19 September 2001

Joint Doctrine forAmphibious Operations

Joint Publication 3-02

PREFACE

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1. Scope

This publication is a doctrine document inthe joint operations series. It providesfundamental principles that guide the ArmedForces of the United States in the conduct ofamphibious operations.

2. Purpose

This publication has been prepared underthe direction of the Chairman of the JointChiefs of Staff. It sets forth doctrine to governthe joint activities and performance of theArmed Forces of the United States in jointoperations and provides the doctrinal basis forUS military involvement in multinational andinteragency operations. It provides militaryguidance for the exercise of authority bycombatant commanders and other jointforce commanders (JFCs) and prescribesdoctrine for joint operations and training. Itprovides military guidance for use by theArmed Forces in preparing their appropriateplans. It is not the intent of this publication torestrict the authority of the JFC fromorganizing the force and executing the missionin a manner the JFC deems most appropriateto ensure unity of effort in the accomplishmentof the overall mission.

3. Application

a. Doctrine and guidance established inthis publication apply to the commandersof combatant commands, subunifiedcommands, joint task forces, and subordinatecomponents of these commands. Theseprinciples and guidance also may apply whensignificant forces of one Service are attachedto forces of another Service or whensignificant forces of one Service supportforces of another Service.

b. The guidance in this publication isauthoritative; as such, this doctrine will befollowed except when, in the judgment of thecommander, exceptional circumstancesdictate otherwise. If conflicts arise betweenthe contents of this publication and thecontents of Service publications, thispublication will take precedence for theactivities of joint forces unless the Chairmanof the Joint Chiefs of Staff, normally incoordination with the other members of theJoint Chiefs of Staff, has provided morecurrent and specific guidance. Commandersof forces operating as part of a multinational(alliance or coalition) military commandshould follow multinational doctrine andprocedures ratified by the United States. Fordoctrine and procedures not ratified by theUnited States, commanders should evaluateand follow the multinational commandsdoctrine and procedures, where applicable andconsistent with US law, regulations, anddoctrine.

S. A. FRYVice Admiral, U.S. NavyDirector, Joint Staff

For the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff:

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................ ix

CHAPTER ICONCEPT OF AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS

General ..................................................................................................................... I-1 Applications .............................................................................................................. I-2 Types of Amphibious Operations .............................................................................. I-2 Characteristics ........................................................................................................... I-4 Capabilities ............................................................................................................... I-6 Sequence ................................................................................................................... I-6 Initiating an Amphibious Operation .......................................................................... I-6 Termination of an Amphibious Operation ................................................................. I-8

CHAPTER IICOMMAND AND CONTROL

General .................................................................................................................... II-1 Organization of Joint Forces ..................................................................................... II-1 Command and Control of Amphibious Forces .......................................................... II-2 Operational Control ................................................................................................. II-4 Tactical Control ........................................................................................................ II-5 Support .................................................................................................................... II-5 Parallel Chains of Command .................................................................................... II-7 Amphibious Force Task Organization and Task Designators .................................... II-8 Operational Areas .................................................................................................... II-9

CHAPTER IIIAIR COMMAND AND CONTROL

Joint Air Operations ............................................................................................... III-1 Airspace Control in Amphibious Operations .......................................................... III-1 Navy Tactical Air Control Center ........................................................................... III-4 Marine Corps Tactical Air Command Center .......................................................... III-5 Tactical Air Operations Center ............................................................................... III-6 Counterair Operations During Amphibious Operations .......................................... III-6 Air Command and Control Procedures ................................................................... III-8

CHAPTER IVAPPROACH TO PLANNING AND PRIMARY DECISIONS

General .................................................................................................................. IV-1 Tenets of Amphibious Planning .............................................................................. IV-1

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Planning Directive ................................................................................................. IV-2 Amphibious Planning Process ................................................................................ IV-2 Primary Decisions .................................................................................................. IV-4 Crosstalks and Confirmation Briefs ........................................................................ IV-8

CHAPTER VTHE INTELLIGENCE CYCLE AND AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS

Introduction: Amphibious Operations Intelligence, Surveillance, andReconnaissance ..................................................................................................... V-1

