organizations w hich, until

May 1967, saw themselves as part of a broad A merican front fighting

all forms of prejudice and discrimination, have gone beyond their dis-

covery of Jewish separateness, produced by the Ju ne events, to enunciate




positions of aggressive defense against any assault on any Jew from theoutside.

Negro-Jewish Confrontation

T he confrontation between black militants and the Jewish com munitygrew into a headline problem in 1968. One of the first large-scale ex-aminations of it was a Midstream symposium, edited by Shlomo Katzand republished as Negro and Jew: An Encounter in America. However,subsequent events make much of the symposium appear dated. Equallydated, it seems, is Gary T . M arx's study of N egro antisemitism, Protest

and Prejudice: A Study of Belief in the Black Com munity, which con-

cludes on the basis of data collected in the early 1960's, no doubtcorrectly, that N egroes were less antisemitic th an com parable whitepopulation groups. Later developments may have changed this findingsubstantially, particularly among the young and the militant. Lawrence A .Kogan's "T he Jewish Conception of N egroes in the N orth : A n HistoricalA pp roach " adds to the understanding of the Jewish aspect of the picture,and its changes over time. A norm ative view of the problem is presented

by Henry Cohen in Justice, Justice: A Jewish View of the Negro Revolt.One recent aspect of the confrontation is discussed by Marie Syrkin in"T he Hatchett A ffair at N .Y .U."

Some of the Jewish community's responses to the problem are dis-cussed hi the recent literature. T heo dore W alden, executive director ofthe Indianapolis Jewish Community Relations Council, reports the ex-periences of his organization in "Intervention by a Jewish Community

Relations Council in a N egro Gh etto: A Case Illustration."

Jewish-Christian Relations

Negro-Jewish confrontations notwithstanding, the usual issues of Jew-ish-Christian relations persisted in 1967-1968. In The American Socio-

logical Review, a review symposium on Charles Y . Glock and RodneyStark, Christian Beliefs and Anti-Semitism (A JY B, 1967 [Vol. 68],p. 6 7 ) , leading social scientists Rob in M . Williams, Jr., A ndrew M .Greeley, and Daniel J. Levinson sharply challenge the authors' manipu-lation and evaluation of their data; their overemphasis of negative find-ings (i.e. that Christian beliefs cause antisemitism), and their tendencyto confuse perceptions of reality with prejudice.

Benjamin B. Ringer provides a sober study of the limits of Jewish-Christian interaction in The Edge of Friendliness: A Study of Jewish-




Gentile Relations, the second volume of the "Lakeville Studies." Morton

Irving Seiden's The Paradox of Hate is a quasi-psychoanalytic study of

antisemitism, of interest primarily because of the antisemitic documents

it contains.The eruption of an antisemitic incident in a school-board election

campaign in Wayne, N ew Jersey (A JY B 1968 [Vol. 69] , pp. 2 3 8 - 2 4 1 ) ,

offered Rodney Stark the opportunity to support his theoretical studies

of antisemitism with a case study. He andStephen Steinberg authored

It Did Happen Here: An Investigation of Political Anti-Semitism:

Wayne, New Jersey, 1967, a short analysis of the incident, reflecting the

sensationalism of its title. A small body of literature has already grown

up about the Wayne incident, as every Jewish defense organization

rushed inwith its own analysts.

Two new works represent Christian schools of thought. In Dialogue

with Israel, Jean D anielou presents what may be called orthodox Catholic

tolerance, the thesis that God loves the Jews despite their continuing

error; ergo, soshould we Christians. Jacob A gus's "Res ponse " appears

in the same volume. A similar exchange takes place between Danielou

and A ndre Chouraqui in The Jews: Views and Counterviews; A Dia-

logue. Very different isA . Roy E ckardt's Elder and Younger Brothers:

The Encounter of Jews and Christians, asensitive sympathetic discussion.

Recent developments in Catholic-Jewish relations are discussed by

Pinchas E. Lapide in Three Popes and the Jews, andA rthur Gilbert

presents a full account of The Vatican Council and the Jews. Ben Zion

Bokser takes a rather conventional Jewish approach to Christianity in

Judaism and the Christian Predicament. Harry Fleischman argues, in"A nti-Sem itism in the United States," that antisemitism has theological

as well as nonreligious roots. He cites studies of Catholic and Protestant

textbooks and of school curricula in support of his thesis, and suggests

programs which would help eliminate this problem. Face to Face, a

collection of 17 articles from Jewish Heritage, edited byLily E delman,

is designed to serve as aprim er for Jewish-C hristian dialogue. T he ques-

tion of the Jewish role in such dialogues is discussed by Walter S.W urzburger and E ugene B . Borowitz in Judaism and the Interfaith Move-

ment.

Armand L. M auss examines "M orm on Semitism and A nti-S emitism"

to show that the high level of self-identification with Jews among Mor-

mons holds down their antisemitic potential.




Communist Bloc and the Jews

T he rise in active antisemitism and denunciation of Israe l an d Zionismin theCommunist countries after the six-day war is documented by

Moshe Decter in Israel and the Jews in the Soviet Mirror: Soviet Car-toons on the Middle East Crisis. T he N ational Community RelationsA dvisory Council discusses its meaning in Implications for Soviet Jewry

in the Middle East Crisis.

E ven m ore virulent was the response in Poland, whose governm ent ineffect restored the antisemitic policies of itsnon-Communist predeces-sors.* Stuart S. Smith deals with " T he R evival of A nti-Semitism in

Pola nd"; Joel M arcus describes "T urmoil in Pola nd"; Reu ben A inszteinanalyses "Poland's A nti-Semitic M ania."

Ronald I. Rubin examines the role of Jewish organizations represent-ing the interests of the Jews in the UN Subcommission on Preven tion ofDiscrimination and Protection of Minorities, in "Soviet Jewry and theUnited N ations: T he Politics of N on-G overnmental O rganizations." Hisstudy is important also as a portrayal of an important, but neglected,aspect of Jewish political life.

THE COURSE OF JEWISH PUBLIC AFFAIRS

By far the finest article in this category was Lloyd Gartner's thorough

and enlightening study of "Ro um ania, A merica and W orld Jewry: Con-

sul Peixotto in Bucharest, 1870-1876." Tracing the strange story ofA merica's Jewish representative in Ru m ania, w ho actually had been sent

by A merican Jewry to help persecuted fellow-Jews, G artner provides apicture of Jewish life (including its community structure) during Ru-mania's emergence as an independent state. He gives an absorbing

account of the dynamics of international Jewish politics in the late 19thcentury, when a "co ncert" of wealthy Jewish aristocrats in E uro pe served

as akind of worldwide war cabinet for the protection of Jewish interests.

T he nearly 100-page article decisively dem onstrates the existence of aJewish "national" policy and politics, developed anddirected by the

most "liberal" Western Jews, even while they were busy denying Jewish

nationhood.

T he widest-selling general Jewish history published in 19 67 - 19 68 was

A b ba E b an 's My People: The Story of the Jews. Ahighly personalized

* See review of Poland, p . 395.




account, it both gains andsuffers from the emphasis on the personalinterest of the author, and deals with Jewish public affairs primarily inregard tothe rise of Israel.

Jacob N eusner's A History of the Jews in Babylonia (Volume III)

reflects the new trends in Jewish historiography with his clear interest inthe political life of the Jewish community. D. M. Dunlop's classic, The

History of the Jewish Khazars, which presents the available material on

the political life andorganization of Khazaria, was reissued. VolumesXI and XII of Salo W. Baron's A Social and Religious History of the

Jews bring this series up to 1650, roughly the beginning of the modernera. Volume XI, Citizen or Alien Conjurer, portrays the uncertain legaland political standing of the Jews and their communal structures, as themedieval system of corporations crumbled in the face of new politicaland social forms. Volume XII, Economic Catalyst, documents the Jews1

invaluable role in creating the system that so radically changed theirway of life.

The trend in Jewish concerns from 1650 to 1950 can be capsulizedas a three-stage movement: from national redemption to emancipation;from emancipation to cosmopolitan messianism; from cosmopolitan

messianism to genocide and national rebirth.Michael A . Meyer, in The Origins of the Modern Jew: Jewish Identity

and European Culture in Germany, 1749—1824, deals with the intellec-tual history of the Jewish vanguard of emancipation in Germany. His

data show how the transmutation of Jewish political ideas into religiousones (paradoxically, at a time when Christian religious ideas were beingsecularized and given political form) created the possibility for educated

Jews to accept aworldview more suitable to the conditions of emancipa-tion. In an important footnote to this point, Jacob Katz discusses "Free-masons and Jews," concentrating on the E urop ean, particularly theGerman, experience, and ignores the very different relationship thatdeveloped in A merica.

T he failure of Jewish cosmopolitan messianism in the first half ofthe 20th century was documented in two works. E zra M endelsohn d is-

cusses the failure of the Socialist labor unions of turn-of-the-centuryRussia to bridge the gap between Jews and Gentiles in"Jews and Chris-tian Workers in theRussian Pale of Settlement." Bernard Johnpoll'spreviously cited study of the Jewish Workers' Bund of Poland (p. 198)examines its failure to establish itself as a respectable part of thatcountry's political hie in the interwar period. Both studies tell the sad




tale of Jews talking internationalism to other Jews (and attacking "Jew-

ish" particularism at the same time), while their non-Jewish neighborscontinued to reject them forcibly on antisemitic grounds.

T he end results of this trend are made clear in Lothar Kahn's

Mirrors of the Jewish Mind, a study of the ideas and intellectual con-flicts in the minds of the foremost E urop ean Jewish writers in the period

between the emergence of modern antisemitism and the rise ofHitler,and how the T ightness of the Zionist solution becam e even m ore apparen t.

From antisemitic rejection to genocide was an easy step. Publicationson the Holocaust continue to occupy an important place in the world of

Jewish writing. Several important recent books on the Jewish response

have already been cited (p. 196). A second, revised and augmentededition of Gerald Reitlinger's The Final Solution: The Attempt to Ex-

terminate the Jews of Europe 1939-1945 appeared in 1968. SimonW iesenthal presents his highly personal account of the effort to findand

punish those responsible, in The Murderers Among Us.

T he problem of the A merican response to the destruction of E uropeanJewry remains one of the major concerns of students of contemporary

Jewish pub lic affairs. T he pub lication of A rthur D . M orse's damning

While Six Million Died puts the question before a large reading public,and answers it in the most critical terms. Sheldon Spear draws similar

conclusions, in mo re muted tones, in "T he U nited States and the Perse-cution of the Jews in Germany, 19 33 - 19 39 ." N ora Levin's The Holo-

caust: The Destruction of European Jewry (1933-1945) is a simplified

retelling of the gruesome story.

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Philip M. Klutznick offers a sequel to No Easy Answers, his earlier

diagnosis of the problems of the contemporary Jewish community, in

After Victory, Vigil: A Prospectus for the Jewish Com munity.

In "Perspectives on A merican Jew ry," E li Ginzberg presents a fairly

conventional five-point program for reinforcing the Jewish cultural back-

ground of the A m erican Jews by strengthening Jewish education and

ties with Israel, and raising the educational level of Jewish communalleadership.

T he question of the Jewish college studen t's ties with Judaism became

a major public issue. Irving Greenberg gives an overview of the situa-

tion in "Jewish Survival and the College Campus." Speaking for the




student generation, Richard N arva discusses "Judaism on the C am pus—

Why It Fails." He advocates the application of the students' quest forparticipation to Jewish life on the campus, and a simultaneous corporate

thrust toward intellectual excellence and social involvement.

RESEARCH APPROACHES, METHODS, AND

RESOURCES

E lmer N . Lear suggests anapproach to the study of A merican Jewish

communal functions in " 'Relevance' and the Structure of A merican S ub-Cultures." F riederike Wilder-Okladek discusses the problem of studying

contemporary Jewish life in Germany and A ustria in "A N ote on JewishResearch in 'T ainted' Co un tries," listing sources of data for suchresearch.

David H. and Daniel J. E lazar authored A Classification System for

Libraries of Judaica, the first comprehensive Judaica classification sys-

tem that is constructed entirely on Jewish principles , and classifies Jewish

political concerns as such.T he publication of American Jewish Year Book: Index to Volumes

1-50, 1899-1949 (5660-5709), prepared by Elfrida C. Solis-Cohen,and the Jewish Social Studies Cum ulative Index, 1939-1964 , Vols. I-

XXV, compiled by Max M. Rothschild, add valuable tools for Jewish

social research . T he first isanalytic and particularly useful in identifying

Jewish communal figures; the second is a record of contemporary Jewishscholarship. T he A m erican Jewish Historical Society's A Preliminary

Survey of the Manuscript Collections Found in the American Jewish

Historical Society, edited by N athan Kaganoff, deals with 68 collections.N athan Kaganoff's annual listings of "Judaica A m ericana" continues

to be an important bibliographic resource for the historian. T he com -

pilation, Social Scientific Studies of Religion: A Bibliography, by MorrisI. Berkowitz and J. E dm und John son includes relevant Jewish materials.

T he YIVO Institute for Jewish Research issued a list of Doctoral Dis-

sertations and Master's Theses Accepted by American Institutions of

Higher Learning, 1964-65 on Jewish subjects, compiled by PhyllisDisenhouse.

Paul Glikson provides a bibliographic survey of the works of JacobLestschinsky, the foremost student of contemporary Jewish life in his

time, in "Jacob Lestschinsky: ABibliographical Survey." Y onah A lex-

ander compiled Israel: Selected, Annotated and Illustrated Bibliography.




A m ong the data sources to appear are A zriel E isenberg, compiler,

World Census on Jewish Education, and the fifth edition of American

Jewish Organizations Directory, edited by Larry S. Goldstein.

If 1967 was the turning point it seems to have been in the rediscoveryof the Jewish polity, it is reflected only in the most immediately relevantdiscussions of Jewish pub lic affairs. A merican Jew ish intellectual effort isstill primarily concerned with questions of theology and Jewish identity.While the volume of material touching on Jewish public affairs is im-mense, and growing, the number of studies that approach it from apolitical perspective lag behind . Y et the fact tha t the most imm ediately

relevant discussions have taken a turn in that direction may well fore-shadow a more direct concern with the Jews as a certain kind of politicalcommunity—a most helpful development in the continuing task of tryingto understand the nature of this people.

