1. Definition of Job Analysis:

Job analysis is the systematic method of jobs to identify work activities, tasks, and responsibilities, working conditions to perform the job.

2. Purpose of job analysis

Purposes of job analysis are to identify:

• Job description & specification• Recruitment and Selection:• Job evaluation• Job design

• Compensation• Performance Appraisal• Training• Compliance with labor law

3. Job analysis process

Process of job analysis includes 8 steps as follows:

• Step 1: identify purpose of job analysis• Step 2: selecting the analysts• Step 3: selecting the appropriate method• Step 4: train the analysts• Step 5: preparation of job analysis• Step 6: collecting data• Step 7: review and verify data• Step 8: develop a job description and job specification

How to perform / conduct a job analysis ? You should do 8 steps as follows for conducting / writing a job analysis.

Step 1: Identify purpose of job analysis

You should identify purpose of job analysis because that will determine what job analysis method, what data will be collected….

Step 2: Selecting the analysts

You can choose analyst from professional human resource, line mangers, incumbents or consultants.

Step 3: Selecting the appropriate method

• Select representative positions to analyze because there may be too many similar jobs to analyze, and it may not be necessary to analyze them all.• Review background information such as organization charts, process charts, and job descriptions … of positions selected.• Then identify methods of job analysis. There are many methods in job analysis, you should pay attention to advantages and disadvantages of each method in order to choose suitable one.• Identify sample size of position.

Step 4: Train the analysts

If you intend to use internal analysts you have to teach them how to use the selected methods.

Step 5: Preparation of job analysis

• Communicate the project in the organization.• Preparing the documentation, for example: interview questions, questionnaires.

Step 6: Collecting data

• Collecting data on job activities, employee behaviors, working conditions, and human traits and abilities needed to perform the job…• Using one or more of the job analysis methods to collect data.

Step 7: Review and verify

Consolidate the results.

You must review all data collected. This will help you to confirm that the information is factually correct and complete.

How can review information?

• Review data with his or her immediate supervisor.• Review data by technical conference (is a job analysis method).• Review data with incumbents by interview.

Step 8: Develop a job description and job specification

Implement the results into the company procedures according to the goal-setting.

Develop a job description and job specification from the job analysis information. A job description is a written statement that describes the activities and responsibilities of the job, working conditions and safety and hazards…A job specification summarizes the personal qualities, traits, skills, and background required for getting the job done.

Classification of job analysis methods

1. Classification based on property

Classification of property include 2 types of qualitative job analysis techniques and quantitative job analysis techniques

Qualitative job analysis techniques• Interview• Observation• Participant Dairy / logs• Questionnaire

Quantitative job analysis techniques• Functional job analysis• Department of Labor Procedure (DOL)• Position analysis questionnaire

2. Classification based on orientation

Classification-oriented include 2 types of job-oriented and worker-oriented.

Job-Oriented: focus on work activities, focus on describing various tasks that are performed on the job, very specific task description

• Job Element Method• Task Analysis• Functional Job Analysis

Worker-oriented:

focus on traits and talents necessary to perform the job, examine broad human behaviors involved in work activities

• Position Analysis Questionnaire• Critical Incident Technique

4. Job analysis methods

• Methods of observation includes direct observation;

work methods analysis, including time and motion study and micro-motion analysis; and the critical incident technique.• Interviews methods includes structured interviews; unstructured interviews; open-ended questionnaires• Methods of questionnaire include Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ); Functional job analysis; Work Profiling System (WPS); MOSAIC; Common Metric Questionnaire (CMQ); Fleishman Job Analysis System (FJAS).• Task Analysis Inventory• Job element method• Diary method• Competency profiling• Examining Manuals/reference materials• Technical conference• Combination of methods etc• Checklists and rating scales

Methods of collecting job analysis information include:

OBSERVATION METHODS

Methods of observation includes direct observation, work methods analysis, critical incident technique.

1. Direct observation

Direct Observation is a method of job analysis to observe and record behavior / events / activities / tasks / duties while something is happening.

1. Definition of direct observation

Direct Observation is a method in which a researcher observes and records behavior / events / activities / tasks / duties while something is happening.