Required Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Capabilities ..................... V-1 The Intelligence Cycle and Amphibious Operations ................................................ V-2 Key Intelligence Activities and Goals During Planning ........................................... V-3 Intelligence Support to Operations .......................................................................... V-4

CHAPTER VICOMMAND, CONTROL, COMMUNICATIONS, AND COMPUTER SYSTEMSSUPPORT PLANNING

Requirements of Command, Control, Communications, and Computer Systems .... VI-1 General C4 Systems Support Planning Considerations ........................................... VI-2 C4 Systems Support During the Planning Phase ..................................................... VI-2 C4 Systems Support During the Embarkation Phase ............................................... VI-3 C4 Systems Support During the Rehearsal Phase ................................................... VI-3 C4 Systems Support During the Movement Phase .................................................. VI-3 C4 Systems Support During Advance Force Operations ......................................... VI-3 C4 Systems Support During the Action Phase ........................................................ VI-3 Responsibilities ...................................................................................................... VI-3 Communications Deception and Countermeasures ................................................. VI-4 C4 Systems Support Plan ....................................................................................... VI-4 Landing Force C4 Systems ..................................................................................... VI-4

CHAPTER VIIFIRE SUPPORT PLANNING AND COORDINATION

General ................................................................................................................. VII-1 Fire Support Systems ............................................................................................ VII-1 Planning and Coordination .................................................................................... VII-4

CHAPTER VIIILOGISTICS PLANNING

General ................................................................................................................ VIII-1 Logistic Planning Responsibilities ........................................................................ VIII-2 Logistic Planning Considerations and Factors ...................................................... VIII-3 Logistic Planning Sequence ................................................................................. VIII-4 Logistic Plans ....................................................................................................... VIII-5

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Embarkation and Loading Plans ........................................................................... VIII-7 Health Service Support Plans ............................................................................... VIII-7 Landing Force Support Party Plans .................................................................... VIII-10 Pontoon Causeway and Lighterage Plans ........................................................... VIII-13 Engineer Plans ................................................................................................... VIII-13 Advanced Base Development and Garrison Plans .............................................. VIII-13

CHAPTER IXAMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS AGAINST COASTAL DEFENSES

General .................................................................................................................. IX-1 Anti-landing Doctrine ............................................................................................ IX-1 Amphibious Breach of Coastal Defenses ................................................................ IX-2 Integrated Mine Countermeasures and Amphibious Breaching Operations ............. IX-3 Operations in Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Environments ............................. IX-4

CHAPTER XEMBARKATION

General ................................................................................................................... X-1 Embarkation Planning ............................................................................................. X-1 Embarkation Planning Responsibilities ................................................................... X-2

CHAPTER XIREHEARSALS

General .................................................................................................................. XI-1 Requirements ......................................................................................................... XI-1 Rehearsal Plans ...................................................................................................... XI-1 Security .................................................................................................................. XI-2

CHAPTER XIIMOVEMENT TO THE OPERATIONAL AREA

General ................................................................................................................. XII-1 Echelons of the Landing Force .............................................................................. XII-1 Organization for Movement .................................................................................. XII-3 Planning Responsibilities ...................................................................................... XII-4 Sea Routes to the Operational Area ....................................................................... XII-5 Sea Routes in the Operational Area ....................................................................... XII-5 Staging Areas ........................................................................................................ XII-6 Sea Areas .............................................................................................................. XII-6 Regulating Points .................................................................................................. XII-8 Geographic Reference Points ................................................................................ XII-8 Security ................................................................................................................. XII-8 Protective Measures .............................................................................................. XII-8 Electronic Warfare En Route ................................................................................. XII-9

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Intelligence En Route ............................................................................................ XII-9 Coordination During Passage ................................................................................ XII-9 Approach to the Operational Area ......................................................................... XII-9

CHAPTER XIIISUPPORTING, ADVANCE FORCE, AND PREASSAULT OPERATIONS

General ................................................................................................................ XIII-1 Supporting Amphibious Operations ..................................................................... XIII-1 Advance Force Operations ................................................................................... XIII-2 Preassault Operations ........................................................................................... XIII-3

CHAPTER XIVSHIP-TO-SHORE MOVEMENT PLANNING

General ............................................................................................................... XIV-1 Relationship to Other Planning ............................................................................ XIV-3 Responsibilities for Ship-to-Shore Movement Planning ...................................... XIV-3 Ship-to-Shore Movement Planning Considerations ............................................. XIV-4 Over-the-Horizon Amphibious Operations .......................................................... XIV-5 Navigational Aids ............................................................................................... XIV-8