D A N IE L J. E LA ZA R



BIBLIOGRA PHY

BOOKS AND M O N O G R A P H S

AOLER, BILL, ed., Israel: A Reader; Portraitof a Nation and Its People (Philadel-phia: Chilton Book Co., 1968), 189 p.

ALEXANDER, YONAH, Israel: Selected, An-notated and Illustrated Bibliography(Gilbertsville, N.Y.: V. Buday, 1968),116 p.

ALT , ALBRECHT, Essays on Old TestamentHistory and Religion, tr. from German(Garden City, N .Y .: Doubleday A nchorBooks, 1968), 274 p.

American Professors for Peace inthe Mid-dle E ast, The Middle East in the Con-temporary World (NewY ork: 1968) ,81 p.

ARIAN, ALAN, Ideological Change in Israel(Cleveland: Press of Case Western Re-serve University, 1968), 220 p.

ARNONI, M. S., Rights and Wrongs—TheArab-Israeli Co nflict (Passaic, N.J.: TheMinority of One, Inc., 1968), 191 p.

ARON, WILLIAM, Jews of Hamburg: Mem-oirs (N ew Y ork: A merican Jewish Com-mittee of Hamburg Jews, 1967), 87 p.

AVNERY, URI, Israel Without Zionists: APlea for Peace in the Middle East (NewY ork: Macmillan, 1968), 215 p.

AXELROD, MORRIS; FOWLER, FLOYD J., andG U N N , ARNOLD, A Community Surveyfor Long Range Planning; A Study ofthe Jewish Popu lation of Greater Boston(Boston: Combined Jewish Philan-thropies of Greater Boston, 1967), xxiii,229 p.

BAKER, HENRY E., The Legal System ofIsrael (Jerusalem: Israel UniversitiesPress, 1968), 277 p.

BAMBERGER, BERNARD J., Proselytism in theTalmudic Period, reissue (Ktav Publish-ing House, 1968), 310 p.

BANKI, JUDITH H., Christian Reactions tothe Middle East Crisis: NewAgenda forlntefreligious Dialogue (New Y o r k :A merican Jewish Com mittee, 1 967), 20p. (mimeo).

BARON, SALO W., A Social and ReligiousHistory of the Jews, 2nd ed., Vols. XI,XII (New York and Philadelphia:Columbia University Press and Jewish

Publication Society, 1967), 422, 359 p.BAYNE, E. A., Jerusalem: Israel Capital(N ew Y ork: A merican Universities FieldStaff Report, 1967), 31 p.

BAR-ZOHA R, MICHA E L, Ben Gurion: TheArmed Prophet, tr. from French (Engle-wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968),296 p.

BEN-1A MI (pseud.), Between Hammer and

Sickle (Philadelphia: Jewish PublicationSociety of A merica, 1967), 307 p.

BEN-ISRAEL, SHELOMO, Russian Sketches:A Visit to Jews Without Hope (NewY ork: A merican Jewish Comm ittee,1967), 55 p.

BE R GE R , M I L T O N ; G E F F E N , J OE L S. andH O F F M A N , D A V ID M. eds., Roads toJewish S urvival: Essays, Biographies, andArticles Selected from the Torch on Its25th Anniversary (NewY ork: N ationalFederation of Jewish Men's Clubs andBloch Publishing Co., 1967), 414 p.

BERKOWITZ, MORRIS I. and J O H N S O N , J.EDMUND, Social Scientific Studies of Re-ligion: A Bibliography (Pittsburgh: Uni-versity of Pittsburgh Press, 1967), 258 p.,

BERMAN, LOUIS A., Jews and Intermarriage,.A Study in Personality and Culture-(South Brunswick, N.J.: T homas Y ose-loff, 1968), 707 pp.

BERMANT, CHAIM, Israel (New York:Walker, 1967), 224 p.

BISGYER, MAURICE, Challenge and Encoun-ter: Behind the Scenes in the Strugglefor Jewish Survival (NewY ork: Crown

Publishers, 1967), 279 p.BOKSER, BEN ZION, Judaism and the Chris-tian Predicament (New Y o rk : Knopf,1967), 384 p.

B O ND Y, R U TH ; ZMO R A, O H AD , and B A S H A N ,RAPHAEL, eds., Mission Survival: ThePeople of Israel's Story in Their OwnWords (N ew Y ork: Sabra Books, 1968),503 p.

B O R O WI TZ, EU G ENE B., A New Jewish The-ology in the Making (Philadelphia:Westminster Press, 1968), 220 p.

BRAHAM, RANDOLPH, L., ed., Hungarian

Jewish Studies (NewY ork: World Fed-eration of Hungarian Jews, 1966), 346 p.

B R AI TER MAN, WI LLI AM, Memories of thePalestine Jewish Legion of 1917 (Balti-more: Jewish Historical Society of Mary-land, 1967), 8 p.

BRONNER, LEAH, Sects and Separatism Dur-ing the Second Commonwealth (NewY ork: Bloch Publishing Com pany, 1967),174 p.

B U B ER , MAR TI N , Kingship of God, tr. byRichard Scheimann (New York and

E vanston: H arper & Row, 1967), 224 p.B U B ER , MAR TI N , On Judaism, ed. by Na-hum N. Glatzer (New Y ork: SchockenBooks, 1967), 242 p.

B U B ER , MAR TI N , On the Bible, ed. by Na-hum N. Glatzer (NewY ork: SchockenBooks, 1968), 225 p.

CECIL, LAMAR, Albert Ballin: Business andPolitics in Imperial G ermany, 1888-1918(Princeton: Princeton University Press,1967), 388 p.

225



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C H A R R Y , E L I A S and SEGAL, ABRAHAM, TheEternal People (NewY ork: SynagogueCommission onJewish E ducation, 1967),429 p.

CHOURA QUI, A N D R E , Between East andWest, (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication

Society, 1968), 376 p.COGAN, SARA G., Pioneer Jews of the Cali-fornia Mother Lode, 1849-1880: An An-notated Bibliography (Berkeley: WesternJewish History Center, 1968), x, 54 p.

COHEN, GERSON D., ed., Sefer Ha-Qabbalah(Book of Tradition) by A braham IbnDavid (Philadelphia: Jewish PublicationSociety, 1967), 506 p.

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The Condition of Jewish Belief: A Sym-posium, compiled by theeditors ofCom-mentary (New Y o r k : Macmillan, 1967),280 p.

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D A N I E L O U , J E A N and CHOURAQUI, A N D R E ,The Jews: Views and Counterviews: A

Dialogue, tr. from French (Westminster,M d.: N ewman, 1967), 92 p.DAVID, J AY , ed., Letters from Israel (New

Y ork: Coward-M cCann, 1968), 320 p.DAWIDOWICZ, LUCY S., The Golden Tradi-

tion: Jew ish Life and Thought in EasternEurope (NewY ork: H olt, Rinehart andWinston, 1967), 502 p.

DA WIDOWICZ, LUCY S., H I M M E L F A R B , M I L -TON, eds., Conference on Jewish Identity,Here and Now (New Y ork: A mericanJewish Committee, 1967), 53 p. (mimeo).

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(N ew Y ork: M cGraw-Hill, 1967), 113 p.DECTER, MOSHE, ed., Israel and the Jewsin the Soviet Mirror: Soviet Cartoons onthe Middle East Crisis (N ew Y ork : Con-ference on the Status of Soviet Jews,1967), 48 p.

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fication System for Libraries of Judaica(Detroit: Wayne State University Li-braries, 1968), 192 p.

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FREEHOF, SOLOMON B., Current ReformResponsa (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union

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lications, 1967), 309 p.FREULICH, ROMAN in collab. with ABRAM-SON, JEAN, The Hill of Life (SouthBrunswick, N.J.: Thomas Yoseloff,1968), 203 p.

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wind: A Reader of Holocaust Literature



T H E R E D I S C O V E R E D P O L IT Y / 227

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Y ork: V iking, 1967), xxvii, 258 p.GILBERT, ARTHUR, The Vatican Counciland the Jews (Cleveland: World Pub-lishing Co., 1968), xiv, 322 p.

GLICK, EDWARD BERNARD, Peaceful Con-flict: The Civilian Uses of the Military(Harrisburg: Stackpole, 1967), 223 p.

GLUECK, NELSON, Hesed in the Bible (Cin-cinnati: The Hebrew Union CollegePress, 1967), 107 p.

GOLDBERG, S. P., The American JewishCommunity: Its Structure, Role, and Or-ganizations (N ew Y ork: Women's A mer-ican ORT Community Service Publica-tion, 1968), 32 p.

GOLDBERG, SA UL, comp., The Campus Re-sponse to the Israel Crisis (Washington,D.C.: B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundation,1967), 21 p.

GOLDHAGEN, ERICH, ed., Ethnic Minoritiesin the Soviet Union (NewY ork: Fred-erick Praeger, 1968), 351 p.

GOLDSTEIN, SIDNEY, A Population Surveyof the Greater Springfield Jewish Com-munity (Springfield, Mass.: Jewish Com-

munity Council, 1968), 181 p.GOLDSTEIN, SIDNEY and GOLDSCHEIDER,CALVIN, Jewish Americans: Three Gen-erations in a Jewish Comm unity (Engle-wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1968), 274 p.

GOITEIN, SHELOMO DOV, A MediterraneanSociety: The Jewish Communities of theArab World as Portrayed in the Docu-ments of the Cairo Geniza, Vol. 1:Economic Foundations (Berkeley andLos A ngeles: University of CaliforniaPress, 1967), xxvi, 550 p.

GORDON, ALBERT I., The Nature of Conver-sion: A Study of Forty-Five Men andWomen who Changed Their Religion(Boston: Beacon Press, 1967), 333 p.

GRAZIANI, BERNICE S., Where There's aWoman: 75 Years of History As Livedby the National Council of JewishWomen (New Y ork: McCall Corp.,1967), 127 p.

GREE N BERG, SIMON , Foundations of aFaith (New Y o rk : The Burning BushPress, 1967), 340 p.

GRUBER, RUT H, Israel on the Seventh Day(N ew Y ork: Hill & Wang, 1968), 214 p.GUTSTEIN, MORRIS, Profiles of Freedom

(Chicago and NewY ork: College ofJewish Studies Press and Bloch Publish-ing Co., 1967), 165 p.

HAFFNER, SYLVIA, The History of ModemIsrael's Mo ney, 1917-196 7 (San Diego:no pub., 1967), 196 p.

HALEVI , NADAV and K L I N O V - M A L U L , R U T H ,The Economic Development of Israel

(New York: Frederick A. Praeger,1968), xviii, 321 p.

H A L P E R N , BEN and WU R M, SH ALO M, eds.,The Responsible Attitude: Life and Opin-ions of Giora Josephthal (New Y o rk :Schocken Books, 1967), 281 p.

HERSHKOWITZ, L E O , Wills of Early NewYork Jews, 1704-1799 (New Y o r k :A merican Jewish Historical Society,1967), xvi, 229 p.

HERTZBERG, ARTHUR, The French Enlight-enment and the Jews (New York andPhiladelphia: Columbia University Pressand Jewish Publication Society, 1968),420 p.

H E T H , M E IR , The Legal Framework ofEconomic Activity in Israel (NewY o r k :Frederick A. Praeger, 1967), 292 p.

HODES, AUBREY, Dialogue With Ishmael:Israel's Future in the Middle East (NewY ork: Funk andWagnalls, 1968), 258 p.

HOROWITZ, DAVID, The Economics of Israel(Oxford, E ngland: Pergamon Press,1967), 254 p.

Implications for Soviet Jewry in the Mid-dle East Crisis (New Y ork: N ationalComm unity R elations A dvisory Cou ncil,1967), 16 p.

ISAACS, HAROLD R., American Jews inIsrael (New Y ork: John Day, 1967),253 p.

Israel and American Jewry—1967 and Be-yond (New Y ork: Union of A mericanHebrew Congregations, 1967), 117 p.

JANOWSKY, OSCAR, ed., The Education ofAmerican Jewish Teachers (Boston:Beacon Press, 1967), 352 p.

The Jewish Communities of Eastern Eu-rope: A First Hand Report by a StudyMission of the American Jewish Con-gress (New Y ork: A merican JewishCongress, 1967), 72 p. (mimeo).

JOHN POLL, BERNA RD K., The Politics ofFutility: The General Jewish WorkersBund of Poland, 1917-1943 (Ithaca:Cornell University Press, 1967), 298 p.

JOSEPH, SAMUEL, Jewish Immigration tothe United States, reissue (New Y o rk :A MS Press, 1967), 209 p.

JUNG, L E O , Human Relations in JewishLaw, (New Y ork: Jewish E ducationCommittee Press, 1967).

K A G A N O F F , N A T H A N M., dir., A Prelimi-nary Survey of the Manuscript Collec-tions Found in the American JewishHistorical Society (N ew Y ork: A merican

Jewish Historical Society, 1967), 29 p.K AH ANE, MEI R ; C H U R B A, JO SEPH , andKING, MICHAEL, The Jewish Stake inVietnam (New Y ork: Crossroads Pub-lishing Co., 1967), 224 p.

KAHN, LOTHAR, Mirrors of the JewishMind (South Brunswick and N ew Y o rk :Thomas Yoseloff, 1968), 272 p.

KA HN , LUDWIG D., The Loevinger Familyof Laupheim: Pioneers in South Dakota(Basle, 1967), 83 p.




K A H N , ROGER, The Passionate People:What It Means toBe a Jew in America(N ew Y ork: W illiam M orrow, 1968),350 p.

K A P L A N , B E N J A M I N , The Jew and HisFamily (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State

University Press, 1967), 205 p.KA P L A N , L OUIS L. and SCHUCHAT, THEO-

DOR, Justice—Not Charity: A Biographyof Harry Greenstein (N ew Y ork: CrownPublishers, 1967), 176 p.

KARIV, AVRAHAM, Lithuania, Land of MyBirth, tr. from Hebrew (NewYork :Herzl Press, 1967), 92 p.

KATCHER, LE O , Postmortem: The Jews inGermany Today (NewY ork: DelacortePress, 1968), 267 p.