2. What are contents should be observed?

The analyst observes some content as follows:• Input as material, input products• Output products• The tasks performed• Work environment• Tools and equipment used• Interrelationships with other workers• Pace at which activities are done• Working conditions

3. Types of direct observation method

• Observation by camera• Visual Observation• Photographic Observations• Video Observations• Radio Observations• Telescopic Observations

4. Remarks of direct observation method

• The analyst must make sure that he obtains a proper sample for generalization.• The analyst must observe average workers during average conditions.• Reactivity can be a problem with direct observations, which is where the worker changes what he/she normally does because he/she is being watched.

5. Process of direct observation method

• Make direct observation plan and inform to user if any.• Follow plan.• Report: In this process, notes should be written regarding activities observed.• Interview: interview worker and get additional information from him. Ask the person to clarify points not understood and to explain what other activities he or she performs that you didn’t observe.

2. Work methods analysis

Work methods analysis is used to describe manual and repetitive production jobs, such as factory or assembly-line jobs. Work methods analysis includes time and motion study and micro-motion analysis.

1. Definition of Work methods analysis (WMA model)

What is work methods analysis?

Work methods analysis is used to describe manual and repetitive production jobs, such as factory or assembly-line jobs. These methods are used by industrial engineers to determine standard rates of production which are used to set pay rates.

2. Type of work methods analysis method / technique:

Work methods analysis includes time – motion study and micro-motion analysis.

In time and motion method, an industrial engineer observes and records each activity/task of a worker, then note the time it takes to perform separate elements of the job.

In micro-motion analysis method, an industrial engineer uses a movie camera to record worker activities. These films are analyzed to look for ways in accordance with tasks, to set standards relating to how long certain tasks should take.

3. Process of work methods analysis method / technique:

• Describe Tasks• Break down into elemental actions• Define requirements for: Frequency, duration, posture, load, force• Determine Risks• Revise Tasks• Specify sequence of actions

3. Critical incident technique (CIT model).

Critical incident technique is a method of job analysis used to identify work behaviors that classify in good and poor performance.

1. Definition of critical incident technique

Definition of critical incident technique (CIT model)

What is critical incident technique (CIT model)?

CIT model is method used for collecting observations of human behavior that are judged to be “effective” or “ineffective” in work, activities.

Definition of critical incident by Computer Science at Virginia Tech

“Critical incident is an event that has a significant effect, either positive or negative, on task performance or user satisfaction, thus affecting usability.”

Definition of CIT model by wikipedia:

“The Critical Incident Technique (or CIT) is a set of procedures used for collecting direct observations of human behavior that have critical significance and meet methodically defined criteria”

Definition of CIT method / technique by Flanagan, J. C. (1954).

“The critical incident technique of job analysis is used to identify work behaviors that classify in good and poor performance“

Definition of CIT method / technique by Abbott & Schuster, 1984.

“Simply, critical incident involves the collection of observations of employee behaviors that are both effective and ineffective”

Example of critical incident:

if a fashion salesman comments on the customer’s skin and the customer leaves the store in a huff, the behavior of the salesman may be judged as ineffective in fashion company.

2. History of CIT method / technique:

This method was developed by Flanagan during World War II (Director of the Division of Aviation Psychology, United States Army Air Forces).He described critical incident technique as a set of procedures used to collect observations of human behavior. These observations are used to solve practical problems and develop psychological principles.

3. Application of CIT method / technique:

The critical incident technique has been applied in studying some sector as follows:• Organizational development• Large scale tasks and activity analysis of numerous occupations• Health care.• Market research etc.

4. Purpose of CIT method / technique:

• Built job descriptions, job specification and job standard.• Create a list of good and bad behaviors which can then be used for performance appraisal.• Testing the effectiveness of the job description and job specification.

5. Information source of CIT method / technique:

Sources for critical incidents include:• Workers• co-workers• supervisors,• managers,• Customer• External and internal suppliers• And others.

4. INTERVIEW METHOD

Interview method is a useful tool of job analysis to ask questions to both incumbents and supervisors in either an individual or a group setting. Interview includes structured Interviews, unstructured interview, open-ended questions.