CHAPTER XVACTION

General ................................................................................................................. XV-1 Organization and Command Relationships ............................................................ XV-1 Control .................................................................................................................. XV-2 Final Preparations for the Ship-to-Shore Movement .............................................. XV-3 Subsidiary Landings .............................................................................................. XV-3 MPF and APF Operations ..................................................................................... XV-4 Follow-up Transport Ships and Aircraft ................................................................ XV-4 Assault .................................................................................................................. XV-4 Amphibious Withdrawals ...................................................................................... XV-5 Amphibious Demonstrations ................................................................................. XV-6 Amphibious Raids ................................................................................................. XV-9 Amphibious Operations in Support of MOOTW ................................................. XV-11

APPENDIX

A References ........................................................................................................ A-1B Administrative Instructions ................................................................................ B-1

GLOSSARY

Part I Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................................................... GL-1Part II Terms and Definitions .............................................................................. GL-5

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FIGURE

I-1 Phases of an Amphibious Operation ............................................................. I-7II-1 Examples of Shifts in the Support Relationship ........................................... II-7III-1 Command and Control of Joint Air Operations .......................................... III-2III-2 Coordination Responsibilities .................................................................... III-4III-3 The Counterair Framework ........................................................................ III-7III-4 Conceptual Amphibious Defense Zone ...................................................... III-8IV-1 Steps in the Amphibious Planning Process ................................................ IV-3IV-2 Primary Decisions Responsibilities Matrix ................................................ IV-5IV-3 Landing Area Selection ............................................................................. IV-6VI-1 Communications Support Requirements .................................................... VI-2VI-2 Command, Control, Communications and Computer Systems Support

Plan ......................................................................................................... VI-5VII-1 Joint Targeting Cycle Phases .................................................................... VII-6VIII-1 Logistic and Combat Service Support Plans ............................................. VIII-5VIII-2 Contents of the Health Service Support Plan ............................................ VIII-8VIII-3 Health Service Support Planning Considerations ..................................... VIII-9VIII-4 Landing Force Health Service Support Plan........................................... VIII-10VIII-5 Landing Force Support Party Planning Considerations .......................... VIII-12IX-1 Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Defense Priorities ................................ IX-6XII-1 Sea Areas ................................................................................................. XII-7XIV-1 Planning Sequence ................................................................................. XIV-4XIV-2 Landing Plan Documents ........................................................................ XIV-5XIV-3 Over-the-Horizon Operations ................................................................. XIV-7XV-1 Assault Sequence ...................................................................................... XV-5XV-2 Types of Military Operations Other Than War ........................................ XV-12XV-3 Considerations During Military Operations Other Than War .................. XV-13

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARYCOMMANDERS OVERVIEW

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An amphibious operationis a military operationlaunched from the sea byan amphibious forceembarked in ships or craftwith the primary purposeof introducing a landingforce (LF) ashore toaccomplish the assignedmission.

Amphibious operationsapply maneuver principlesto expeditionary powerprojection in joint andmultinational operations.

Clarification of terms.

General Concepts

Discusses the Types and Characteristics of AmphibiousOperations

Covers Command Relationships for AmphibiousOperations

Discusses Air Command and Control Arrangements

Covers Amphibious Operations Planning and ExecutionConsiderations

Types of amphibious operations include assaults, withdrawals,demonstrations, raids, and other operations in a permissive,uncertain, or hostile environment.

An amphibious force conducts amphibious operations. Anamphibious force is defined as an amphibious task force(ATF) and a landing force (LF) together with other forces thatare trained, organized, and equipped for amphibious operations.

Amphibious operations seek to exploit the element of surpriseand capitalize on enemy weakness by projecting and applyingcombat power precisely at the most advantageous location andtime. Amphibious forces provide the joint force commander(JFC) with a balanced, mobile force flexible enough to providethe required capability at the right time and place with sufficientendurance to accomplish the mission.