KATZ, SAMUEL, Days of Fire: The SecretHistory of the Irgun Zvai Leumi andthe Making of Israel (Garden City,N . Y . : Doubleday andCo., 1968), 317 p.

KA T Z , SHL OMO, ed., Negro and Jew: AnEncounter in America (N ew Y ork: Mac -miJlan, 1967), 141 p.

KERTZER, MORRIS N., Today's AmericanJew (NewY ork: M cGraw Hill, 1967),296 p.

KIMCHE, DAVID, and B A W L Y , DAN, TheSandstorm: The Arab-Israel War of June1967; Prelude and Aftermath (NewY ork: Stein andDay, 1968), 319 p.

KXUTZNICK, PHILIP M., After Victory,Vigil: A Prospectus for the Jewish Com-munity (NewY o rk : ADL, 1967), 15 p.

KOZ ODOY , N EA L , ed., The Generations ofIsrael (NewY o rk : CBSLegacy Collec-tion, 1968), 205 p.

-KRAFT, LOUIS, The Development of theJewish Community Center (New Y ork :N ational A ssociation of Jewish Center"Workers, 1967), 454 p.

"KRESH, PAUL, ed., The American JudaismReader (New Y ork: A belard-Schuman,1967), 366 p.

KREUTZBERGER, M A X , ed., Studies of LeoBaeck Institute (New Y ork: FrederickUngar Publishing Co., 1967), x, 318 p.

JCUSHN IR, SHIMON, The Village Builder:A Biography of Abraham Harzfeld, tr.from Hebrew (NewY ork: Herzl Press,1967), 346 p.

X A L L , A R T H U R , The UN and the MiddleEast C risis, 1967 (N ew Y ork: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1968), viii, 322 p.

L A M M , N O R M A N , and WURZBURGER, WAL-TER S., comp., A Treasury of "Tradition"

(N ew Y ork: Hebrew Publishing Co.,1967), 462 p.LAQUEUR, WALTER, The Road to Jerusalem:

The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict—1967 (NewY o r k : Macmillan, 1968),368 p.

LARKIN, MARGARET, The Hand of Mordecai(South Brunswick, N .J.: T homas Yoseloff,1968), 256 p.

LAUFER, LEOPOLD, Israel and the Develop-ing Countries: New Approaches to Co-

operation (New Y ork: T wentieth Cen-tury Fund, 1967), 298 p.

L EICHTER, HOP E and MITCHE L L , WIL LIA ME ., Kinship and Casework (New Y o rk :Russell Sage Foundation, 1967), 343 p.

LEVIN, NORA, The Holocaust: The Destruc-

tion of European Jewry (1933-1945)(N ew Y ork: T homas Y. Crowell, 1968),768 p.

[LEVIN, SHMARYA] Forward From Exile:The Autobiography of Shmarya Levin,trans, by Maurice Samuel (Philadelphia:Jewish Publication Society, 1967), 419 p.

LIPIDE, PINCHAS E., Three Popes and theJews (NewY ork: Haw thorne Books,1967), 384 p.

LITVINOFF, BARNET, A Peculiar People(N ew Y ork: Weybright andT alley, 1968),

308 p.LONSCHEIN, SAM, My 83 Years: The Mem-oirs of a Veteran Zionist (New Y ork :A merican Zebulun, 1967), 251 p.

MA N DEL , MORRIS and GA RTE N BE RG, LEO,Israel Through Eight Eyes: An OrthodoxView of the Holy Land (New Y ork :Jonathan David, 1967), 213 p.

MA N DE L BA UM, BERN A RD, The Maturing ofthe C onservative Mo vement (N ew Y ork :Burning Bush Press, 1968), 35 p.

MA'OZ, MOSHE, Ottoman Reform in Syriaand Palestine 1840-1861 (New Y ork :

Oxford University Press, 1968), 282 p.MARCUS, JACOB R., The American ColonialJew: A Study in Acculturation (Syra-cuse: Syracuse University P ress, N ovem-ber 1967), 24 p.

MA RS HA L L , GEN E RA L S A MUEL L. A TWOOD,Swift Sword (N ew Y ork: A merican Her-itage Publishing Co., 1967), 144 p.

MA RTIN , BERN A RD, ed., Contemporary Re-form Jewish Thought (Chicago: Quad-rangle Books, 1968), 216 p.

MARX, GARY T., Protest and Prejudice: AStudy of Belief in the Black Community(N ew Y ork: Harper andRow, 1967),228 p.

MAYER, ALBERT J., Milwaukee Jewish Pop-ulation Study 1964-1965 (Milwaukee:Jewish Welfare Fund, 1967), 86 p.

MCSHEA, ROBERT J., The Political Philoso-phy of Spinoza (New Y ork: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1968), 214 p.

MECHANICUS, PHILIP. Year of Fear (NewY ork: Hawthorn Books, 1968), 288 p.

MEDDING, PETER Y., From Assimilation toGroup Survival (M elbourne: F.W. Ches-

ire, 1968), 309 p.MEEKER, ODEN, Israel: Ancient Land,Young Nation (NewY ork: Scribner,1968), 358 p.

MERLIN, SAMUEL, The Search for Peace inthe Middle East (South Brunswick, N .J.:Thomas Yoseloff, 1968), 490 p.

M E Y E R , M I C H A E L A., The Origins of theModem Jew: Jewish Identity andEuro-pean Culture in Germany, 1749-1824




(Detroit: Wayne State University Press,1967), 249 p.

MORSE, ARTHUR D., While Six MillionDied (New Y ork: Random House,1968), 420 p.

N E U M A N N , E M A N U E L , A Galaxy of Ameri-

can Zionist Rishonim: Abba Hillel Silver(N ew Y ork: Brith Rishonim of theU.S.,March 1967), 18 p.

NEUSNER, JACOB, A History of the Jews inBabylonia, Vol. Ill (Leiden: E. J. Brill,1968), xxi, 393 p.

NISSENSON, HUGH, Notes from the Frontier(N ew Y ork: Dial Press, 1968), 215 p.

N OTH, MARTIN , The Laws in the Pentatenchand Other Studies, tr. from German(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967),289 p.

PETUCHOWSKI, JAKOB J., Zion Reconsidered(N ew Y ork: T wayne Publishers, 1966),143 p.

PHILIPSON , DA VID, The Reform Movementin Judaism, reissue (New Y o r k : KtavPublishing Co., 1967), 503 p.

PILCH, JUDA H, ed., Philip W. town: AJubilee Volume (N ew Y o rk : Bloch Pub-lishing Co., 1967), 130 p.

POLLAK, MORRIS, Labor Law and Practicein Israel (Washington: U.S. Bureau ofLabor Statistics, 1967), 120 p.

POSTAL, BERNARD, HOW the Jewish Com-

munity Centers Mobilized in Support ofIsrael (N ew Y ork: N ational Jewish Wel-fare Board, n.d.), 8 p.

PRITTIE , TERENCE, Israel: Miracle in theDesert (New Y ork: Praeger, 1967),246 p.; rev. ed. (Baltimore: PenguinBooks, 1968), 260 p.

RABINOWTTZ, EZEKIEL, Justice Louis D.Brandeis: The Zionist Chapter of HisLife (NewY ork: Philosophical Library,1968), 130 p.

REITLINGER, GERALD, The Final Solution:

The Attempt toExterminate the Jews ofEurope 1939-1945 (NewY ork: T homasYoseloff, 1968), 668 p.

RINGER, BENJAMIN B., The Edge of Friend-liness: A Study of Jewish-Gentile Rela-tions (NewY ork: Basic Books, 1967),272 p.

ROSENBERG, JAMES N., Unfinished Business:The James N. Rosenberg Papers (Ma-maroneck, N .Y .: Vincent Marasia Press,1967), 377 p.

ROSENBLATT, BERNARD A., Two Genera-

tions of Zionism: Historical Recollectionsof an American Zionist (NewY o r k :Shengold Publishers, 1967), 286 p.

ROTENSTREICH, NATHAN, Jewish Philosophyin Modern Times, From Mendelsohn toRosenzweig (NewY ork: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, 1968), 256 p.

ROTHSCHILD, MA X M., Jewish Social Stud-ies Cum ulative Index, 1939-196 4, Vols.1-XXV (N ew Y ork: Conference on Jew-ish Social Studies, 1967), 148 p.

R U B ENO V I TZ, H ER MAN H. and M I G N O N L.The Waking Heart (Cambridge, Mass.:N athaniel Dam e, 1967), 295 p.

R U B IN , RO N A L D I., ed., The Unredeemed:Anti-Semitism in the Soviet Union (Chi-cago: Quadrangle Books, 1968), 316 p.

RUDAVSKY, DAVID, Emancipation and Ad-justment: Contemporary Jewish ReligiousMovements, Their History and Thought(N ew Y ork: Diplomatic Press, 1967),460 p.

SABIN, ALBERT B., et al., The Arabs Needand Want Peace, But— (NewY o r k :A merican Professors for Peace in theMiddle East, 1968), 31 p.

SAMUEL, MAURICE, Light on Israel (NewY ork: A lfred A. Knopf, 1968), 212 p.

SCHAAR, STUART H., Patterns of Israeli Aidand Trade in East Africa (New Y o r k :A merican Universities Field Staff, Febru-ary 1969), 28p. (2 parts) .

S C H M I D T , D A N A A D A M S , Yemen: The Un-known War (London: Bodley Head,1968), 316 p.

SEEGAR, JACOB and EI SEN B ER G, A ZR IE L, TheEarly History of the World Council onJewish Education, 1960-1966: A Storyof Groping and Exploring (New Y o rk :World Council on Jewish E ducation,1967), 10.p. (mimeo.).

SEI D EN , MO R TO N I., The Paradox of

Hate (South Brunswick, N.J.: ThomasYoseloff, 1967), 258 p.SHAZAR, ZALMAN, Morning Stars (Philadel-

phia: Jewish Publication Society, 1967),234 p.

SHER, E V A , Life with Farmer Goldstein(N ew Y ork: Funk andWagnaUs, 1967),256 p.

S I E G M A N , H E N R Y , ed., The Religious Di-mensions of Israel: The Challenge of theSix-Day War (New Y ork: SynagogueCouncil of A merica, 1968), 46 p.

SILVER, ABBA HILLEL, Therefore Choose

Life (New Y ork : World Publishing Co.,1967), 448 p.

SIMON, MARCEL, Jewish Sects at the Timeof Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,1967), 180 p.

SKLARE, MARSHALL and G R E E N B L U M , JO-SEPH, Jewish Identity on the SuburbanFrontier (New Y ork: Basic Books,1967), 362 p.

Society for the History of CzechoslovakJews, The Jews of Czechoslovakia, Vol.1 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication So-

ciety, 1968), 583 p.SOLIS-COHEN, ELFRIDA C , American JewishYear Book: Index to Volumes 1—50,1899-1949 (5660-5709) (New Y o rk :Ktav Publishing House, 1967), 375 p.

SPEISER, E.A., Oriental andBiblical Stud-ies (Philadelphia: University of Penn-sylvania Press, 1967), 616 p.

STARK, RODNEY and S T E I N B E R G , S T E P H E N ,// DidHappen Here: An Investigationof Political Anti-Semitism: W ayne, New



230 / A M E R IC A N J E W I S H Y E A R B OO K , 1969

cone Press, 1968), 308 p.TELLER, JUDD L., ed., Welfare State and

Welfare Society: A Symposium by Amer-ican and Israeli Experts in the Fields ofHousing, Urban Development, SocialService, Adult Education, Leisure (New

Y ork: A merican Histadrut Cultural Ex-change Institute, 1967), 190 p.They Dared to Dream: A History of the

National Wom en's League, 1918-1968(N ew Y ork: N ational Women's Leagueof the United Synagogue of A merica,1967), 107 p.

VIDA, GEORGE, From Doom to Dawn: AJewish Chaplain's Story of DisplacedPersons (New Y ork: Jonathan David,1967), 146 p.Jersey, 1967 (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia, 1967), 32 p.

S T E I N , L E O N A R D and YOGEV, GEDALIA, eds.,The Letters andPapers of Chaim Weiz-mann (New Y ork: Oxford UniversityPress, 1968), 516 p.

STERN, NORTON B., California Jewish His-tory: A Descriptive Bibliography (Glen-dale, Calif.: A. H. Clark Co., 1967),175 p.

STOCK, ERNEST, From Conflict to Under-standing (New Y ork: A merican JewishCommittee, 1968), 104 p.

STOCK, ERNEST, Israel on the Road to

Sinai: 1949-1956 (Ithaca: Cornell Uni-versity Press, 1967), 284 p.STRAUSS, L E O , Liberalism, Ancient and

Modern (N ew Y ork: Basic Books, 1968),304 p.

STRAUSS, LE O , Spinoza's Critique of Reli-gion (N ew Y ork : Schocken Books, 1965),363 p.

SUHL, Y URI, ed.and trans., They FoughtBack: The Story of the Jewish Resistancein Nazi Europe (NewY ork: CrownPublishers, 1967), 327 p.

SYRKIN, MARIE, ed., Hayim Greenberg An-

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TELLER, JUDD L., Strangers and Natives:The Evolution of the Am erican Jew from1921 to the Present (NewY o rk : Dela-

VITELES , HA RRY , A History of the Co-operative Movement in Israel: A SourceBook, Vol. IV, (London: Vallentine,Mitchell, 1968).

VORSPAN, ALBERT, Jewish Values and So-cial Crisis: A Casebook for Social Action

(N ew Y ork: Union of A merican HebrewCongregations, 1968), 306 p.WARBURG, JAMES P., Crosscurrents in the

Middle East (NewY o rk : A theneum,1968), x, 244 p.

WA RN ER, WILLIA M LLOY D, ed., The Emer-gent American Society, Vol. 1: LargeScale Organizations (New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1967), 667 p.

WEISBORD, ROBERT G., African Zion (Phil-adelphia: Jewish Publication Society,1968), 347 p.

[WEISGAL, MEYER] Odyssey of an Optimist:

Meyer Weisgal; An Anthology by HisContemporaries (NewY ork: A theneum,1967), 268 p.

WEIZMANN, VERA, as told to David Tutaev,The Impossible Takes Longer (NewYork andEvanston: Harper and Row,1967), 308 p.