1. Definition of job analysis interview:

The interview method includes asking questions to both incumbents and supervisors in either an individual or a group setting.

2. Classification of job analysis interview:

There are three types of interviews are used to collect job analysis data:

* Individual interviews with each employee.* Group interviews with groups of employees having the same job, and* Interview supervisor who are knowledgeable about the job being analyzed.

3. Notes of job analysis interview:

The interviewer must be trained in proper interviewing techniques

4. Types of job analysis interview:

There are two types of interview: unstructured interview and structured interview

Unstructured interview is method with no prepared questions.

Structured interview include normally a job-holder’s sequence of activities in performance and an inventory or questionnaire may be used.

QUESTIONNAIRE METHODS

Questionnaire methods includes 6 techniques as follows:

5. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ model)

PAQ model is a questionnaire technique of job analysis. It developed by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972), is a structured instrument of job analysis to measure job characteristics and relate them to human characteristics. It consists of 195 job elements that describe generic human work behaviors.

1. Definition of Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ model)?

PAQ model developed by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972), is a structured instrument of job analysis to measure job characteristics and relate them to human characteristics.

It consists of 195 job elements that describe generic human work behaviors.

2. Contents of PAQ method / technique:

195 items of job elements includes six categories:

• Interpersonal activities (36 elements),• Work situation and job context (19 elements), and• Miscellaneous aspects (41 elements).• Information input (35 elements),• Mental processes (14 elements),• Work output (49 elements),

3. Advantages of PAQ method / technique:

There are several advantages inherent in the Position Analysis Questionnaire.

PAQ method / technique: is structured to allow for easy quantification. The format of this method include in both data collection and computer analysis and can yield results

much faster than the other methods.

It has been shown to be extremely reliable, results usually replicate on a second administration.

The taxonomic approach of the PAQ makes comparison of jobs relatively easy.

4. Disadvantages of PAQ method / technique:

One of the major disadvantages of PAQ, however, is related to its taxonomic approach. Getting Human Resources probably because its language is not specific to particular jobs.

Another criticism of the language used in PAQ is that its reading level is too difficult.

5. Process of PAQ method / technique:

Job incumbents (and sometimes their managers) answer questions on form outlining skills, abilities and knowledge needed to perform the job.

Responses are compiled and a composite job requirement statement is produced.

6. Functional job analysis (FJA model)

FJA model is a technique of job analysis that was developed by the Employment and Training Administration of the United States Department of Labor. It includes 7 scales (numbers) that measure: 3 worker-function scales: measure % of time spent with: data, people, things; 1 worker-instruction scale; 3 scales that measure reasoning, mathematics, language.

1. Definition of functional job analysis (FJA model)

FJA model is a method of job analysis that was developed by the Employment and Training Administration of the United States Department of Labor.

FJA model is similar to the DOL method, but differs in two ways.

• Functional job analysis also identifies performance standards and training requirements.• Functional job analysis rates the job not just on data, people, and things, but also on another dimensions: worker instructions, reasoning, mathematics, language.

2. History of FJA method / technique:

Functional Job Analysis (FJA) was used by U.S. Employment Service job in the beginning of the 1940s to classify jobs for the DOT (The Dictionary of Occupational Titles).

3. Who use FJA method / technique ?

This method were developed by groups of four to six Subject Matter Experts (“SMEs” are typically supervisors, job incumbents, or job analysts).

4. Contents of FJA method / technique:

Functional Job Analysis includes 7 scales (numbers) that measure:• 1 worker-instruction scale.• 3 scales that measure reasoning, mathematics, language.• 3 worker-function scales: measure % of time spent with: data, people, things

Each scale has several levels that are anchored with specific behavioral statements and illustrative tasks.

Data, people, things in detail include:

Data0- Synthesizing1-Coordinating2-Analyzing3-Compiling

4-Computing5-Copying6-Comparing

People0-Mentoring1-Negotiating2-Instructing3-Supervising4-Diverting5-Persuading6-Speaking7-Serving8-Taking instructiions9-Helping

Things0-Setting up1-Precision working2-Operating- controlling3-Driving – Operating4-Manipulating5-Tending6-Feeding – Offbearing7-Handling

7. Work Profiling System (WPS model)

WPS model is a questionnaire technique of job analysis, is a computer-administered system for job analysis, developed by Saville & Holdsworth, Ltd.