The terms commander, amphibious task force (CATF) andcommander, landing force (CLF) have been used doctrinallyin the past to signify the commanders assigned to spearheadamphibious operations. This doctrine disassociates (fromprevious doctrine) any historical implications of the termsCATF and CLF from command relations. The termsCATF and CLF do not connote titles or commandrelationships. Rather, they refer to those commanders who areinstrumental to the conduct of amphibious operations in a

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joint environment. Under Joint Publication (JP) 0-2, UnifiedAction Armed Forces (UNAAF), the establishing authoritymay choose from a variety of command relationship optionsbetween the CATF, CLF, and other designated commandersinvolved in amphibious operations.

Conducted alone, or in conjunction with other militaryoperations, amphibious operations can be designed for thefollowing purposes.

Achieve campaign objectives in one swift stroke by capitalizingon surprise and simultaneous execution of supportingoperations to strike directly at enemy critical vulnerabilitiesand decisive points in order to defeat operational or tacticalcenters of gravity (COGs).

Comprise the initial phase of a campaign or majoroperation where the objective is to establish a militarylodgment to support subsequent phases.

Serve as a supporting operation in a campaign in order to denyuse of an area or facilities to the enemy, or to fix enemy forcesand attention in support of other combat operations.

Support military operations other than war in order to deterwar, resolve conflict, promote peace and stability, and supportcivil authorities in response to domestic crises.

Amphibious Assault. The establishment of an LF on a hostileor potentially hostile shore.

Amphibious Withdrawal. The extraction of forces by sea inships or craft from a hostile or potentially hostile shore.

Amphibious Demonstration. A show of force conducted todeceive with the expectation of deluding the enemy into acourse of action unfavorable to it.

Amphibious Raid. A swift incursion into, or a temporaryoccupation of, an objective, followed by a planned withdrawal.

Other Amphibious Operations. The capabilities ofamphibious forces may be especially suited to conduct other

Amphibious operationscan be used in many waysto support the joint forcecommanders (JFCs)campaign or operationplan.

Amphibious operationscan generally be brokendown into five majortypes: assaults,withdrawals,demonstrations, raids, andother amphibiousoperations.

Types of Amphibious Operations

Applications

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Executive Summary

types of operations, such as noncombatant evacuationoperations and foreign humanitarian assistance.

Integration between the Navy and landing forces. The keycharacteristic of an amphibious operation is close coordinationand cooperation between the ATF, LF, and other designatedforces.

Rapid buildup of combat power from the sea to shore. Thesalient requirement of an amphibious assault is the necessityfor swift, uninterrupted buildup of sufficient combat powerashore from an initial zero capability to full coordinated strikingpower as the attack progresses toward amphibious forceobjectives.

Task-organized forces, capable of multiple missions acrossthe full range of military operations to enable joint, allied, andcoalition operations. Amphibious forces are task-organizedbased on the mission.

Unity of Effort and Operational Coherence. The complexityof amphibious operations and the vulnerability of forcesengaged in amphibious operations require an exceptionaldegree of unity of effort and operational coherence.

The command relationships established within the amphibiousforce are in accordance with the concepts and principlesdelineated in JP 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF).

The JFC may establish unity of command over amphibiousforces by retaining operational control (OPCON) over theService or functional component commands executing theamphibious operation, or by delegating OPCON or tacticalcontrol (TACON) of the amphibious force to a Service orfunctional component commander.

If organizing forces along Service components, the JFC mayestablish a support relationship between the Navy componentcommander and the Service component commander of the LF,or delegate OPCON or TACON of the assigned or attachedamphibious forces to a Service component.

Characteristics of Amphibious Operations

Amphibious operationshave four keycharacteristics.

Amphibious operationsare normally part of ajoint operation.

The JFC ensures unity ofeffort in achievingamphibious objectives byestablishing unity ofcommand overamphibious forces.

The JFC will organize theamphibious force in sucha way as to bestaccomplish the missionbased on the concept ofoperations.

Command and Control of Amphibious Operations

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If organizing the joint force with a combination of Service andfunctional component commands with operationalresponsibilities, the JFC may establish a support relationshipbetween the functional components, Service components, orother appropriate commanders, or delegate OPCON or TACONof the assigned or attached amphibious forces to a functionalcomponent or Service component commander.

