John Paul Tabakian, Ed.D.

Political Science 2 Modern World Governments

Fall 2017 / Spring 2017 – Power Point 1

This Week’s Lecture Covers:

•Why And How We Compare

•Most Similar Systems & Most Different Systems

•Political System Formation

Political Systems & Their Environments

Structures & Functions

Policy Performance & Consequences

•Approaches To Comparing

Rational

Structural-Functionalism

Cultural

Course Lecture Topics (1)

•The Policy Level

Performance

Outcome

Education

•Globalization

World Capitalist Economy

Power Of Technology

Interdependency & Peaceful Relations

•International Relations Versus Comparative Politics

Future Of Comparative Politics

Future Of International Relations

Will Both Schools Merge?

Course Lecture Topics (2)

1. Distribution

2. Environment

3. Extraction

4. Functions

5. Globalization

6. Governments

7. Inputs

8. Interdependence

9. Interest Aggregation

10.Interest Articulation

11.Outcomes

12.Outputs

13.Policy Adjudication

14.Policy Implementation

Key Terms For Chapter 2 (1)

14.Policy Level

15.Policymaking

16.Political Culture

17.Political Communication

18.Political Recruitment

19.Political Socialization

20.Political System

21.Process Functions

22.Regulation

23.Structural Functional Approach

24.Structures

25.System

26.System Functions

Key Terms For Chapter 2 (2)

We compare to accomplish the following:

1. Compare to control. This is done in order to see if our

claims hold merit. Our arguments may be about social,

political, or economic phenomena.

2. To understand and explain. Understanding means

one is interested primarily on one case. The

researcher will draw from various cases and theories

to learn more about the case of interest. Explaining

requires comparison while understanding that the

world is not a controlled laboratory. Theories help us

on our quest for truth.

Why We Compare

The two basic comparative strategies are calledthe Most Similar Systems (MSS) and MostDifferent Systems (MDS) Design.

•MSS: Find key differences between two similarsystems.•MDS: Find key similarities between two or moredissimilar systems.

How We Compare: MSS & MDS

MOST SIMILAR SYSTEMS (MSS) is based oncomparing two or more social systems that aresimilar. It is important to understand thatresearchers must compare two more systemsthat possess a large number of commonalities,but also differ in some areas. At least two of thecases should possess an independent variableand dependent variable that are different.

Most Similar Systems Design (1)

Dependent Versus Independent VariablesIndependent variables affect the dependent

variable or the outcome itself. Let us look at this statement: “Democracy can only take root in

capitalist societies”.

Dependent Variable: Democracy.

Independent Variable: Capitalist Societies.

Most Similar Systems Design (2)

MOST DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

The key difference between MDS and MSS is that

in an MDS design, the dependent variable should

be the same for all chosen cases. Identify the

different independent variable(s) to make your

case. Theory comes in very handy when

summing up your arguments.

Most Different Systems Design

Political Systems – Environment And Interdependence (1)

• To utilize a structural-functional systems framework tocompare political systems we need to discuss threegeneral concepts:

– System: suggests an object having interdependentparts, acting within a setting or an environment

– Structure

– Function

• Political system: a set of institutions and agenciesconcerned with formulating and implementing thecollective goals of a society or of groups within it.

Political Systems – Environment And Interdependence (2)

Political Systems – Environment And Interdependence (3)

• Governments are the policymaking parts of political systems.

– Decisions of governments are normally backed up by legitimatecoercion; obedience may be compelled.

• A political system exists in both an international environment and adomestic environment.

• A system receives inputs from these environments.

– International

• Exchanges among countries may vary in many ways: smallto great.

• Interdependence has increased enormously in the lastdecades.

– Globalization

– Domestic

• Economic and social systems

• Political culture of its citizens

Political Systems Structures And Functions (1)

• Structures: parliaments, bureaucracies, administrative agencies, andcourts

• Structures perform functions, which in turn enable the government toformulate, implement, and enforce its policies.

– Policies reflect the goals; the agencies provide the means.

– Six types of political structures: political parties, interest groups,legislatures, executives, bureaucracies, and courts.

• Formal organizations engaged in political activities.

• Some structures, such as ruling military councils or governingroyal families, are found in only a few countries.

• Similar structures may have very different functions acrosspolitical systems.

– Example: China and Britain

Political Systems Structures And Functions (2)

• Three additional functions which are not directly involved in makingand implementing public policy - socialization, recruitment, andcommunication, are fundamentally important.

• These are SYSTEM functions.

– They determine whether or not the system will be maintained orchanged.