W E Y L , N A T H A N I E L , The Jew in AmericanPolitics (N ew Rochelle: A rlington House,1968), 375 p.

WIESEN THA L, SIMON , The Murderers AmongUs (New Y ork: McGraw-H ill, 1967),

340 p.WURZBURGER, WALTER S., and BOROWITZ,EUGENE B., Judaism and the InterfaithMovement (N ew Y ork: Synagogue Coun-cil of A merica, 1968), 29 p.

YAFFE, JAMES, The American Jews, Portraitof a Split Personality (NewY o r k : Ran-dom House, 1968), 338 p.

ZEITLIN, SOLOMON, The Rise and Fall ofthe Judaean State: A Political, Socialand Religious History of the SecondCommonwealth, Vol.2: 37 BCE-66 CE(Philadelphia: Jewish Publication So-

ciety, 1967), xiii, 465 p.ZENNER, WALTER P., Syrian Jewish Identifi-cation in Israel, doctoral dissertation(A nn A rbor : Univ . of Michigan Micro-films, Inc., 1967).

ZIDON, ASHER, Knesset: The Parliament ofIsrael (NewY o r k : Herd Press, 1967),342 p.

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS

A GUS, JA COB, "Response," in Danielou,Jean, Dialogue with Israel (Baltimore:Helicon Press, 1968), 128 p.

A I N S Z T E I N , R E U B E N , "Poland's Anti-SemiticMania," Midstream, Vol. XIV, No.7,A ugust/September 1968, pp. 3-27.

ALTER, ROBERT, "Israel and the Intellectu-als," Commentary, Vol. 44, No. 4, Octo-ber 1967, pp. 46-52.

ALTER, ROBERT, "Rhetoric and the Arab

Mind," Commentary, Vol. 46, No. 4,October 1968, pp. 61-65.

AMICHAI, YEHUDA, "Letter from Jerusa-lem," Midstream, Vol. XIV, No. 1, Jan-uary 1968, pp. 26-31.

"A n A ppea l toCom rade A . Snietskus, FirstSecretary of theCentral Committee ofthe Lithuanian Communist Party," Mid-stream, Vol.XIV, No. 10, December1968, pp. 64-66.




"The Arab-Israel War of 1967," AmericanJewish Year Book, 1968 (Philadelphia:Jewish Publication Society, 1968) pp.115-229.

ARNONI, M. S., "The American Left andthe Middle East," Midstream, Vol. XIV,

No. 1, January 1968, pp. 5 8 - 6 8 .ARNONI, M. S., "Rights and Wrongs in theArab-Israeli Conflict," Minority of One,Vol . IX, No. 9, September 1967, pp.6-28 .

Atlas, Vol. 14, No. 3, September 1967.A V I N ER I , S HLOMO, "The New Status Quo,"

Commentary, Vol. 45, No. 3, Mar c h1968, pp. 4 9 - 5 3 .

A V R U N I N , W I L L I A M , "Voluntarism—Philos-ophy and Role," Journal of Jewish Com-munal Service, Vol. X L I V , No. 4, Sum-mer 1968, pp. 316-319 .

BAMBERGER, BERNARD; FRIEDMAN, THEO-DORE; STEIMAN, SIDNEY, "The Problemof Halakhah Today: A Symposium," Re-constructionist, Vol. X X X I V , No. 2,March 8, 1968) , pp. 7-25.

{BEN G U R I O N , D A V I D ] "Ben Gurion and deGaulle: An Exchange of Letters," Mid-stream, Vol. XIV, No. 2, February 1968,pp. 11-26.

BERMAN, SYLVAN M., "Territorial Acquisi-tion by Conquest in International Lawan d the Unification of Jerusalem," In-

ternational Problems, Vol. VII, No. 1-2,May 1968, pp. 11-21 .BER N S TEI N , LEON , "Medicare and the Fu-

ture of Hom e s for the Aged," Journal ofJewish Com munal Service, Vol. X L I V ,No. 2, Winter 1967, pp. 192-196 .

BLANK, IRWIN M., "IS There a CommonJudaeo-Christian Ethical Tradition?,"CCAR Journal, Vol. 15, No. 3, June1968, pp. 7 5 - 8 4 .

BOROWITZ, EUGENE B., "Hope Jewish andHope Secular," Judaism, Vol. 17, No. 2,Spring 1968, pp. 131-147 .

BOROWITZ, EUGENE B., "Judaism and theSecular State," Journal of Religion, Vol.48, No. 1, January 1968, pp. 2 2 - 3 4 .

BRAININ, JOSEPH, "Pierre Van Paassen: AMemoir," Midstream, Vol. XIV, No. 2,February 1968, pp. 6 1 - 6 6 .

BRICKNER, BALFOUR, " N O Ease in Zion forUs: Christian-Jewish Relations After theArab-Israeli War," Christianity and Cri-sis, Vol. X X V I I , No. 15, September 18,1967, pp. 2 0 0 - 2 0 4 .

Campus: A HUM Newspaper, Winter 1967

(m im e o . ) .CARMILLY-WEINBERGER, M O S H E , "SephardicJews in the Development of Tran-sylvania," TheAmerican Sephardi, Vol.1, No. 2, June 1967, p. 39.

C O H E N , A B R A H A M , "The Emergence of thePublic Sector of the Israeli Economy,"Jewish Journal of Sociology, Vol. X,No. 2, December 1968, pp. 251-266 .

COHEN, GERSON D., "Messianic Postures ofAshkenazim and Sephardim," in Max

Kreutzberger, ed., Studies of Leo BaeckInstitute (New York: Frederick UngarPublishing Co., 1 9 6 7 ) , pp. 115-156.

COHEN, PERCY S., "Israel's Ethnic Prob-lem," Jewish Journal of Sociology, Vol.IX , No. 1, June 1967, pp. 100-107.

COWAN, IDA G., "Jews Down Under:Dunedin ," Jewish Heritage, Vol. 11, No.1, Summer 1968, pp. 5 4 - 5 8 .

D A R O M , J O E L , "The Industrialization of theKibbutz," Midstream, Vol. XIV, No. 10,December 1968, pp. 13-23 .

D A V I D S ON , LI ON EL; GR OS S , JOHN ; MAN-K O W I T Z , W O L F ; and M A R K S , L O U I S , "HOW

the Six-Day War Affected Jewish Iden-tity: A 'Writers for Israel' Symposium,"Jewish Quarterly ( L o n d o n ) , Vol. 15, No.4, Winter 1967-68, pp. 10-16 .

DAVIS, MOSHE, "Mixed Marriage in West-

ern Jewry: Historical Background to theJewish Response," Jewish Journal ofSociology, Vol. X, No. 2, December1968, pp. 177-220.

[DAYAN, MOSHE] "Moshe Dayan on Peaceand War—An Interview," Geula Cohe n ,interviewer, Midstream, Vol. XIV, No.10, December 1968, pp. 4 6 - 5 1 .

DECALO, SAMUEL, "Israel and Africa: ASelected Bibliography," Journal of Mod-ern African Studies, Oct. 1967.

DECALO, SAMUEL, "Israeli Foreign Policy

and the Third World," Orbis, Vol. XI,N o . 3, Fall 1967, pp. 7 2 4 - 7 4 5 .DIAMOND, MALCOLM L., "Christian Silence

on Israel: An End to Dialogue?," Ju-daism, Vol. 16, No. 4, Fall 1967, pp.411-422 .

DICKEY, ANTHONY, "English Law and RaceDefamation ," New York Law Forum,Vol . XIV, No. 1, Spring 1968, pp. 9-32.

D I N I N , SAMUEL, "The Role of Israel inAmerican Jewish Education," JewishEducation, Vol. 38, No. 3, June 1968,pp . 6-11.

DISKIND, ZALMAN, "Views on Jewish-Re-l igious Education by American Ortho-dox-Jewish Leaders," Religious Educa-tion, Vol. LXIII , No. 1, January-Febru-ary 1968, pp. 6 3 - 6 6 .

D O W T Y , A L A N , "Negotiations or War,"

Midstream, Vol. XIV, No. 3, March1968, pp. 3 5 - 3 8 .

DRAPER, THEODORE, "Israel and WorldPolitics," Commentary, Vol. 44, No. 2,August 1967, pp. 19^t8.

D R IN A N , ROBERT F., "The State of Israel:

Theological Implications forChristians,"Conservative Judaism, Vol. XXII , No. 3,Spring 1968, pp. 2 8 - 3 5 .

ECKARDT, A. ROY, "Eretz Israel: A Chris-tian Affirmation," Midstream, Vol. XIV,N o . 3, March 1968, pp. 9-12.

ECKARDT, A. ROY, "The Jewish-ChristianEncounter," CCAR Journal, Vol. XV,No. 3, June 1968, pp. 2 2 - 3 0 .

ECKARDT, A. ROY and A L I C E L., "Again,Silence in theChurches" (I. "The Case



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Cuban Jewish Community in South Florida

1 10 DEMOGRAPHIC study had ever been made of the Jews in Cuba.E stimates of their num ber before 1960 ranged from a low of 11,000 to ahigh of 16 ,000. A ppraisals of the size of the tw o principal comm unities,A shkenazi and Sephardi, and their respective percentages of the total popu-lation , differed w idely. T hose of the smaller grou p, the Seph ardi, varied be-tween ten per cent and one-third of the total. Jacob Schatzky in YiddischeYischuvim en Latin Amerika (Buenos A ires, 1952, p. 1 85 ), put the num berof A shkenazim at 5,300 and Sephardim at 2,700 in 1925, and the total at12,000 in 1951.

A ccording to well informed sources, the Jewish population, bo th citizensand permanent residents, in Cuba before Castro was some 14,500. Of thisnum ber, 10,000 were A shkenazim and 3,500 Sephardim. T here was a thirdgroup of approximately 1,000 consisting of E nglish-speaking Jews and m any

unaffiliated. T he latter included descendants of Jews living in Cub a beforethe Spanish-American War in 1898 and who, though not converted to anotherfaith, had little identification with their own. It also included the inter-married who did not adopt the faith of the non-Jewish spouses. Some ofthese unaffiliated secretly contributed to local Jewish and Israeli philan-thropies.

E xcept for the small Jewish comm unities in the provinces of Camagueyand Oriente with a total membership of about 1,200, and a few other small

settlements, most Jews lived in Santa Suarez, Habana Vieja, or Miramar,three districts of the capital. Miramar, the newer residential area of Havana,attracted the more affluent.

Jewish Settlement in Cuba

Jews have lived in Cuba ever since it was settled by Spain about 1502.Despite the edicts of their Catholic majesties, Ferdinand and Isabella, andtheir successors that no Jews, Moors, or other heretics, or their fourth-

generation descendants, could reside in any part of the Spanish empire inthe new w orld, the Jews were there.T he early Jewish inhabitants were known as M arranos. T heir number

increased rapidly, and, as the Bishop of Cuba wrote to Spain in 1508, prac-tically every ship docking at Havan a was filled with H ebrews and N ewChristians, as Jews recently converted to Christianity were called.

Inquisition proceedings against the Marranos in Cuba began as early as

238



C U B A N J E W I S H C O M M U N I T Y I N S O U T H F L O R I D A / 2 39

1520. In the 17th century large-scale persecutions against the secret Jewswere instituted. A m ong the arrested were som e of the wealthiest and mo stinfluential people in the co un try : A nton io M endez , Luis Rod riguez, BiasPinto, Luis Gom ez Barreto, M anuel A lvarez Prieto. T rials continued almost

up to the abolition of the Spanish Inquisition in 1834. T w o w ealthy m er-chants, A nton io Santaella and Jua n Ro driguez M exia, we re tried in 17 83.Many of the Jews who settled in Cuba during the colonial period, par-

ticularly in 1580-1640, were Portuguese or their descendants. In the 17thand 18th centuries Portuguese and Jewish were synonym s in the N ew W orld.T wenty-three Jews, wh o fled Brazil in 1654 when it was retaken fromHolland by Portugal, stopped at Cu ba en route to N ew A msterdam in theColonies, and established contacts with the Cu ban M arra no s. A m ong o thers,the secret Jews of Cu ba arra nged for trade between the T hirteen Colonies an dthe Jews of Jamaica, Barbados, and other Caribbean islands, enabling theColonies to sell goods as well as to buy military and civilian supplies.

T he new Spanish Constitution of 1869 removed all restrictions on thesettlement of Jews in Latin A m erica. One w riter, in 1898, stated that therewere over 500 Spanish Jews engaged in commerce in Cuba at that time andearlier, and that five or six Jewish families were among the wealthiest on theisland. Jews were also among the founders of the commercial cane sugarfields and the first sugar refineries. S everal im po rtan t families such as

Brandon, Marchena, Machado, and Dovalle had come from Panama,Curacao, and Surinam . T he famous C ub an actress and poetess, Dolores deDios Porta, who died in Paris in 1869, was an observant Jewess.

M any A me rican Jews joined Cu ban s in their fight for independe nce asearly as 1892 and in their revolution of 1895. A m ong the m w ere A ugus tBondi, Louis Schlesinger, G ener al Roloff formerly kn ow n as A kiba Ro land,Captain Kaminsky and Horacio Rubens. Joseph Steinberg, a captain in thearmy of liberation, and his broth ers M ax and E dw ard w ere personal friends

of Cuba's A postol, Jose M arti.T he first Jewish cemetery in C uba was established by the U nited StatesA rmy for the A merican Jewish soldiers who died during the Spanish A me ri-can W ar in 1898, following dem and s by A m erican Jewish organizations forseparate interm ent acco rding to Jewish law. T he cem etery was sold in 1906to the United Hebrew Congregation, the first official Cuban Jewish bodycreated primarily by A m erican Jew s. M ost mem bers of the congregation,later named T emple Beth Israel , were A me ricans who fought in Cub a orwho came from Key West and other parts of Southern Florida immediatelyafter the end of the war.