Work Profiling System method in performance appraisal

1. Definition of Work Profiling System (WPS model)

WPS model is computer-administered system for job analysis, developed by Saville & Holdsworth, Ltd. (SHL Group). This is one of questionnaire methods.

There are three versions of the WPS: managerial, service, and technical occupations.

This method contains a structured questionnaire which measures ability and personality attributes such as hearing skills, sight, taste, smell, touch, body coordination, number skills, complex management skills, verbal skills, , personality, and team role

2. Purpose of WPS method / technique:

Choose defensible assessment procedures and methods Identify jobs for rotation and cross-training

Identify and define competencies for hiring purposes, career development and succession planning

Document existing jobs in the form of job descriptions and person specifications

Structure and define new jobs

Identify performance review measures

Create job families

“Transport” validation research

Create an equitable pay structure

Identify specific areas of training & development

Audit skill requirements

Develop performance management systems

Re-define and merge jobs

Match candidates against job profiles

Improve interviewing

Build teams

Manage changes in roles and culture

3. Process of WPS method / technique:

Information is collected about a job in a structured way from 2 to 4 people who are currently doing the job through questionnaires.

The information is then computer analyzed to meet a variety of objectives, including:

8. MOSAIC model

MOSAIC model is a questionnaire technique of job analysis used to collect information from incumbents and supervisors. It contains 151 job tasks rated in terms of importance for effective job performance and 22 competencies rated in terms of importance, and needed proficiency at entry.

MOSAIC model in performance appraisal

1. Definition of MOSAIC method:

Multipurpose Occupational Systems Analysis Inventory-Closed Ended (MOSAIC model) is a job analysis method used to collect information from incumbents and supervisors on many occupations for a wide range of HRM functions.

2. History of MOSAIC method / technique:

This method developed by the Office of Personnel Management.Based on Gregory and Park, 1992: This system uses an automated occupational analysis approach that eliminates costly redundancies in the collection of data and provides technically sound, legally defensible procedures and documentation to support human resource management .

3. Purpose of MOSAIC method / technique

MOSAIC has been conducting a large occupational analysis projects, each project conduct a different set of occupations (e.g., clerical, managerial, etc.) for government occupations.

4. Using of MOSAIC method / technique

Each job analysis inventory used to collect data for MOSAIC include a variety of descriptors. The two critical types of descriptors are tasks and competencies.The questionnaire contained a diverse set of items, including:• 22 competencies (a human quality or characteristic associated with the performance of managerial tasks, e.g., knowledge, skill, ability, trait, motive, or self-concept) rated in terms of importance, and needed proficiency at entry;• 151 job tasks rated in terms of importance for effective job performance;

A standard questionnaire was developed and sent to over 20,000 federal executives, managers, and supervisors.

9. Common Metric Questionnaire (CMQ model)

CMQ model is a technique of job analysis that was developed by Harvey as a “worker-oriented” job analysis instrument designed to have applicability to a broad range of exempt and nonexempt jobs. It includes 41 general questions of background section, 62 questions of contacts with people, 80 items of decision making, 53 items of physical and mechanical activities, 47 items of work setting.

1. Definition of Common Metric Questionnaire (CMQ model)

CMQ model was developed by Harvey as a “worker-oriented” job analysis instrument designed to have applicability to a broad range of exempt and nonexempt jobs.

2. Contents of CMQ method / technique:

CMQ include five sections:

Background: Background section asks 41 general questions about work requirements such as travel, seasonality, licensure requirements.

Physical and Mechanical Activities: Physical and Mechanical Activities section asks 53 items about physical activities and equipment, machinery, and tools.

Work Setting: Work Setting asks 47 items that focus on environmental conditions and other job characteristics.

Contacts with People: Contacts with People section asks 62 questions asks level of supervision, degree of internal and external contacts, and meeting requirements.