The command relationships established among the CATF,CLF, and other designated commanders of the amphibiousforce is important. The type of relationship chosen by thecommon superior commander (or establishing authority) forthe amphibious force should be based on mission, nature andduration of the operation, force capabilities, command andcontrol (C2) capabilities, battlespace assigned, andrecommendations from subordinate commanders.

The commanders designated in the order initiating theamphibious operation are coequal in planning matters anddecisions. All decisions must be reached on a basis of commonunderstanding of the mission, objectives, and procedures andon a free exchange of information. Any differences betweencommanders that cannot be resolved are referred to theestablishing authority.

The amphibious operational area must be of sufficient size toconduct necessary sea, land, and air operations required toexecute the mission of the amphibious force. The operationalareas that may be assigned to an amphibious force in an orderinitiating the amphibious operation are an amphibious objectivearea (AOA) or an area of operations normally in conjunctionwith a high-density airspace control zone.

During maritime operations such as amphibious operations,the airspace control authority will normally designate themaritime commander as the control authority for a specificairspace control area during the conduct of the amphibiousoperation (JP 3-52, Doctrine for Joint Airspace Control inthe Combat Zone). The complexity and size of an amphibiousoperation directly affects the amount of airspace allocated.

Typically, a supportrelationship is establishedbetween the commandersand is based on thecomplementary ratherthan similar nature of theamphibious task force andLF.

Regardless of thecommand relationships,when the order initiatingthe amphibious operationis received, uniquerelationships are observedduring the planning phase.

Amphibious operationsnormally encompass athree-dimensionalgeographic area, withinwhich is located theamphibious objective(s).

Assignment of airspaceallows the commander toexercise command andcontrol of forces,deconflict high volumes ofdifferent types of aircraftand missiles, and defendforces.

Air Command and Control

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The area air defense commander (AADC) bears overallresponsibility for air defense activities of the joint force. Theregional air defense commander is normally established withinthe ATF organization and is responsible for the airspaceallocated for amphibious operations, including but not limitedto the AOA (if established). The CATF will coordinate activedefense plans and procedures with the AADC and attackoperations with the joint force air component commanderunless otherwise specified in the order initiating the amphibiousoperation or the establishing directive. The designatedcommander assigns an air warfare commander, normally onthe most capable air defense platform, to actually carry out airdefense operations.

For transfer of airspace control and counterair responsibilitiesashore to occur, an appropriate agency must be establishedthat is responsible for air operations planning, air control,and counterair. This agency is either tactical air commandcenter (ashore) when the LF is Marine Corps, or an air operationscenter when the LF is an Army task organization. It is phasedashore as part of the LF. To facilitate an orderly transfer ofcontrol, specific control functions may be incrementally passedas facilities ashore become operational.

Top-Down Planning. Planning is a fundamental responsibilityof commanders. The complexity of amphibious operationsrequires amphibious force commanders to drive the planningprocess. Their guidance and intent are central to planning andmust be translated into a design for action by subordinates.

Unity of Effort. Unity of effort in the operational area allowsthe CATF and CLF to effectively focus the amphibious forceon mission accomplishment. They must view their battlespaceas an indivisible entity, for operations or events in one areamay have profound and often unintended effects on other areasand events.

Integrated Planning. Integrated planning in amphibiousoperations has two parts. The first part is the assembly of theamphibious force commanders and their staffs in the samelocality. When such arrangements are not practicable, theexchange of liaison officers qualified to perform planningfunctions and the use of advanced technology, collaborative

Tenets of Amphibious Planning

The joint counterairmission is used to gain andmaintain air superioritythrough mutuallysupporting offensive anddefensive measures.

During amphibiousoperations, airspacecontrol and counterairresponsibilities in theoperational area may betransferred ashore.

The tenets of successfulamphibious planning aretop-down planning, unityof effort (within thedesignated operationalarea), and an integratedplanning effort.

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planning aids, and video teleconferencing are necessary. Thesecond part of integrated planning occurs across functionalareas. The use of functional areas, such as maneuver,supporting arms and fires, intelligence, C2, logistics, and forceprotection enable amphibious force planners to integrate theplanning effort and supervise the plan. The use of functionalareas helps the planners to consider all relevant factors andminimize omissions.