Many Sephardi Jews were established in Cuba in 1908; they began tocome in 1902. A m ong them were Y oung T urk s who had participated in theearlier abortive revolt against the Sultan of the O ttoman E mp ire. O therscame from M exico, N orth A frica and other areas of the Mediterranean. T heSephardim spoke Spanish and were of swarthy complexion, which madethem indistinguishable from the great majority of Cu bans . T his was an




important reason for the almost total absence of overt antisemitism in Cuba.T he re were other factors militating against antisemitism: the C uba n non- Jewwas the most extrovert of all Latin A m ericans and h ad less guile; the fightfor independence was too recent to be forgotten, and many Cubans remem-

bered the part some Jews played in it; Catholicism in Cuba was female-oriented and little affected the life of Cubans ouside the Church; the Cubanshad no t forgotten that they too had been a persecuted people. T he Sephardim,then, integrated into their new milieu with little difficulty.

In 1914 the A me rican Jews and the Sephardim, who until then had beentogether for religious purposes, parted ways; the latter established Congrega-tion Shevet A chim . T he parting was du e partly to the differences in ethnicand social backgroun d. T he A merican Jews maintained a higher standardof living, moved in upper Cuban social and economic circles, and were ac-cepted in the most exclusive clubs. By contrast, the Sephardim were smallmerchants, artisans, and peddlers, who did not speak English. However,m any A merican Jews were mad e honorary mem bers of Shevet A chim inrecognition of their assistance to the Sephardi com mu nity. La ter the A sh-kenaz i Jews, too, expressed appreciation to the A m erican Jews for assistingE ast E uropean Jews.

T w o significant events occurred before th e large imm igration of A sh-kenazim. One was the activity of David Blis, who used the newspaper El Dia

to agitate for Cuban endorsement of the Balfour Declaration. Blis, a Jew,came from Mexico, and quickly established himself in Cuba as an activeZionist. T he othe r was the first display of Jews as an ethnic-religious groupin Cuba, when a contingent marched as Jews in the Havana parade onN o ve m be r 11 , 1918, celebrating the armistice.

A shkenazim began to come to Cuba in 1920. T hey were consideredG erm an nationals. T heir first shops, whether dry cleaning, grocery, textile,or general merch andise, bore names such as Bazaar A lem an, Berlin, or Ham-

burg. Shortly after becoming established, they ceased attending the SephardiShevet A chim and built their own synagogue. Since this split, both groupsm aintain ed the ir ow n complex of institutions . T here was little socializingbetween them, except at large social functions and in the B'nai B'rith lodge.T here w ere friendly relations as well as some interm arriage between indi-viduals of both groups.

T he friendlier relations between the A shkena zi and Sepha rdi groups inthe decade before the Castro revolution may be attributed to the coming ofage of a generation of native-born Jews who attended the same parochialelementary schools and secular secondary schools. Spanish became the lead-ing language and began to replace Y iddish an d La dino as the immigrantgeneration passed away.

T he Cuban A shkenazim have had a twenty-year history of internecinedisputes. Personal rivalries and religious and ideological differences wereinsurmoun table obstacles to comm unal unity. T he Jewish Comm unists werethe most intransigent on all issues; some of them remained in Cuba to the




present day. T hey and the Bundists we re viciously anti-Z ionist. T he Co m -munists even attempted to sabotage fund-raising campaigns for Israel. How-ever, there was also feuding among the Zionists; Labor Zionists with GeneralZionists and Mizrachi.

One of the factors contributing to the failure to achieve unity in theA shkenazi ranks was difference of origin. T he earlier wave of imm igrantscame mainly from Russia and Polan d. T he imm igrants of the 1930s and thepost-W orld W ar II period came from A ustria and Germ any. T he m ostnotable exception to the divisiveness of Cuban Jews was evinced during theperiod of virulent antisemitism between 1938 and 1940, which coincidedwith the worst outrages against the Jews in the T hird Reich.

Cuban antisemitism was fostered by the N azis (Camisas D or ad as ),Falangists (Spanish merchants and a few clerics), and the Catholic-owned

newspapers Diario de la Marina, Alesta, and El Dia, apparently with fundsprovided by the German embassy in Havana. Responsibility for the tragicincident of the S.S. St. Louis, which sailed from Hamburg on May 13, 1939with 1,000 Jewish refugees, has been laid at the door of some Spanishmerchants in Havana who feared business competition from these unfor-tunates. T he passengers were in possession of valid Cu ban visas, which ha dbeen issued at the direction of Minister of Migration General ManuelBenitz, against a payment of $300 to $500 per visa by Cuban Jews wishing

to save their breth ren from Hitlerism. T he C uban me rchan ts revealed thedetails of the transaction, and President Laredo Bru, for reasons best knownto himself, voided the visas while the ship was on the high seas, and refusedthe ship permission to land in Hav an a. A ppeals to the Un ited States to useits good offices to bring about a reversal of this decision brought no action.

A dolfo Kates and his bro ther G ustave have been acknowledged as prin-cipally responsible for the Cuban government's reversal of the antisemitictrend. T he former, now residing in Miam i, was outstanding a mo ng Cu bans

of all faiths with respect to the number of decorations he received fromCuba, Spain, France, and Belgium for his civic, philanthropic and diplo-matic w orks.

T he num ber of Jews in the various professions were : 20 lawyers, of whomone was a judge; close to 50 doctors and dentists, and about 40 architects,engineers and accoun tants. T here were over 300 Cu ban Jews who w erepursuing higher studies at universities in Cuba, the United States, andEurope .

T he Cu ban Jews left five com m unal struc tures in H ava na , in addition to

their cem eteries: T he buildings of the C entr o He breo Sefaradi de Cu ba, areligious and communal center resulting from a merger of the Union HebreoSefaradi and Congregation Shevet A chim ; the Jewish C om mun ity H ouse,known as Patronato para la Communidad, of the A shkenazi; C ongregationA dath Israel; the Zionist building on the Pr ado , and the A utonom ous JewishCircle Scho ol. T he total cost of these buildings exceeded $2 million.

Fidel Castro assumed power in January 1959, following an armed revolu-




tion against the Batista dictatorship. In the summer of 1960 the Jews begana great emigration from Cuba. T hey looked upon Castro's C om mu nism as adanger to their wa"y of life and to their property interest. It was the fear ofexpropriation, not antisemitism, that was the primary motive for their de-

parture. Some also feared that Castro might stifle a Jewish way of life inorder toachieve his com mu nal society.

C U B A N J E W S IN S O U T H F L O R I D A

South Flo rida includes theGreater Miami area, also known asDade County;Hollywood, andFort Lauderdale in Broward County; KeyWest and Ta m paon the West Coast of Florida. It was not possible to ascertain the exactnumber of Cuban Jews now residing in this area. While theCuban Jews have

formed two indigenous organizations, not all Cuban Jews were members ofthem. Many chose to integrate into theA merican Jewish comm unity. Amongthese were some Orthodox, many who had socialized with A m erican Jewswho permanently lived in Cuba, andformer members of theReform TempleBeth Israel inHavana .

A large numb er of Cuban Jews had friends and relatives in Florida andhad invested money in the Miami area for many years before 1960. Somehad spoken mainly English in their homes in Cuba . The statistics of theN ational Council of Jewish Women and United HIAS Service (p. 289) , the

two organizations that have participated in theCuban refugee program since1961, were not representative of the total number of Cuban Jews whomigrated to the United States. Many had come earlier, and many came viaVenezuela, Colombia, Spain, Israel, Puerto Rico, and other places, makingdefinite identification difficult.

Areas of Settlement

T he HIAS figure of Cuban Jews registered under the Cuban refugee pro-

gram, was approximately 4,500. A nother 2,500 Cub ans probably came toMiami from other countries, andeven from other cities in theUnited States.HIAS resettled over 3,000 from the Southern Florida area in almost 300cities in thirty-one states, in Puerto Rico and Costa Rica. A partial break-down of the HIAS resettlement in 1961-67 revealed the following:

A labama 8 Louisiana 18 N ew Y ork State .. 31Colorado 39 Maryland 42 Ohio 87Connecticut 58 Massachusetts 76 Pennsylvania Ill

Costa Rica 2 Michigan 46 Puerto Rico 53Delaware & District Minnesota 7 Rhode Island .... 39

of Columbia ... 30 Mississippi 3 Tennessee 4Georgia 27 Missouri 44 Texas 137Illinois I l l N ew Jersey 128 Washington 3Indiana 10 N orth Carolina ... 11 West Virginia 2Iowa 1 N ew Y ork City . . . 1,680 Wisconsin 3Los A ngeles 176




Since HIAS did not follow up on the activities of those it resettled, therewas no assurance that many of the Cuban refugees did not return to SouthFlorida once they accumulated enough money, or to join friends or relatives.This was particularly likely since, of all states, the climate of Florida mostclosely resembles that of Cuba.

Extensive investigation produced an estimate of about 3,500 Cuban Jewsliving in South Florida, many of them, if not most, in Miami Beach. Herethey were to be found in the no rthe rn p art (N or th S hore area running from62nd Street to 95th Street) and in the South Beach area, below Lincoln Road.

For many years since World War II, Cubans of all faiths came to MiamiBeach during the summer, when hotel and restaurant rates, as well as pricesin general, were muc h lower th an in the winter season. T his was particularlyso before 1 959. Local residents of M iam i Beach called the sum me rs th e

"Cuban invasion." Cubans were familiar with the streets, shops, and generalarea of M iami Beach. T his familiarity and the prox imity to the ocean con-tributed to their choice of this city for settlement.

Composition of Community

Cuban Jews in the United States continued to maintain some of theirformer divisions. T here w ere three distinct groups in South F lorid a: Sephar-dim, A shkenazim, and the youth—under sixteen years of age—of both

groups. T he youn gsters, w ho associated with other children at school, inte-grated rapidly and were mixing with all types of Jew s. T hey fail to see a nysignificant distinctions betw een Sep hard im and A shk enaz im.

A shkenazi adults and childre n differed little in appea ran ce and religiouspractice from the general Jewish community. By contrast, the Sephardim,who remained in the minority, stood out because of their olive complexion,their volatility, emotionally and otherwise, and their strong adherence totradition. T hey lived within voluntarily prescribed areas, and their patte rn

of life facilitated the preservation of their customs. However, the movementaway from one area, loosening of family ties, and greater exposure to out-side influences, soon ma y brea k dow n S epha rdi distinctiveness. A lso the lackof A merican- trained Seph ardi rabbis may alienate Sephardi youth rearedin A merica.

Com mitment to Judaism

Synagogue affiliation of C ub an Jews was com para ble to that of A m erica n

Jews in the various neighborhoods. Still, one of the first things the CubanJews wanted to know when they arrived was the location of synagogues andschools where their children could receive a Jewish edu cation. A s with m ostA merican Jews, their identification with Judaism was much greater th anobservance of ritual. But their commitment to Jewish education for theirchildren was stronger than that of A me rican Jew s. A strong induceme nt formany Cubans to sett le on the N orth Shore was that T emple M enorah (Co n-




servative) in the area was the most hospitable of all Greater Miami congrega-tions. It invited the newcomers to share, without charge, its services, includingseats for the High H oly D ays, and its T almud T orah for the education oftheir children. It continued this practice for five years. Most other congrega-tions, including the Sephardi Jewish Center in Miami Beach, requestednominal payment, thus antagonizing the Cuban Sephardim. They now or-ganized the Cuban Sephardi Hebrew congregation, which they named afterShevet Achim in H avana.

T he new Shevet A chim had a membership of 150 families, a Cubanrabbi, Nissim M ayer, and Sunday School classes. N ot all Cu ban SephardiJews belonged to this congregation. Some attended the original SephardiCenter, also in Miami Beach. It was rather surprising that the FloridianSephardim did not show more cordiality toward the new arrivals, since many

of them , like the Cuba ns, were of T urkis h ancestry. T he S ephardi C enter,with about 200 member families, also conducted Sunday School classes, butthe Cu ban congregation had a larger enrollment. T he two institutions wereonly two blocks apart. T hey had a combined student body of 60. Bothconsidered themselves Orthodox, but many of their members, who werescattered throughout Dade county, had to travel on the Sabbath and HolyDays in order to attend. Kashrut was observed b y a small percentage. T omany, it meant only abstinence from pork and shellfish.

A distinguishing feature between A shken azi and Sep hardi religious ob-servance was attendance by Sephardim at all synagogue services, morningand evening, and total participation in the recital of all praye rs. T here wasno problem of having a minyan (quorum) on weekdays or Saturdays andSundays.

T he A shkenazim held religious services in the C irculo Cu bano Hebreo,w ith Rabb i Do v Rosenzweig officiating. A lso located in South Beach, theCirculo was more than a religious institution; it was the largest social centerfor all shades of Cu ban Jew s, with over 700 m em ber families. Its N ew

Y ear's party was attended by more tha n 80 0 people. It also conducted week-day classes for some 20 children with a staff of three teachers.

Religious affiliation of the mo re affluent A shkenaz im was cen tered in theN or th Shore area. T he few O rthodo x Jews belonged to congregations closeto their homes. T he A merican Jews and those who belonged to the ReformT em ple in H av ana w ere affiliated with Refo rm temples in Sou th F lorida.Ho wev er, with the exception of the Con servative T em ple M enorah , moreCu ban Jewish children attended the Orthodox all-day Heb rew A cademyth an any other single school. T heir p arents saw n o conflict between theOrthodox education their children were receiving and their much less rigidreligious observance at home.



C U B A N J E W I S H C O M M U N I T Y I N S O U T H F L O R I D A / 2 4 5

Social Life

A s most other Latin A me ricans, C uban Jews were family-centered. In theUnited States, this kind of relationship was breaking up because of resettle-ment and a high degree of mobility. Cuban Jews still had Christian Cuban

friends, but there was a loosening of ties. T hey also tended to m aintainfriendships with other C ub an Jews, but new relationships with A m ericanJews were encroaching on them. Working hours in the United States differedfrom those in Cuba, and the pace was much faster. While in Cuba there waslittle socialization between Jews and Christians during the evening hours,there was mu ch during the day. T hey found little time for such day- timeactivity in South Flo rida.

Econom ic SituationT he adjustment of Cub an Jews to A m erican econom ic life has been

phenom enal. T w o lawyers we re in high posts in the banking field. T he m ainoccupations of Cuban Jews were engraving, manufacture of leather goods,and selling insurance. Several Cubans have built multimillion dollar export-ing and importing businesses, dealing in sugar and other articles, especiallyshoes. Many of the retail stores in the Miami downtown business area werenow Cuban-owned and-operated. Cuban Jews also were predominant in the

sale of textiles and remnants, but they also were engaged in all retailbusinesses, except food services. Many successful Cuban Jews took theirCuban Jewish friends and members of their families into their businesses,as junior partners. Within the youn ger gen eration, the division betw eenA shkenazim and Sep hardim was quickly disappearing in all fields of activity.