Decision Making: Decision Making asks 80 items in the CMQ method / technique focus on relevant occupational knowledge and skill, language and sensory requirements, and managerial and business decision making.

A matrix response format is also used, respondent is asked to provide ratings for up to frequency, criticality, consequence of error.

10. Fleishman Job Analysis System (FJAS model)

FJAS model is is a technique of job analysis that describe jobs from the point of view of the necessary capacities. It includes 52 cognitive, physical, psycho-motor, and sensory ability, each of the categories consists of two parts – an operational and differential definition and a grading scale.

Fleishman Job Analysis Survey in performance appraisal

1. Definition of Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (FJAS model):

FJAS model is a system to describe jobs from the point of view of the necessary capacities.

2. History of FJAS method:

Thid method is a questionnaire developed by Edwin A. Fleishman (Fleishman and Quaintance, 1984)

3. Process of FJAS method:

This method includes 52 cognitive, physical, psychomotor, and sensory abilities, each of the categories consists of two parts – an operational and differential definition and a grading scale.

First step, analyst will list all elements as follows:

Cognitive

* Perceptual Abilities* Spatial Abilities* Idea Generation & Reasoning Abilities* Quantitative Abilities* Memory* Attentiveness* Verbal Abilities

Psycho-motor

* Control Movement Abilities* Reaction Time and Speed Abilities* Fine Manipulative Abilities

Physical

* Endurance* Flexibility, Balance, and Coordination* Visual Abilities* Auditory and Speech Abilities* Physical Strength Abilities

Sensory

The second step involve a meeting of experts, each of whom provides his/her. The analyst calculates and obtains job description.

OTHER METHODS

11. Task Inventory

A task inventory is a list of the discrete activities that make up a specific job in a specific organization.

1. Definition of task inventory method

A task inventory is a list of the discrete activities that make up a specific job in a specific organization.

Another definition: A task inventory is method to identifying—with the help of employees and managers—a list of tasks and their descriptions that are components of different jobs.

The list of task itself is not a job description, it is a method used in job analysis.

2. History of task inventory method

This method was initially developed by US military. This method was used when a large number of jobs in an occupational category are to be analyzed and incumbents can not be interviewed individually.

3. Task inventory process:

• Incumbents can respond to tasks listed by interview.• Rate the frequency, time spent of each task by analyst, supervisors, incumbents…• These tasks then allow inferences about KSAs needed to perform the job• The rating scales allow inferences about weighting KSAs & tasks in selection

4. Four key criteria for a good task inventory:

• Immediate: Task unit intermediate in specificity; between job function and procedure.• Discrete: Each task distinguishable; definite beginning and ending.• Active: Action verb and object of each action.• Comprehensive: all work activities concerned/..

12. Job element method

This method is same the critical incident technique. It focuses on work behaviors and the results of this behavior rather than more abstract characteristics. Job element method developed by Ernest Primoff.

1. Definition of job element method (JEM method)

Job element method is a method of job analysis, developed by Ernest Primoff.

This method, like the critical incident technique, focuses on satisfactory workers. It attempts to identify the characteristics of satisfactory workers (job elements).

JEM method focuses on work behaviors and the results of this behavior rather than more abstract characteristics.

2. Process of JEM method

The steps to perform a Job Element job analysis are:

Step 1: Select a group of experts

JEM is usually conducted by a professional analyst, who are project leader, and a team of six subject matter experts (SMEs), who are usually incumbents and supervisors.

Step 2: Conduct brainstorming sessions to identify job elements

• SMEs will make a list of element of job.• When all of the elements have been listed, the analyst asks the SMEs to provide sub-elements. Sub-elements are specific behavioral examples that illustrate the meaning of the element

Step 3: Assign weights to each of the elements based on the following criteria

• Trouble Likely If Not Considered (T ): the trouble likely to occur if the element is not considered; and• Practical (P): practicality–the effect of including the job element on the organization’s ability to fill job openings.• Barely Acceptable (B): proportion of barely acceptable workers who have the job element;• Superior (S): effectiveness of the element in picking a superior worker;

Step 4: Devired scales is process of delivering scale values from the expert ratings

Step 5: Assigning elements to categories

Categories includes• E = Element,• S = Significant• SU = belement,• RS = Rankable- Screenout,• TS = Training Subelement,• SC = Screenout

Step 6: Use results in your application

13. Diary method

This method is a useful tool of job analysis to ask worker maintaining and keeping daily records or list of activities they are doing on every day…

1. Definition of diary method

In this method the workers are asked to maintain and keep daily records or list of activities they are doing on every day.