Fire support planning integrates and synchronizes theamphibious force organic fires with non-organic supportingfires to achieve the commanders intent. Maneuver and firesare complementary functions. Fires in support of amphibiousoperations (amphibious fire support) is the synergistic productof three subsystems: target acquisition (TA), C2, and attackresources. TA systems and equipment perform the key tasksof target detection, location, tracking, identification, andclassification in sufficient detail to permit the effective attackof the target. C2 systems bring all information together forcollation and decision making. Vertical and horizontalcoordination is essential, requiring a hierarchy of mutuallysupporting fire support coordinators and agencies. Attacksystems include fires delivered from air, surface, land, andsubsurface attack systems. Navy, Marine Corps, Army, andAir Force aircraft may perform air-to-surface attack andelectronic warfare within the operational area. Land-basedattack systems typically include Marine Corps and Armyartillery, mortars, rockets, missiles, and electronic warfaresystems. Sea-based attack systems include Navy guns,missiles, and electronic warfare systems.

Effective fire support depends on planning for the successfulperformance of the following four basic tasks.

Support forces in contact. The amphibious force providesresponsive fire support that protects and ensures freedom ofmaneuver to forces in contact with the enemy throughout theoperational area.

Support the concept of operations. Shaping the battlespaceand setting the conditions for decisive action are successfullyaccomplished by achieving the commanders stated effects andattacking high-payoff targets to exploit critical vulnerabilities,the destruction or neutralization of which significantlycontributes to the success of the amphibious operation bydefeating the enemys COGs.

Fire support planning andcoordination inamphibious operations arecontinuous processesseeking timely andappropriate application offorce to achieve the desiredeffects within theoperational area.

Fire support planning isthe continuous andconcurrent process ofanalyzing, allocating, andscheduling of fire supportto integrate it with theforces to maximize combatpower.

Fire Support During Amphibious Operations

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Logistic Planning During Amphibious Operations

Synchronize fire support. Fire support is synchronized throughfire support coordination, beginning with the commandersestimate and concept of operations. Fire support must beplanned for continuously and concurrently with thedevelopment of the scheme of maneuver.

Sustain fire support operations. Fire support plannersformulate realistic and achievable fire support plans to achievethe commanders stated effects by exploiting logistic capabilitiesto overcome logistic limitations.

The CATF is normally responsible for determining overalllogistic requirements for the amphibious force. Thoserequirements that cannot be supported from resources availablewithin the ATF are directed to the applicable Servicecomponent through the chain of command as established inthe order initiating the amphibious operation.

Development of effective logistic systems must take intoaccount the planning considerations and factors listed below.

Orderly assembly and embarkation of personnel andmaterial based on anticipated requirements of the LF schemeof maneuver ashore.

Establishment and maintenance of a logistic system in theoperational area that will ensure adequate support to allelements of the amphibious force, and subsequent support ofbase development and garrison forces as directed.

Impetus of logistic support from sea, or the rear, and directedforward to the point of application at the using unit.

Preservation of tactical security during logistic planning.Nonsecure logistic planning can compromise tactical surpriseand landing location.

This publication provides fundamental principles that guidethe Armed Forces of the United States in the conduct ofamphibious operations. It covers all aspects of amphibiousoperations.

Logistic planning for anamphibious operationincludes all facets oflogistics.

The amphibious forcelogistic systems must beresponsive, simple,flexible, economical,attainable, sustainable,and survivable.

CONCLUSION

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CHAPTER ICONCEPT OF AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS

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1. General

a. An amphibious operation is a militaryoperation launched from the sea by anamphibious force, embarked in ships or craftwith the primary purpose of introducing alanding force (LF) ashore to accomplish theassigned mission. Types of amphibiousoperations include assaults, withdrawals,demonstrations, raids, and other amphibiousoperations in a permissive, uncertain, orhostile environment.

b. An amphibious force conductsamphibious operations. An amphibiousforce is defined as an amphibious task force(ATF) and an LF, together with other forcesthat are trained, organized, and equipped foramphibious operations.

An ATF is defined as a Navy taskorganization formed to conductamphibious operations.