Cultural Life

T he newcom ers have becom e citizens of the Un ited States and, despite the

use of Spanish in some homes, succeeded in their desire to assimilate intoA merican life. T heir adh erence to Spanish as the languag e of the hom e wasremarkab le. In several hom es, wh ere Y iddish had been the m ain languag ebefore emigration, it now was Spanish. Parents wanted their children tospeak Spanish. Of course, Spanish was spoken with pride by all who cameto South Florida from Latin A m erica. T his was quite unlike the reaction toY iddish by first-generation A m ericans, who w anted their parents to discardY iddish.

T he Cu ban Jew did not seem to have been a great participant in Cu banor Spanish cultural life. His knowledge of Spanish was, and continued to be,confined to its use as a mean s of co m m unica tion. T he m ost plausibleexplanation of their devotion to Spanish in their new home may be found inwhat immigrants generally considered the most agreeable aspect of life inCuba, namely their acceptance as equals by Cubans. Having themselves beenexposed to persecution or having heard stories of what pogroms in Russia,




Poland, andother E ast E uropean countr ies andN azi persecution did to theirfamilies, the Jewfound Cuban acceptance of him as a citizen a most heart-warming experience. His gratitude to that country was expressed by ad-herence to its tongue.

Future of the Community

T he Cuban Jews in South Florida had no intention of returning to theisland in the event of Castro's downfall. Of the more than 100 interviewed,only three thought they would do so. Many said that they would go backto try to regain some of the possessions they were forced to leave behind,and then return to the United States. The children, like their parents, havebecom e comp letely integrated into A m erican life.

Few of the immigrants expressed a desire to settle in Israel. Some ex-plained that for them A merica was the third home, and the mere thoughtof having to establish a newlife for a fourth time in Israel was too much.However, they were active in pro-Israel causes. In December 1968 theysponsored an Israel Bond dinner with A dolfo K ates as guest of honor. Theattendance was over 350 and the drive was a success, not so much in thetotal amount sold as in the number of sales. However, in the view of thiswriter, the disintegration of traditional ties among former Cuban Jews pre-cluded many more such annual affairs. As individuals, they were likely to

continue attending similar functions, sponsored by their temples, synagogues,Zionist organizations, or fraternal groups.

T he 1969Greater Miami Jewish Federation campaign marked the thirdyear of participation by Cuban Jews as a group. E ach year the number ofcontributors and the amount of their gifts showed marked increases. SenderKaplan was coordinator of the Federation's annual dinners anddrives amongthe Cuban Jews. He wasformer editor of Habaner Leben, a Y iddish semi-weekly and the sole publication of the Cuban Jewish community, which he

published for over 20 years.T he Cuban Hebrew Circle was making a valiant effort to maintain the

insularity of Cu ban Jewish life. Itsleaders sponsored a professionally directedcultural program of lectures anddiscussions for youths andadults. Since oneof the program's aims was to have the newcitizens acquire a greater under-standing of the A mer ican way of life, its long-range effect might be thedissolution of the community of former Cuban Jews.

SEYMOUR B. LIEBMAN



T H E A M E R IC A N JE W IS H C OM M U N I T Y RE S PON DS T O

ISSU E S O F T H E DA Y : A C O M P E N D IU M

URBA N CRISISPoverty

A merican Jewish Com mittee (Feb ruary 14 ),A merican Jewish Congress (Feb ruary 2 2) ,Synagogue Council of A merica (M arch 13)pledged support to Urban Coalition.*A merican Jewish Comm ittee endorsed pro -posed federal housing and redevelopment

act to provide 300,000 new low-incomehousing units annually (A pril 24 ).Workmen's Circle resolved to support Ur-ban Coalition, Model Cities Program, andother programs to abolish poverty andeliminate urban blight (May 11).A merican Jewish Congress recomm endedto Joint Economic Council of U.S. Con-gress establishment of guaranteed incometo families and individuals whose incomes

fall below subsistence level (July 7).Synagogue Council of A merica, joiningwith groups of other religious denomina-tions in support of Poor People's Cam-paign, urged Congress to pass legislation toalleviate poverty and unemployment (July8).

B'nai B'rith Y oung A dults issued state-ment urging guaranteed annual wage and

steps to provide employment for all ca-pable of work (A ugust 10 ).N ational Jewish Welfare B oard announcedthat great majority of directors of Jewishcommunity centers and Y M and Y W HA 'sbelieved involvement of their agencies inurban rehabilitation activities to be "validexpression of Jewish commitment andvalues." Centers and Y 's in 59 citiesoperated or participated in programs for

disadvantaged (October 20).

Civil Disorders

A merican Jewish Comm ittee, A merican° For listing by organization and page

references see Appendix at the end of thispiece.

Jewish Congress, A nti-D efamation League,Union of A merican Hebrew C ongregations,United Synagogue of A merica, N ationalCouncil of Jewish Women, and 17 Chris-tian groups jointly issued 23-page pamphletcontaining official summary and recom-mendations of N ational A dvisory Commis-sion on Civil Disorders (Kerner Commis-sion) report; sponsors announced extensiveprograms suggested by report (A pril 2) .

Synagogue Council of A merica urged im-plementation of recommendations of Ker-ner Commission report (A pril 30 ).

A merican Jewish Comm ittee announced11-point program designed to prevent riotand violence, help riot victims, supportlegislation for law and order (May 3).

A nti-D efamation League submitted toSenate subcommittee conducting hearings

on gun control report, Extremism, Vio-lence and Crime, recommending legislationto restrict sale of firearms (June 25).Hadassah adopted resolutions urging effec-tive law enforcement and legislation forcontrol of firearms sales (September 11).A merican Jewish Committee executiveboard called for prompt federal law-enforcement assistance to state and localauthorities; better training of police and

increased employment of minority-grouppolicemen; revision of unjust court pro-cedures; improved handling of riot controlprocedures (October 29).

A merican Jewish Congress released reporton 1967 N ewark riot impact on Jewishcommunity, concluding that Jewish land-lords and merchants in city's ghetto were"increasingly" likely to "be the target of

N egro anger, hostility and violence" (F eb-ruary 23).

N ational Community Relations A dvisoryCouncil reported "definite and substantialwithdrawal of rank and file Jewish sup-port" for civil rights and related issues asa result of survey it sponsored in 30 Jew-

247



248 / A M E R IC A N J E W I S H Y E A R B O O K, 1 9 6 9

ish communities (including 19 where riotsoccurred) on impact of riots (March 22).

Negro-Jewish Tensions

N ew Y ork Board of Rabbis criticized N ewY ork city school decentralization plan,advocated by M ayor's A dvisory Panelunder McGeorge Bundy, as "potentialbreeder of local apartheid" (February 1).A merican Jewish Committee's N ew Y orkchapter endorsed N ew Y ork State Boardof Regents decentralization plan (A pril18). It denounced Ocean Hill-BrownsvilleGoverning Board's summary dismissal of

17 teachers as "irresponsible act" (May16). Chapter later called on United Fed-eration of T eachers (U F T ) to end strikeand form joint UFT-community committeeto develop decentralization plans withN egro leaders (September 9 ).A merican Jewish Congress called on U FTto end strike and on Ocean Hill-Browns-ville to recall teachers who did "not havea fair hearing"; expressed support of de-

centralization "subject to adequate safe-guards of the interests of teachers, parents,and children" (October 19).Synagogue Council issued policy statementasserting N ew Y ork city teacher's strikehad assumed "implications" of nationalconcern and deploring injection of anti-semitism into school conflict (October 29).N ew Y ork Federation of Reform Syna-

gogues condemned all actions that "havemade the process of school decentraliza-tion the cause or excuse for setting groupagainst grou p" (N ovember 15) .A nti-D efamation League recommendedguidelines for "struc tural change" of N ewY ork city public schools system, includingdecentralization but not "community con-trol" as interpreted by some groups (De-cember 24).

A nti-Defamation League's N ew Y orkBoard accused N ew Y ork city schools andpolice officers as well as Ford Foundationof "abdicating their responsibilities" inallowing "kill whitey" and antisemiticthemes in public school memorial meetingprogram for Malcolm X, which probably

reflected feelings of only "miniscule seg-ment of the N egro com munity" (February25) .

A merican Jewish Com mittee (July 25 ),A nti-D efamation League (July 2 8) , Jewish

Labor Comm ittee (July 28 ), A mericanJewish Congress (A ugust 12), Union ofA merican Hebrew Congregations (A ugust26), Synagogue Council of A merica (Octo-ber 1 ), and N .Y . Board of Rabbis (Octo-ber 1) opposed appointment of John F.Hatchett, Harlem school teacher and out-spoken antisemite, as director of N ew Y orkUniversity's M artin Luther K ing, Jr. A fro-A merican Student Center.

A nti-Defamation League urged N ew Y orkMayor John V. Lindsay to take appropriateaction against Oliver Ramsey, educationaldirector of city's Council A gainst Poverty,for alleging "Jewish Mafia" had urgedLindsay to "kill Ocean Hill-Brownsville"(October 3).

Negro-Jewish Rapprochement

A merican Jewish Comm ittee and Rabbini-cal A ssembly, in coo peration with repre-sentative Protestant and Catholic groups,joined militant N egro leaders in "Opera-tion Connection" demonstration projects infive cities, to meet needs of p oor. A majorobjective was to develop integrated nationalstrategy for meeting crisis in cities (March29).

A merican Jewish Congress announced pro-gram to reverse decline of middle-classneighborhood and to "overcome fear, re-store community confidences . and dealwith blight decay ." A iming at joint N egro-Jewish action in "specific projects ofmutual concern," program was begun inN ew Y ork city (G rand Concourse area),Detroit, Los A ngeles, and Boston (May18).

Synagogue Council members and N egroministers of several Protestant denomina-tions in N ew Y ork area m et in effort toovercome communication gap between Jew-ish and N egro communities; joint statementasserted there were shared as well asdiverse interests, and that "ongoing com-munications" were essential (December 7).



AMERICAN JEW ISH COMM UNITY RESPONDS TO ISSUES / 249

American Jewish Congress pledged towork for better N egro-Jewish relations onnational, state, and local levels; rejectedtactic of antisemitism used by some blacksand backlash reaction of some Jews (De-cember 19).

ANTISEMITISM INU N I T E D S T A T E S

Conferences and Resolutions

N ational Community Relations A dvisoryCouncil conducted three-day conference,with the participation of 70 Christian and

Jewish clergymen, social scientists, N egrospokesmen, and other community leaders,on ways of dealing with antisemitism inrelation to religion, political movements,racial conflict, and social trends (Septem-ber 16).

Jewish Labor Committee sponsored con-ference on school decentralization, includ-ing workshop on antisemitism in schools(October 26).

United Synagogue of A merica Joint Com -mission on Social A ction condem ned"vitriolic and distorted accusations" of "ir-responsible racists" in N egro community;pledged to combat antisemitism, black orwhite; and also expressed concern overtendency by some Jewish organizations toequate entire N egro community with smallgroup of militant N egroes (October 9 ).

Labor Zionist Organization of A merica—Poale Zion expressed "contempt and indig-nation at the vicious antisemitism, anti-Israel agitation and racism which has beenpart of the hate campaign of some blackand white extremist organizations" (N o-vember 11).

Studies

Results of five-ye ar A nti-D efamationLeague subsidized research program, re-ported at University of California, Berkeley,symposium on "P atterns of A mericanPrejudice," revealed m ost A merican churchmembers and one-third of clergy areracially and religiously prejudiced (March25).

A nti-Defamation League's fact-finding re-port on extremism revealed many pledgedelectors of presidential candidate GeorgeWallace represented far right and "danger-ous hate fringe," to which the Wallacecampaign might give political voice itnever had (September 13).

Manifestations

A merican Jewish Committee, A mericanJewish Congress, and Union of OrthodoxJewish congregations condemned acts ofvandalism and arson against 11 Jewishplaces of worship and schools in three-month period. Urged civic authorities toinvestigate incidents and take steps to haltdesecrations (N ovember 29 ).A merican Jewish Comm ittee report chargedthat, while dispute around appointment ofA be For tas as chief justice of U .S. SupremeCourt was not "rooted in antisemitism . .it seems clear that antisemites and extrem-ists are exploiting and aggravating it"(September 18). Committee also called for

apologies to Larry Zeidel, only Jewishplayer in the N ational Hockey League andmember of Boston Bruins, who reportedantisemitic slurs from team members, in-cluding reference to "gas chambers"(March 13).

A N T I S E M I T I S M I NE A S T E R N E U R O PE

Poland

A ccusations A gainst Jews

A merican Jewish Comm ittee, A mericanJewish Congress, B'nai B'rith, and WorldJewish Congress denounced attempts byPolish Communist officials and communi-cations media to exploit antisemitism byblaming wave of demonstrations in Poland

on "pro-Zionist" and other Jews (March14). Committee delegation to Polish em-bassy in N ew Y ork expressed disappoint-ment at failure to elicit assurance publicmanifestations of antisemitism would besuppressed (March 19).E ndorsing a student protest against Polishgovernment attacks on Jews, chairman of



250 / A M E R IC A N J E W I S H Y E A R B O O K, 1 9 6 9

Conference of Presidents of M ajor A meri-can Jewish Organizations demanded as-surance Jews of Poland "may live andwork in dignity and security" (March 20).Synagogue Council accused Polish regime

of exploiting traditional hatred of Jewsfor "their own internal purposes" (March21) .

Jewish Labor Committee appealed to Presi-dent Lyndon B. Johnson to lodge anofficial protest against antisemitism inPoland (March 28). Hadassah, called onU.S. government to "take every possiblemeasure to influence the Polish government

to reverse a course that . threatens theposition of its Jewish population" (Septem-ber 11).

Charge of Espionage

A merican ORT Federation rejected as "pre-posterous" accusations made over Polishstate television system that it had beeninvolved in espionage activities in Poland(A pril 1 0). Joint Distribution C omm itteecalled similar charge against itself "all themore astounding because of the PolishGovernment's recent acknowledgement ofJD C's contributions and assistance'' (A pril2 ) .