• Political socialization: involves families, schools,communications media, churches, and all the various politicalstructures that develop, reinforce and transform the politicalculture, the attitudes of political significance in the society

• Political recruitment: refers to the selection of people forpolitical activity and government offices

• Political communication: refers to the flow of informationthrough the society and through the various structures thatmake up the political system

Political Systems Structures And Functions (3)

• Outputs = the implementations of the political process.

– Substantive impacts on the society, the economy, and theculture

– Regulation of behavior; extraction of resources;distribution of benefits and services

– Reflect the way the policies interact with the domesticand international environments

• Example of structures and functions in Russia before andafter the breakdown of communist rule in the Soviet Union

– Approach - structural functional comparison

• Allows us to examine how the same functions areperformed in different countries, or in the samecountry at two different points in time

Political Systems Structures And Functions (4)

• Process functions are performed by political structures.

• The structural-functional approach stresses two points:

– In different countries, the same structure may perform different functions.

– While a particular institution may have a special relationship to a particular function, institutions often do not have a monopoly on any one function.

• Ex: Presidents and governors may share in the policy-making function (veto powers), as do the higher courts (judicial review).

Rational Choice Analysis: This theory argues that self-interests

guides all behavior, which involved conducting a cost benefit

analysis. Individuals weigh the cost along with the benefits and

then decide to pursue something if the benefits outweigh the

costs. If we assume that everyone basis their actions on self-

interest then we have to come to terms with situations

involving actions that are not beneficial. This depends on the

quality of information one has been able to accrue.

Rational Choice (1)

Decision makers rarely have access to perfect information, as

they simply don’t possess viable access to the information

required to make a rational decision. This includes a lack of

experience, limited data, lack of education, inability to assess

actions of others, lack of knowing future developments, or

even just bad luck. Strategic interaction also comes into play,

which is the implication that indecisions made by one

individual is made according to decisions made by others,

which leads us to game theory. Prisoner’s dilemma is one

aspect of strategic interaction.

Rational Choice (2)

Structural-Functionalism: This theory utilizes micro-

interpretation to suggest that given the issue, individuals may

unite temporarily to defend its interests. Structural-

functionalism helps to explain how political leaders can deal

with citizen demands that are hard to fulfill. Instead of

providing the actual goods sought, political leaders may instill

loyalty based on symbolic or cultural goods. The structural-

functional approach maintains two points:

1. In different countries, the same structure may perform

different functions.

2. Absolute power is impossible and no one institution, or

individual entity, no matter how powerful, may be able to

control all facets in society.

Structural-Functionalism

Cultural Approaches: This theory is likely to accept the

arguments of rational choice or structural analysis as both are

seen as helping to construct societal norms. Culturalism

begins with the premise that culture matters in any

explanation. It is important not to state grand assumptions

when using culture as a variable. For example, statements like

“Muslim countries are resistant to democracy,” or

“Confucianism helps explain capitalist development in East

Asia” are not appropriate. The problem with these claims is

that it generalizes culture as clear-cut, uniform, and basically

static. The majority of Culturalists would argue today that

culture is multi-vocal and multidimensional.

Cultural Approaches

Societal interdependence addresses situation in which events

within one society affect events in another. Government

involvement in instigating these events does not have to take

place for this to occur. Transnational relations helps to

encourage interdependency between states. States

interdependent on one another presents each with economic

and political trade-offs, whereas gains in one may lead to the

weakening of another. One may argue that an interdependent

world of liberal-democratic states can at some point in time

lead to world peace. Adopting current rules of the game, even

among nation-states that may not be democratic, does present

a situation where the success and or survival of one country is

dependent on the success and or survival of its peer.

State Interdependency (1)

Societal and economic interdependence can interlink

the domestic policies of two nation-state. Take the

example of Canada and the United States. The high

degree of societal interdependence assures that

Canada will be strongly affected by American

policies. The most powerful nation-state can more

affect the policies of another country interdependent

on its society as this example shows. Underlying

most analyses of world politics and international

organizations is the state-centric approach:

1. Governments are the most significant actors in

world politics.

2. Governments are unified actors.

State Interdependency (2)

Interdependent linkages among nation-states

results in the trade of products, services,

ideas, culture, etc. The greatest advantage of

this global trade is not just cheap

merchandise for our people. Many argue we

have not had a major war for over 60 years

thanks to complex interdependency. Some

students may believe that Persian Gulf War I

& 2 is a major war. That is inaccurate, for a

major war results when at least two major

powers attack each other. The result would

be millions dead in less than an hour. Watch

this video presentation of America nuclear

weapon tests. Ask yourself this question,

“Why does the United States not use these

weapons?”

Preventing A Major War

American Military Power

Globalization (1)

Globalization is a process that seems to create a more unified

world united in a single economic system. Globalization

continues to be cited as a cause for the withering away of the

state. Technology has allowed mankind to realize globalization.