An LF is defined as a Marine Corps orArmy task organization formed toconduct amphibious operations.

c. The terms commander, amphibious taskforce (CATF) and commander, landingforce (CLF) are used throughout thispublication solely to clarify the doctrinalduties and responsibilities of thesecommanders. In operations and exercises,amphibious commanders are referred to byeither their operational command titles (i.e.,Commanding General, 2d MarineExpeditionary Brigade (CG2d MEB),Commander, Amphibious Group TWO (CPG2)) or assigned task force designators (i.e.,

A landing on a foreign coast in the face of hostile troops has always beenone of the most difficult operations of war.

Captain Sir Basil H. Liddell Hart

Combined Task Force (CTF) 62.1), not by theterms CATF or CLF. The terms CATFand CLF do not connote titles or commandrelationships.

Refer to Chapter II, Command andControl, for information on amphibiouscommand relationships.

d. Amphibious operations apply maneuverprinciples to expeditionary power projectionin joint and multinational operations.Maneuver is used to destroy or seriouslydisrupt the enemys cohesion through a varietyof rapid, focused, and unexpected actions thatcreate a turbulent and rapidly deterioratingsituation with which the enemy cannot cope.

The goal of maneuver is theapplication of strength against selectedenemy weakness. Maneuver relies onspeed and surprise to gain not onlypositional advantage, but to also generatea faster operational tempo than the enemyto gain a temporal advantage.

Amphibious operations seek to exploitthe element of surprise and capitalize onenemy weakness by projecting andapplying combat power precisely at themost advantageous location and time.Amphibious forces provide the jointforce commander (JFC) with a balanced,mobile force flexible enough to providethe required capability at the right timeand place with sufficient endurance toaccomplish the mission.

e. The threat of amphibious operationsalone may be sufficient to induce enemies to

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concentrate forces and make them susceptibleto fires, or disperse forces and make themsusceptible to destruction. The enemy cannever be certain that its response to theamphibious threat will be effective; thusuncertainties are induced into the enemysdecision making process that can be exploitedin a number of ways.

2. Applications

Amphibious operations can be used inmany ways to support the JFCs campaign oroperation plan. Conducted alone, or inconjunction with other military operations,they can be designed to:

a. Achieve campaign objectives in oneswift stroke by capitalizing on surprise andsimultaneous execution of supportingoperations to strike directly at enemy criticalvulnerabilities and decisive points in order todefeat operational or tactical centers of gravity(COGs).

b. Comprise the initial phase of acampaign or major operation where theobjective is to establish a military lodgmentto support subsequent phases.

c. Serve as a supporting operation in acampaign in order to deny use of an area orfacilities to the enemy, or to fix enemy forcesand attention in support of other combatoperations.

d. Support military operations otherthan war (MOOTW) in order to deter war,resolve conflict, promote peace and stability,and support civil authorities in response todomestic crises.

3. Types of AmphibiousOperations

Amphibious operations can take placeacross the range of military operations, fromoperations other than war to a major theater

war. They can generally be broken down intofive major types: assaults, withdrawals,demonstrations, raids, and other amphibiousoperations.

a. Amphibious Assault. An amphibiousassault involves the establishment of an LFon a hostile or potentially hostile shore. Theorganic capabilities of amphibious forces,including fire support, logistics, and mobility,allow the United States to gain access to acrisis area by forcible entry. Forcible entryoperations can be accomplished throughamphibious operations, airborne operations,air assault operations, or a combination of anyor all of these forcible entry techniques. Ifthe JFCs decision is to use a combinationof forcible entry techniques to seize alodgment, the JFC must further decide,based on maritime factors and mission,enemy, terrain and weather, troops andsupport available, time available analysis,whether to conduct the forcible entries asconcurrent or integrated. Concurrentforcible entry operations occur when acombination of amphibious, airborne, and/or air assault forcible entry operations areconducted simultaneously, but as distinctoperations with separate operational areasand objectives. Integrated forcible entryoperations result when amphibious, airborne,and/or air assault forcible entries are conductedsimultaneously within the same operationalarea and with objectives that are mutuallysupporting.

Refer to Joint Publication (JP) 3-18, JointDoctrine for Forcible Entry Operations, formore information.

b. An amphibious withdrawal is theextraction of forces by sea in ships or craftfrom a hostile or potentially hostile shore.

c. An amphibious demonstration is ashow of force conducted to deceive with theexpectation of deluding the enemy into acourse of action (COA) unfavorable to it.