Requests for E migration

A merican League for Russian Jews, charg-ing "the position of Polish Jewry has be-come intolerable," proposed emergencyairlift to transport Jews from Poland toIsrael (March 28 ). A merican Jewish Com-mittee urged the Polish and U.S. govern-ments to expedite emigration of Jewshaving expressed desire to leave Poland(A pril 3 ). N ational Community RelationsA dvisory Council asked U .S. governmentto permit immigration of Polish Jews;

called on Jewish communities to combine25th anniversary observance of Warsawghetto revolt with demonstrations againstpresen t policies of Polish regime (A pril15). United HIA S Service offered financialand technical assistance to Jews leavingPoland for resettlement in Western coun-tries (A pril 30).

Soviet Union

Suppression of Cultural andSpiritual Rights

A merican League for Russian Jews, inpageant at Madison Square Garden, NewY ork, indicted Soviet government for anti-Jewish policy (M arch 12 ). A merican Jew-ish Conference on Soviet Jewry adopted32-page white paper documenting USSRoppression of Jewish citizens and set upmassive program for national and localaction in behalf of Soviet Jewry (A pril 8) .N ew Y ork Jewish Com munity Relations

Council Coordinating Committee for SovietJewry held traditional Seder near officesof Soviet mission to U N , as symbolic ap-peal to USSR to restore religious andcultural rights of its Jews (A pril 1 0).A merican Jewish Conference called forSimhat T orah d emonstrations of solidaritywith Soviet Jewish youth by A mericanJewish organizations (A ugust 23 ). Hadas-sah asked Soviet Union to permit unre-

stricted Jewish communal and religiouslife, to provide means for Jewish educa-tional advancement, to remove all dis-criminatory measures, and to permitemigration of Jews (September 11).

A merican Jewish Comm ittee warned, "anti-Semitism inspired by Moscow is becomingan integral part of the domestic and foreignpolicy of several E ast E uropean nations,"

and called upon "people of all ideologiesand social systems, and especiallyprogressive and liberal elements through-out the world, to join forces to prevent thisnew expression of an old disease fromspreading" (October 26).

Visit of R abbi Y ehuda Leib Levin

A merican Council for Judaism invitedRab bi Y ehuda Leib Levin to visit U.S.,major Jewish organizations joined in wel-coming him (May-June). Synagogue Coun-cil of A merica, Conference of Presidentsof Major A merican Jewish Organizations,and N ational Community Relations A d-visory Council sent Rabbi Levin cablevoicing hope his visit would "initiate aprocess tha t will lead to genuine and



AMERICAN JEWISH COMMUNITY RESPONDS TO ISSUES / 251

meaningful dialogue and relationships withSoviet Jews" (May 8).United Synagogue of A merica chargedRabbi Levin had been allowed to acceptinvitation toU.S. only when sponsorship

"came from anti-Zionist groups" (June21). A merican Jewish Conference on SovietJewry expressed regret at discourtesyshown Rabbi Levin during his HunterCollege address, but termed his speech a

"ritualistic defense" of Soviet policy towardJews" (June 27).

A merican A ssociation for Jewish E duca-tion sent Rabbi Levin letter pointing out"salient aspects of Jewish life" in U.S. and

asking about lack of Jewish cultural andspiritual opportunities in USSR (June 24).Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregationsasked Rabbi Levin to use his "greatprestige" with Soviet authorities "to obtainpermission for an international conferenceof orthodox rabbis and Jewish lay leadersto be held in Moscow" (June 27).

IS R A E L A N D M I D D L E E A S T

Support of Israel Policies

United Jewish A ppeal, Israel Bond O rgani-zation, and 55 national Jewish organiza-tions pledged moral support in achieve-ment of peace, and material support for1968 Israeli economic programs. Organiza-tion heads praised Prime Minister Levi

E shkol's leadership, Israel, and its people,and pledged continued aid in all fields(January 11).

A merican Israel Public A ffairs C ommitteeurged U.S. to insist onnegotiated peacesettlement between Israel and A rab gov-ernments; to provide Israel with enougharms for parity with A rab states; tograntIsrael financial aid for desalination pro-gram; to help A rab countries improveliving standards, and withhold aid used to

finance aggression; to promote resettlementof A rab refugees in countries where thereis room andopportunity for them; to

resist A rab boycott practices (M arch 10 ).A merican Jewish Congress urged PresidentJohnson to invite Prime M inister E shkol

and King Hussein of Jordan to meet anddiscuss with him peace between two coun-tries (A pril 1) .

Congress called on Johnson administra-tion to seek agreement with Moscow on

ending M iddle E ast arms race, and urgedU.S. to take lead in bringing about directpeace talks (May 21).Conference of Presidents of Major A meri-can Jewish Organizations appealed to

President Johnson to supply Israel withPhantom jets as deterrent "to Arabextremism and war-like acts" (September10).

A merican Council of Judaism's actingpresident expressed concern at GunnarJarring's failure to resolve Israel-A rab con-flict; called upon Jews to ask that peace inMiddle East be inkeeping with U.S. na-tional interests there (N ovember 25 ).A merican Israel Public A ffairs Comm itteesubmitted toRepublican and Democraticnational conventions platform plank on

M iddle E ast stressing need for direct peace

negotiations and sufficient armsto

Israelas deterrent to threatened aggression. Con-ference of Presidents of Major A mericanJewish Organizations endorsed plank (July12). A merican Council for Judaism urgedDemocratic platform committee not to

seek Jewish support in presidential electionon basis of partisansh ip for Israel (A ugust21).

Hadassah reaffirmed commitment to Zion-

ist aims, as defined in Jerusalem platformof 1968 World Zionist Congress: aliyah,Jewish education, close relations betweenIsrael and Jews in the diaspora (September11).

Hijacking and Reprisals

N ew Y ork Jewish Y outh C ouncil stageddemonstration against hijacking and deten-tion of E l Al plane in A lgeria at A lgerianMission toUN (July 31 ). Conference ofPresidents of Major A merican Jewish Or-ganizations urged immediate release by

A lgeria of hijacked airliner and twelveIsraeli nationals, and called incident "bar-baric threat to the political and economic



252 / AM ER IC AN JEWIS H YEAR BO OK, 1969

security of Israel and its national civilianairline" (A ugust 1) .

A merican Jewish Congress, N ew Y orkBoard of Rabbis, Union of Orthodox Jew-ish Congregations, Zionist Organization of

A merica, and A merican Jewish Comm itteecriticized U.S. condemnation of Israel re-prisal raid on Beirut airport as unfairbecause of its failure to make reference toA thens act that involved not only destruc-tion of Israeli property, but loss of life(December 30).

Relations with Diaspora

Workmen's Circle, while declaring its in-tention to retain non-Zionist orientation,pledged continued support for Israel, andinitiated alliance with Histadrut, Israel'sLabor Federation (May 12).Cen tral Conference of A merican Rabb isand Rabbinical A ssembly executive boa rds,acknowledging necessity for a "liberal re-ligious alternative" in Israel, met to discusssuch common concerns as recognition of

rights of Reform and Conservative rabbisto perform marriages and exercise otherreligious functions in Israel (October 30).Rabbinical Council of A merica president'sreply was, " the people of Israel havefailed to welcome the brand of Reformand Conservative Judaism which they wishto export to Israel. . T he people ofIsrael are well able to take care of theirown spiritual needs" (October 27).

Jews in Arab Coun tries

A merican Jewish Committee made publicsurvey revealing that, at beginning of 1968,only few Jews were left in A rab MiddleE ast countries, most of them virtual prison-ers who were prevented from leaving byspecial laws or police action (January 29).

Hadassah resolved to call upon U.S. gov-ernment to insure that "Jewish prisonersin A rab countries are accorded elementaryhuman rights, and that all Jewish citizensin A rab lands be permitted to live indignity and freedom" (September 11).Joint Distribution Committee announcedsome 25,000 Jews left N orth A frican coun-

tries for France and Israel after June 1967war (October 20).

A M E R IC A N C O M M U N IT Y

Jewish Youth

B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundations reportedsome 350,000 Jewish students, about 80per cent of Jewish college-age population,are attending colleges. E nrollment recordsampling showed Jewish attendance hadrisen 23 per cent at large schools, and 15per cent at small schools (January 10).

A lienation

A t joint convention of Conservative move-ment's college group A tid and UnitedSynagogue Y outh, students attributedalienation from Jewish cultural and spiri-tual life to synagogue's failure to deal withsuch social issues as poverty, civil rights,and peace (January 2).United Synagogue Y outh criticized failure

of rabbis and Jewish groups to counsel themon such issues as pacifism, draft, and con-scientious objection (December 28).B'nai B'rith Y outh Organization conferencediscussed such aspects of antisocial be-havior of youth, as drug addiction and actsof vandalism and irresponsibility (January22).

A merican Jewish Com mittee released re-

port on findings of three-year apostasystudy, indicating 13 per cent of Jewishstudents in A merican colleges rejected Jew-ish ties by their senior year, but half ofthese reaffirmed Jewish identity withinthree years of college graduation; also,"forces making for the reintegration ofapostates seems to be more powerful thanthose generating new apostasy*' (May 26).A merican Jewish Congress released report

of visits to college campuses stating manyyoung Jewish people reject a "Judaism[that] is just like other institutions—stag-nant, demanding conformism and status quoadherence" (May 19). Under A JCongressauspices, panel of scholars explored meansof arresting alienation of Jewish collegestudent. While disagreeing on solutions,



A M E R IC A N J E W I S H C O M M U N I T Y R E S P O N D S TO I S S U E S / 253

there was consensus Jewish federationsand welfare funds must place high priorityon Jewish education (December 23).B'nai B'rith convention reports stated be-havior of Jewish institutions had no rele-vance to Judaism's "ethical and religious

distinctiveness." Y oung Jewish activists,said to be "powered by a deep-felt ethic"in concern about social problems, accusedtheir elders of being "fake liberals" (Sep-tember 8). B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundationsdirectors considered possibility of attractingJewish students through experimentalforms of worship, but were not in agree-ment on value of such "undergroundservices" (December 19).

Community Programs

N ational Jewish Welfare Board considered"a pooling [by all institutions] of knowl-edge, skill, organizational andeven materialresources in the pursuit of solutions" tothe unsolved problems of A merican Jewry,such as "the serious shortage of profes-sional manpower in the Jewish community,

the need to intensify service to Jewish col-lege youth, and the implications of thesix-day war" (A pri l 29). JWB also an-nounced plans to help affiliated centersand Y's improve relationships with Jewishcollege youth through new and creativeapproaches in experimental or demonstra-tion projects. N ewly appointed ad hocN ational A dvisory Comm ittee on JewishCollege Y outh was to implement projects

(N ovember 1).

Student Zionist Organization announced1968 summer plans to send its volunteerdomestic education corps of counselors,discussion leaders, and teachers to severalsmall Jewish communities having no Jew-

ish education facilities (January 26).

A merican Zionist Y outh F oundation's week-

end seminar on approaches to alienated

youth in A merican colleges hoped to bringit closer to Jewish community throughpersonal confrontation with Israel and its

citizens (September 2). A ZY F representa-tives, working with some 40 pro-IsraelJewish student groups on A merican cam-

puses, reported cooperation with black and

white radical student groups (N ovemb er29) .

N orth A merican Y outh Council, compris-ing 24 major national Jewish youth organi-zations in U.S. and Canada, designatedMarch 15-April 15"Jewish Y outh M onth,"

to call attention to contributions and sig-nificance of Jewish youth organizationsand encourage unaffiliated young people tojoin (March 1).

Central Conference of A merican Rabbis'Y outh Comm ittee issued 44-page booklet,Working With College Students—A Hand-

book for Rabbis, containing ideas on howto bridge generation gap alienating Jewish

college youth from home and synagogue(A pril 1).

Workmen's Circle called for A merican Jew-ish community to channel funds to culturaland educational institutions in order tostem tide of assimilationism among youngerJews (May 11).

N ational Foundation for Jewish Culturelaunched survey "to determine the criteriaand standards for competent scholars to

teach Jewish studies in A merican collegesand universities" in a desire to have es-tranged college youths receive introductionto Jewish culture and thought in Judaicacourses of high intellectual caliber (Octo-ber 25).

Textbook Ruling

A gudath Israel of A merica charged ninenational non-Orthodox organizations thatfiled brief in U.S. Supreme Court againstN ew Y ork T extbook Lawwith "undermin-ing Jewish interests" by their opposition tofurnishing publicly-owned textbooks tochildren in nonpublic schools (A pril 28).A guda th Israel's executive president calledSupreme Court decision upholding N . Y .State Text Book Law, a "major victory"for nonpublic school children, which"opens new perspectives for additionalbenefits" (June 21). At N ational Com-munity Relations A dvisory Council plenarysession, A merican Jewish Congress spokes-man called Supreme Court decision allow-ing use of public funds for parochialschools violation of First A mendment;



254 / A M E R IC A N J E W I S H Y E A R B O O K , 1 9 6 9

Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregationsspokesmen said court decision acknowl-edges parochial schools serve public in-terest (July 1).

D I S C R I M I N A T I O N

Employment

A nti-D efamation League's report on itsstudy of racial and religious bias amongemployment agencies maintained 87 percent of 388 private employment agencies insix major cities disregard federal, state,and local statutes forbidding employmentdiscrimination, and accept requests for"white Gentile" workers (January 18). InN ew Y ork A DL worked out program withN ew Y ork State Commission on HumanRights to combat discrimination in joborders by state's 1,300 private agencies(February 27).

A merican Jewish Com mittee and JewishOccupational Council established joint ad-

visory committee to work in 10 majorA merican cities for increased employmentof Jews and other minorities in corporatemanagem ent posts. A major goal of com-mittee was to break down "historic barriersto the hiring of Jews in such fields as bank-ing, insurance, public utilities, railroadsand steel" (N ovember 4) .