This method also call work / log method

Another definition: word diary/log is to ask workers to keep a diary/log of what they do during the day.

2. New trends of diary method

Some firms take a high-tech method to apply word diary/log. This approach can avoid one pitfall of the traditional diary/log method: relying on workers to remember whatthey did hours earlier when they complete their diary/log.

3. Advantages of diary method

• May be useful for jobs that are difficult to observe

4. Disadvantages of diary method

• Too much variance in writing skills• Can exaggerate tasks performed• Remembering what was done earlier

14. Checklists and rating scales

Checklist is job analysis method base on an inventory of job elements. You can ask question about purose of position; key responsibility areas; organization; relationships; decision making; authority; Skills, knowledge, experience; working conditions

1. Definition of job analysis checklist

Checklist is job analysis method base on an inventory of job elements.

2. Types of job analysis checklist

There are 2 types of checklist: checklist for incumbent and checklist for analyst.

a. Checklist for incumbent: a worker or supervisor check items on a standardized task inventory that apply to the job. Checklists may be custom-made or purchased from an outside vendor.

b. Checklist for an analyst. Checklist is used to review all data before issuing job description.

3. Components / Contents of job analysis checklist

Your form should ask appropriate questions base on post : “contents of job analysis checklist”.

4. Advantages of job analysis checklist

* Easy to administer.* Inexpensive.

5. Disadvantages of job analysis checklist

* It may not include important parts of work.

15. Competency profiling

Competency modeling is the activity of determining the specific competencies that are characteristic of high performance and success in a given job. Contents of competency modeling include skills, knowledge, abilities, values, interests, personalities

1. Definition of competency

“Competency is knowledge, skill, ability, or characteristic associated with high performance on a job”. (Mirabile, 1997 ).

“Competency is a description of measurable work habits and personal skills used to achieve a work objective” (Green, 1999).

2. Definition of competency modeling

Competency modeling is a measurable method of knowledge, skill, abilities, behaviors, and other characteristics that an individual needs to perform work successfully or

Competency modeling is the activity of determining the specific competencies that are characteristic of high performance and success in a given job.

3. Components / contents of competency modeling

Competency Modeling includes elements as follows:• Skills• Knowledge• Values• Interests• Personality• Abilities

4. Comparison of Job Analysis and Competency Modeling

• Job Analysis include KSAs (KSAOs), Competency Modeling include KSAs and behaviors, personality, attitudes.• Job Analysis base on task-focused, Competency Modeling base on person-focused.• Job Analysis tied to role of worker, Competency Modeling tied to organizational goals and strategy.

5. Comparison of KSAs and Competency Modeling

KSAs base on individual success, Competency Modeling base on organizational success.

6. Advantages of Competency Modeling

• Focus on “core competencies”• Use language and terms understood throughout the organization

• To raise competency levels throughout the organization• To emphasize people’s capabilities for enhancing the competitive advantage of the organization• Attractive to the organization because it tied to the organization’s strategic and values statements.• Rooted in company mission and values (but are still measurable)

7. Disadvantages of Competency Modeling

• Present rather than future focused.• More useful for selection than development.• Often lacks a valid measurement strategy.

.

16. Examining Manuals/reference materials

Manuals/reference materials such as quality manual, human resource manual, procedures, instruction, forms, job description…are useful for analyst in job analysis. These documents are available for organizations applied to ISO 9000 standard.

17. Technical conference

Technical conference is a useful tool of job analysis base on Subject Matter Experts (SMEs). SMEs conduct brainstorming sessions to identify job elements. SMEs can use all job analysis methods in here.

1. Definition of technical conference method

Technical conference is method of job analysis base on SMEs.