Liberalism and its market-based order continue to be the

primary motivator for technological innovation that in turn has

rendered previous norms obsolete. One can argue that this

constant drive may in time render international strife, conflict

and other assorted calamities obsolete. Liberals would argue

that globalization is a trend toward the transformation of world

politics with states no longer remaining sealed units.

Globalization (2)

Globalization may be seen as a homogenization process thatequalizes prices, products, wages, wealth, rates of interestand profit margins. It is a movement that can spark resistanceboth within the United States as well as around the world. Thiscan come from religious fundamentalists, labor unions andother types of special interest groups. Globalization has so faronly encompassed western countries, Israel and certain Asiancountries like Japan, South Korea and China. Most of theworld has been left out, including Africa, Latin America,Russia, Middle East and swaths of Asia.

Globalization (3)

This political piece explores the

effects of globalization. One can

argue that globalization has

extended people’s buying power.

Dollars can be stretched must

further thanks to lower labor

costs found in distant lands. “Big

Box-Mart” argues that cheap

goods does present a serious

side effect. Does the message

relate to your personal belief

about our present global

economy?

Big Box Mart

Comparative politics inspires students to establish linkages

between international relations with domestic politics.

Structural-functionalist approaches had failed to recognize the

interactions between international and domestic issues.

Comparative politics deals with complex systems issues that

can include comparing capitalism to communism, democracy

to totalitarianism, free markets to planned economies, etc.

Scholars saw many avenues open to comparison from the

1960s to 1970s when comparative analysis started to take

notice. Nothing seemed to be beyond these scholars as they

pursued every conceivable option including democracy,

authoritarianism, Marxism, revolution, corporatism,

totalitarianism, fragmentation, disintegration, and civil war.

Defining Comparative Politics (1)

Comparing to control is perhaps the major point of interest for

students as it relates to case studies. Control means to test

our hypothesis. An example would be a claim that “Democracy

cannot be imposed on society by an external power.” How do

we know if this is a strong or weak claim? The first thing to do

is look for other cases where democracy has been imposed on

another society. Looking at two cases like Germany and Japan

after World War II reveals that we may need to adjust our main

thesis statement. This is why it is a good idea to look at even

more cases to evaluate the strength of our argument. Though

we cannot ignore any evidence, we can explain why different

results occurred.

Defining Comparative Politics (2)

Comparative Politics used to be focused mainly on Western

Europe until the Cold War compelled American policymakers

to pay attention to “lesser” countries, regions and former

colonies. The concern was that these countries represented

either future enemies or allies. This concern propelled

American policymakers to learn more about these countries.

Cases are usually based on a specific issue or concern like

industrialization, social revolution, terrorism, democracy, or any

other issue of interest. They are also delimited graphically as

time can be a focal point of analysis.

Defining Comparative Politics (3)

International Relations (1)

International Relations focuses mainly on conflict in the world system

and how to prevent chaos from ensuing by managing power relations

through the use of deterrence. Foreign policy decision makers examine

problems by equating five variables:

(1) the societal and individual values of their state and that of the case

being examined;

(2) their own and the world’s understanding of the problem at hand;

(3) those capabilities available on hand and what the goals of their

nation in correlation to other nations;

(4) the bureaucratic and organizational framework where decisions

affecting foreign affairs are constructed; and

(5) how that individual defines the international system, whether it may

be bipolar, multipolar, classical balance of power, unilateral, etc.

International Relations (2)

International relations is like the philosophy of science as both are

defined as, “a symbolic construction, a series of inter-related constructs

or concepts, together with definitions, laws, theorems and axioms.” The

field of study came about following World War I by those who sought to

understand what causes conflict so that the barrage of conflict may not

be repeated again. The field consists of contending theories that some

have argued has not been able to reign uncontested. One can argue that

the field as a whole is wrought with contesting theoretical approaches,

which have yet to achieve recognition as a new paradigm or standing as

a law that all researchers can depend on. Found within the natural

sciences are certain laws retaining equal standing among researchers in

that field. None of the subfields of IR or the entire discipline for that

matter have yet achieved this state. All of the competing theoretical

approaches and methodologies applied in IR depend on each other to

form a nucleus of knowledge that researchers may utilize in different

configurations to strengthen or attack hypotheses.

Domestic politics may influence foreign relations, which in turn

may influence the domestic politics of a respective nation-

state. Existing linkages have been found to exist between

external and internal factors. External factors like security

threats may affect a state’s economy. This is why students may

discover that boundaries are evaporating between

international relations, which looks at how the external actions

of an actor affects those actions undertaken by another actor.

Comparative Joining With IR?