Social Segregation

A nti-Defamation League, in cooperationwith N ational A ssociation for the A dvance-ment of Colored People and A mericanItalian Committee A gainst Discrimination,protested against a U .S. N avy directiveinstructing sailors to comply with N ewOrleans Mardi Gras policy of discrimina-tion against Jews, N egroes, and Italians(January 1 0); in cooperation with N A A CP

and Urban League against alleged dis-crimination in N ew Y ork A thletic Club(February 14). A DL reported out of 38athletic clubs in key A merican cities, onlythree maintained religiously and raciallyopen membership policies (May 5).A merican Jewish Comm ittee executiveboard urged all "social clubs not directly

church affiliated or having affirmative re-ligious, racial or ethnic purposes toeliminate the membership eligibility criteriaof religion, race or ethnic origin"; it askedJewish clubs to do the same (October 27).

Housing

A nti-Defamation League hailed inclusionof open housing provision in comprehen-sive civil rights bill approved by Senate,but warned equal access to housing "willultimately depend on the availability ofadequate housing and upon equal abilityto pay" (March 13),

I N T E R F A I T H

A gudath Israel of A merica's presidentwarned against renewing interfaith dia-logues, calling them ineffectual (Janu ary11).

Council of Jewish Federations and WelfareFund s and A merican Jewish Congress, to-gether with N ational Conference forCatholic Charities, N ational Council ofChurches, and Scholarship, E ducation andDefense Fund for Racial Equality, Inc.,petitioned U.S. Supreme Court to outlawstate residency requirements for welfarerecipients for whom federally-sponsoredrelief help was sought (A pril 25 ).Union of A merican Hebrew Congregations'Religious A ction Center, U .S. Catholic

Conference Social A ction Dep artmen t, andN ational Council of Churches D epartmentof Social Justice together urged U.S. Con-gress to adopt guaranteed employment actto provide one million new government jobsfor nation's unemployed, pointing out topermit "involuntary poverty" was to"desecrate the image of God" (May 8).Synagogue Council of A merica, N ationalCouncil of Churches of Christ in the

U.S.A ., and United States Catholic Con-ference issued first statement on sex educa-tion ever framed jointly by official Catholic,Jewish, and Protestant groups, affirmingchurches, synagogues, and schools shouldplay vital part in sex education and givingguidelines for treatment of moral values inpluralistic community (June 6).



AMERICAN JEW ISH COMM UNITY RESPONDS TO ISSUE S / 255

Union of A merican Hebrew C ongregations,U.S. Catholic Conference, N ational Coun-cil of Churches, and Standing Conferenceof Orthodox Bishops in A merica jointlypublished "Crisis in A merica: Ho peT hrough A ction," guide to improvement ofrace relations. It suggested congregationaland communal action to change whiteracial attitudes and achieve equal oppor-tunities for minorities (July 16).Synagogue Council of A merica, N ationalCouncil of Churches, and U.S. CatholicConference jointly appealed for "prompt,peaceful action to restore the sovereigntyof Czechoslovakia" (A ugust 25 ).

A nti-Defamation League and N ew Y orkA rchdiocese of the Catholic C hurchlaunched a closed-circuit television serieson Jews and Judaism, and incidence andcauses of misunderstanding and misrep-resentation, as in-service course for teach-ers in Catholic parochial schools and forviewing on specific Catholic programs(N ovember 22 ).

Synagogue C ouncil, N ational Council ofChurches, and U.S. Catholic Conferencealso joined in forming interreligious com-mittee for consultation and cooperation onsuch top-priority matters as urban prob-lems, world peace, and international de-velopment (December 2).

V IE T NA M W A R A N D D R A F T

Support for Peace Efforts

Central Conference of A merican Rabbis(CCA R) and Union of A merican HebrewCongregations appealed to President John-son to "test" peaceful intentions of N orthVietnam by calling an immediate halt toits bombing. CCA R also stated its opposi-tion to tax increase, used for the "senseless

struggle" in Vietnam, and asked govern-ment to put its "best efforts into eliminat-ing . . . domestic crises" (January 11).N ew Y ork Board of Rabbis supportedPresident Johnson's efforts to seek honor-able peace in Vietnam and commendedgovernment for "continuing to call N orth

Vietnam to the conference table" (January31).

B'nai B'rith Women called for vigorouseffort at negotiation to end war, warningfurther escalation might lead to World WarIII (March 27).

N ationa l Jewish Welfare Board called onU.S. government to intensify efforts fornegotiated settlement of war and, at thesame time, maintain and encourage fullfreedom of dissent from its policy on war(A pril 29 ).

Workmen's Circle endorsed President John-son's peace efforts in Vietnam (May 9).

Position on Draft

Rabbinical Council of A merica presidentcondemned burning of draft cards as "clearviolation of the basic process of democ-racy ." Y avneh, religious Jewish studen tsassociation, held five-day seminar on Jew-ish position on war. One of its leaderscalled Vietnam war immoral and asked thatcurrent draft be amended to allow for

selective conscientious objection (Septem-ber 2) .

A merican Jewish Congress urged SelectiveService A ct be amended to permit con-scientious objection to military service onethical and religious grounds (October 14).United Synagogue Y outh convention voicedopposition to draft because of Vietnamconflict and asked Jewish agencies and

rabbis to offer direct counseling on militaryservice, conscientious objection and paci-fism (December 31).

Chaplaincy

Y eshiva University agreed to a requestfrom rabbinical students to suspend forone year its participation in Jewish com-munity's self-imposed draft of rabbis formilitary chaplaincy duty, making such ser-vice voluntary (M arch 6 ) . Rabbinical A s-sembly suspended its system of assigningnewly-ordained rabbis to military duty, andsubstituted a voluntary system which, itsaid, would increase number of Jewishchaplains in armed forces (March 26).Cen tral Conference of A merican Rabbis



256 / A M E R IC A N J E W I S H Y E A R B O O K , 1 9 6 9

gave its newly ordained rabbis right to seekdeferment as military chaplains on groundsof conscientious objection to a particularwar (June 20).

A ssociation of Jewish Chaplains of the

A rmed Fo rces president, in communica-tion to heads of seminaries, rabbinicalorganizations and association members,strongly opposed refusal by any rabbi toserve as military chaplain in Vietnam waron grounds of "selective conscientious ob-jection," since the "military chaplain's task[is] to give spiritual solace and religiousguidance to troubled human beings, not toact as a special pleader for any particular

ideology or course of political action"(March 24).

A merican Jewish Congress asked armedforces to replace military chaplains withcivilian religious counselors not subject tomilitary discipline; it urged official religiousgroups to end military chaplaincy systemand employ civilian chaplains who wouldbear "no responsibility or duty other than

ministering to the religious needs of thesoldiers" (May 21).

Rabb inical Council of A merica presidentcriticized A merican Jewish Congress recom-mendation for civilian chaplains and saidthe military chaplain, though employed bygovernment, was "simply treating thespiritual needs of the soldier as if he werestill a private citizen" (June 26).

BI A F RA REL I E F

A merican Jewish E mergency E ffort forBiafran Relief, central committee for 21major Jewish organizations, pledged toraise money for food and medical aid to

starving Biafran comm unity (A ugust 8 ).Synagogue Council of A merica asked rabbisand congregants to make nationwide reliefeffort for Biafrans, and urged members toarouse public opinion and petition U.S.

government to undertake "massive reliefeffort" (A ugust 18 ).

B'nai B'rith Foundation sponsored reliefplane carrying food, drugs, and clothing toBiafra (September 29).T he N ational Community Relations A d-visory Council urged the U.S. governmentto airlift relief supplies to Biafra and toseek international relief action through theUnited N ations (October 2) .T he A merican Jewish Com mittee, joiningthe Catholic Relief Services and theChurch World Service in a corporationcalled Joint Church A id, purchased eightcargo aircraft from the U.S. A ir Force. A c-cording to an agreement with State Depart-ment and A ir Force officials, the planeswould be used solely in the airlift bringingrelief supplies to Biafra (December 30).

H U M A N R I G H T S

Hadassah called attention to need for U.S.support of Protocol of the United N ationsRelating to the Status of Refugees, point-ing out that giving asylum to oppressedand persecuted was in keeping with A meri-can principles, and action during Inter-national Y ear for Hu man Rights would be

appropriate (September 11).A merican Jewish Committee asked forU.S. ratification of Genocide and otherHuman Rights conventions pending beforeUN (December 10).

G E R A L D I N E R O S E N F I E L D



A P P E N D I X

Agudath Israel of AmericaCommunity

Textbook ruling, 253

Interfaith, 254

American Association for Jewish EducationA ntisemitism in E. EuropeSoviet Union, Levin visit, 251

American Council for JudaismA ntisemitism in E. Europe

Soviet Union, Levin visit, 250

Israel and Middle EastJarring Mission, 251

Support of Israel policies, 251

Am erican Israel Public Affairs Com mittee

Israel andMiddle E astSupport of Israel policies, 251

American Jewish CommitteeUrban crisis

Poverty, 247

Civil disorders, 247

N egro-Jewish tensions, 248

N egro-Jewish rapprochem ent, 248

A ntisemitism in U.S.

Manifestations, 249

A ntisemitism in E. EuropePoland, accusations against Jews,

249Request for emigration, 250

Soviet Union, suppression of

rights, 250

Israel and Middle EastHijacking and reprisals, 252

Jews inA rab countries, 252

Community

A merican Jewish youth, alienation,252

DiscriminationEmployment, 254

Social segregation, 254

Biafra relief, 256

Human rights, 256

American Jewish Conference on SovietJewry

A ntisemitism in E. EuropeSoviet Union, suppression of

rights, 250American Jewish Congress

Urban crisisPoverty, 247

Civil disorder, 247

Negro-Jewish tensions, 248

N egro-Jewish rapprochement, 248


Manifestations, 249


249Israel and Middle EastSupport of Israel policies, 251

Hijacking and reprisals, 252

CommunityA merican Jewish youth, alienation,

252T extbook ruling, 253

Interfaith, 254

Vietnam war and draft

Position on draft, 255Chaplaincy, 256

American Jewish Emergency Effort for

Biafran ReliefBiafra relief, 256

Am erican Jewish Joint D istributionCommittee

A ntisemitism in E. EuropePoland, charges of espionage, 250

Israel and Middle East

Jews in A rab countries, 252American League for Russian Jews

A ntisemitism in E. EuropePoland, request for emigration,

250Soviet Union, suppression of

rights, 250

American On FederationA ntisemitism in E. Europe

Poland, charges of espionage, 250American Zionist Youth Foundation

CommunityA merican Jewish youth, program,

253, Student Zionist Organization


253Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith

Urban crisisCivil disorders, 247



Study, 249


Social segregation, 254

Housing, 254

257



2 5 8 / A M E R I C A N J E W I S H Y E A R B O O K , 1969

In te rfa i th , 255

Association of Jewish Chaplains of the

Armed ForcesVietnam war and draft

Chaplaincy, 256

B'nai B'rithUrban crisis

Poverty, 247

Antisemitism in E. EuropePoland, accusations against Jews,

249Community


Biafra relief, 256

B'nai B'rith, Hillel FoundationsCommunity

A merican Jewish youth, 252

alienation, 253

B'nai B'rith WomenVietnam war and draft

Support for peace efforts, 255

B'nai B'rith Youth OrganizationCommunity


Central Conference of American RabbisIsrael and Middle E ast

Relations w ith diaspora, 252

CommunityA merican Jewish youth, programs,

253Vietnam war and draft

Support for peace efforts, 255

Chaplaincy, 255-56Conference of Presidents of Major JewishOrganizations


250Soviet Union, Levin visit, 250

Israel and Middle E astSupport of Israel policies, 251

Hijacking and reprisals, 251

Council of Jewish Federations andWelfareFunds

Interfaith, 254

HadassahUrban crisis


A ntisemitism :n E. EuropeSoviet Union, suppression of

rights, 250

Israel and Middle EastSupport of Israel policies, 251

Jews inA rab countries, 252

Human rights, 256

Jewish Labor Committee

Urban crisisN egro-Jewish tensions, 248


Conference resolution, 249


250Jewish Occupational Council


Labor Zionist Organization—Poale ZionA ntisemitism in U.S.


National Community Relations AdvisoryCouncil

Urban crisisCivil disorders, 247



A ntisemitism in E. EuropePoland, request for emigration,

250Soviet Union, Levin visit, 250

CommunityT extbook ruling, 253

Biafra relief, 256

National Council of Jewish WomenUrb an crisis


National Foundation of Jewish CultureCommunity

A merican Jewish youth, program,253

National Jewish Welfare BoardUrban crisis

Poverty, 247


253

Vietnam war and draftSupport for peace efforts, 255

New York Board of RabbisUrban crisis


Israel and Middle EastHijacking and reprisals, 252

Vietnam war and draftSupport for peace efforts, 255



A M E R IC A N J E W I S H C O M M U N I T Y R E S P O N D S T O I S S U E S / 259

New York Federation of Reform CommunitySynagogues T extbook ruling, 254

Urban crisis United Hias ServiceN egro-Jewish tensions, 248 A ntisemitism in E . E urope

New York Jewish Com mu nity Relations Poland, request for emigration,Council Coordinating Committee for 250

Soviet Jewry United Jewish AppealA ntisemitism in E . E urope Israel and Middle E ast

Soviet Union, suppression of Support of Israel policies, 251rights, 250 United Synagogue of America

N.Y. Jewish Youth Council Urban crisisIsrael and M iddle E ast Civil disorders, 247

Hijacking and reprisals, 251 A ntisemitism in E . E uropeNorth American Youth Council Soviet Union, Levin visit, 251

Community United Synagogue of Am erica, AtidA merican Jewish youth, program s, Comm unity

253 A merican Jewish youth, alienation,Rabbinical Assembly 252

Urban crisis United Synagogue of America, JointN egro-Jewish rapprochem ent, 248 Commission on Social Action

Israel and Middle E ast A ntisemitism in U.S.Relations with diaspora, 252 Conference resolution, 249

Rabbinical Council of Am erica United Synagogue YouthIsrael and Middle E ast Comm unity

Relations with diaspora, 252 A merican Jewish youth, alienation,Vietnam war and draft 252

Position on draft, 255 Vietnam war and draftChaplaincy, 256 Position on draft, 255

Synagogue Council of Am erica Workm en's CircleUrb an crisis Urb an crisis

Poverty, 247 Poverty, 247Civil disorders, 247 Israel and Middle E ast