SMEs definition:

SMEs are “subject matter experts”.

SMEs can include:

* Supervisor* Incumbents who are familiar with work* Human resource staff / supervisor/ manager…

2. Technical conference process:

SMEs conduct brainstorming sessions to identify job elements.

Assign weights to each of the elements based on the following criteria:

* Proportion of barely acceptable workers who have the job element;* Effectiveness of the element in picking a superior worker;* The trouble likely to occur if the element is not considered; and* The effect of including the job element on the organization’s ability to fill job openings.

Job analysis methods can be used in technical conference:

SMEs can use all method indicated at this website.

3. Advantages of of technical conference method

* Data from experience is superior to observation.* Data is comprehensive.* SME’s chosen for expertise and competence.

4. Disadvantages of of technical conference method

* SME’s may have trouble breaking work into tasks and describing work.* Time consuming.* Differences in opinion need to be resolved to consensus.

18.Threshold Traits Analysis System (TTAS model)

Threshold Traits Analysis System (TTAS model) is a method of job analysis, was developed in 1970 by Felix Lopez. Threshold traits analysis system include a standard set of 33 traits: ability traits are “can do” factors and attitudinal traits are “willing to do” factors.

1. Definition of Threshold Traits Analysis System

Threshold Traits Analysis System (TTAS model) is a method of job analysis, was developed in 1970 by Felix Lopez.

This method used to provide a theoretically coherent, multipurpose, trait-oriented and defensible method of job analysis.

2. Application of Threshold Traits Analysis System

The entire TTAS contains several different pieces. Some pieces are designed for describing traits for selection, some are designed for training, and some are designed for job description (although a TTAS can be used for other purposes as well, including job evaluation).

3. Components / contents of Threshold Traits Analysis System

Threshold traits analysis system include a standard set of 33 traits.

There traits are divided into 2 classes ability and attitude.

• Ability traits are “can do” factors. It are described as abilities and contain the physical, mental, and learned traits.• Attitudinal traits are “willing to do” factors. It are described as attitudes and contain the motivational and social traits.

These traits also are assessed for 6 characteristics: level, practicality, weight, degree, critique and availability as follows:

• Level are trait’ s complexity.• Practicality are estimated proportion of job applicants thought to possess trait indicated.• Degree represents a four grade assessment of a person’s possession of a trait, ranging from unacceptable to superior.• Critique refers to relationship between possession of a trait and job performance.• Availability describe supply / demand ratio of each trait level in labor market.• Weight is an index of the impact of particular trait on job performance.

Combination of methods

In process of job analysis, analyst can use and associate all methods to collecting job information. For example, when you use direct observation, then you always do interview method.

It include 6 types of question based on methods as follows:

1. Sample questions of critical incident technique

It is a job analysis form that include factors:

• Context Questions• Behavior question

2. Job analysis interview questions sample/example

It is a job analysis form that include factors:

• Job purpose:• Job duties• Job criteria / results• Records and Reports• Supervisor• Authority• Working instruments• Health and safety• Working conditions• Responsibilities• Knowledge• Skills/ Experience• Abilities required

3. Job analysis interview questions for management positionssample/example

It is a job analysis form that include factors:

• Management by functions• Management by activities

4. Position analysis questionnairesample/example

It is a job analysis form that include includes 195 items of job elements includes six categories.

These questions are designed base on Position Analysis Questionnaire model (PAQ model).

5. Functional job analysis questionssample/example

This sample include questions designed base on FJA method.

6. Job Analysis Questionnairessample/example

It is a job analysis form that include factors:• Physical demands.• Mental requirements.• Education:• Working experience

• Problem solving• Decision making• Management responsibilities.• Contacts• Job complexity• Work environment• Skills and/or licensing/certification required• Employee info• Key tasks and responsibilities:

why is job analysis important ?

Directly outcomes / results of job analysis are job description and job specification. Apart from job description and job specification, Functions / benefits of job analysis include elements as below.

1. Purpose of job analysis in Recruitment and Selection:

Job analysis is very important for contents as:

• Job duties that should be included in advertisements of vacant positions;• Appropriate salary level for the position to help determine what salary should be offered to a candidate;• Minimum requirements (education and/or experience) for screening applicants;• Interview questions;• Selection tests/instruments (e.g., written tests; oral tests; job simulations);• Applicant appraisal/evaluation forms;• Orientation materials for applicants/new hires

2. Purpose of job analysis in Job evaluation

• Judges relative worth of jobs in an organization• Sets fair compensation rates

3. Purpose of job analysis in Job design

• Reduce personnel costs, streamline work processes,• Increase productivity and employee empowerment,• Enhance job satisfaction and provide greater scheduling flexibility for the employee.• Simplify job with too many disparate activities• Identifies what must be performed, how it will be performed, where it is to be performed and who will perform it.

4. Purpose of job analysis in Compensation and Benefits:

Job Analysis can be used in compensation to identify or determine:

• Skill levels• Compensation job factors• Work environment (e.g., hazards; attention; physical effort)• Responsibilities (e.g., fiscal; supervisory)• Required level of education (indirectly related to salary level

5. Importance of job analysis in Performance Appraisal:

Job Analysis can be used in performance review to identify or develop:• Goals and objectives• Performance standards

• Length of probationary periods• Duties to be evaluated• Evaluation criteria

6. Importance of job analysis in Training and development:

Job Analysis can be used in training needs assessment to identify or develop:

• Training content• Assessment tests to measure effectiveness of training• Equipment to be used in delivering the training• Methods of training (i.e., small group, computer-based, video, classroom…)

7. Job analysis increases productivity

How a job analysis increases productivity?

• Job analysis also identify performance criteria so that it promote worker for best performance.• Job analysis can use methods of time and motion study or micro-motion analysis in order to time and motion for job.

8. Importance of job analysis in Compliance with labor law:

• Identify requirements in compliance with labor law.• Compliance with Civil Rights Legislation in US.• EEO (Equal Employment Opportunity) compliance in US

Practical problems with job analysis

Problems with job analysis include as follows:

1. Lack of top management support

Role of top management is to communicate to incumbents that purpose of job analysis is to enhance performance in organization.

2. Lack of training of the analyst and incumbent

Incumbent should be trained about job analysis as purpose of job analysis, if not, incumbents distort data of job analysis because employee think that process seen as a threat to employee

3. Use of only one method

Each method also has advantage and disadvantage so you should use at least 2 methods for job analysis.

Note that job analysis includes both collecting of data and review data so that you should not use only one method.

4. Use of single source of data only

Information source of job analysis include many one from internal one to external one… One can not reflect all data about position so that you should use at least 2 ones of job analysis information.

5. Other problems are:

• Intentional or unintentional distortion from incumbent• Absence of a review• Lack of participation of all stakeholders• Job-based rather than person-based.• Lack of reward for providing quality information• Insufficient time allowed for the process• Time spent of job analysis too lengthy.

Information sources of job analysis

Sources of job information to conduct a job analysis are:

1. External sources of job analysis

• Job analysis information from competitor such as job description and specification…• Dictionary of Occupational Titles• U.S. Standard Occupational Classification System• Other on-line job descriptions

2. Internal sources of job analysis

• Job incumbents: observation, interview, questionnaire• Supervisor of job: interview, questionnaire• Job analyst• HR information management system• Existing job descriptions• Manuals, publications• Experts• Records/file/manuals• Plans and blueprints• SMEs (Subject Matter Experts): people who have in-depth knowledge of specific job under analysis, job skills, and abilities• Outside consultant

Sources of job information to conduct a job analysis are:

1. External sources of job analysis

• Job analysis information from competitor such as job description and specification…• Dictionary of Occupational Titles• U.S. Standard Occupational Classification System• Other on-line job descriptions

2. Internal sources of job analysis

• Job incumbents: observation, interview, questionnaire• Supervisor of job: interview, questionnaire• Job analyst• HR information management system• Existing job descriptions• Manuals, publications

• Experts• Records/file/manuals• Plans and blueprints• SMEs (Subject Matter Experts): people who have in-depth knowledge of specific job under analysis, job skills, and abilities

Critical job analysis method

Direct observation

Work method

Job analysis interview method