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d. An amphibious raid is a swift incursioninto, or a temporary occupation of, anobjective, followed by a planned withdrawal.

e. Other Amphibious Operations. Thecapabilities of amphibious forces may beespecially suited to conduct MOOTW suchas noncombatant evacuation operations(NEOs) and foreign humanitarian assistance(FHA). NEOs may use amphibious raidtechniques and require relatively minoradjustments to planning. FHA and disasterrelief may require more flexibility duringplanning and execution based on theassistance and/or relief required.

f. Within the five major types ofamphibious operations, there are a numberof tasks that amphibious forces canaccomplish to facilitate joint operations. Thefollowing are representative, but not all-inclusive, of tasks that may be performed.

Attack enemy critical vulnerabilities ordecisive points that lead to the defeat ofoperational or tactical COGs;

Seize a lodgment, to include ports andairfields, for the introduction of follow-on forces;

Seize areas for the development ofadvanced bases;

Destroy, neutralize, or seize enemyadvanced bases and support facilities;

Seize or conduct a preemptive occupationof areas that block free passage byadversaries;

Provide an afloat strategic, operational,or tactical reserve to exploit opportunitiesand counter threats;

Provide strategic, operational, or tacticaldeception to force the enemy to defendalong littoral areas;

Evacuate US citizens, selected citizensfrom the host nation, or third countrynationals whose lives are in danger froma foreign country to a designated safehaven; and

Provide a secure environment until otherforces arrive on-scene to allowhumanitarian relief efforts to progress andfacilitate the movement of food andmedical care to relieve suffering andprevent the loss of life.

Inchon Landing

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g. Some combat operations involvingwaterborne movement possess characteristicsand employ some of the same techniques asan amphibious operation. Examples are:maritime pre-positioning force (MPF); afloatpre-positioning force (APF); riverineoperations; inland-water ferrying; and waterterminal and logistics over-the-shore (LOTS)operations. While these may be part of anamphibious operation, they are not bythemselves amphibious operations asdescribed by this doctrine.

4. Characteristics

a. Integration Between the Navy andLanding Forces. The key characteristic ofan amphibious operation is close coordinationand cooperation between the ATF, LF, andother designated forces. An amphibiousoperation is ordinarily joint in nature andmay require extensive air, maritime, land,space, and special operations forcesparticipation. It is typified by close integrationof forces trained, organized, and equipped fordifferent combat functions.

b. Rapid Buildup of Combat Power fromthe Sea to Shore. The salient requirement ofan amphibious assault is the necessity forswift, uninterrupted buildup of sufficientcombat power ashore from an initial zerocapability to full coordinated striking poweras the attack progresses toward amphibiousforce objectives. To achieve success, anamphibious force should be assured ofmaritime superiority against enemy surfaceand subsurface forces at sea, air superioritythroughout the operational area, and asubstantial superiority over enemy forcesashore. In the face of compelling necessity,commanders may undertake an amphibiousoperation on the basis of a reasonablesuperiority of the entire force. For example,maritime and air superiority may justify alanding even though the LF does not possessthe desired numerical superiority in groundforces, if friendly surface and air units can be

used effectively to negate the enemysadvantage. In addition to reasonablesuperiority within the landing area, anamphibious force should have the ability toprovide continuous support for forces ashore.

c. Task-organized forces are capable ofmultiple missions across the full range ofmilitary operations to enable joint, allied, andcoalition operations. Amphibious forces aretask-organized based on the mission. Whileforward-deployed amphibious forcesroutinely deploy with a similar taskorganization, they can be quickly reinforcedor augmented with other assets in theater,adjacent theaters, or the continental UnitedStates. These forces provide sustainablepower projection to respond to a full range ofcrisis, from forcible entry to humanitarianassistance. The command and control (C2)capabilities of the Navy and LF facilitate theaccomplishment of multiple missions and theintegration of joint and multinational forces.

d. Other Factors. Other factors that mustbe considered when planning and conductingamphibious operations include the following.

Natural forces such as weather, sea state,wind, waves, surf, tides, and currents;bathymetry and hydrography; and beach,gradient, soil bearing capacity,trafficability, beach exits, and adjoiningtransportation networks as well as accessto inland lines of communications(LOCs).

Technical, operational, and logisticproblems associated with the following.

Combat loading large numbers oftroops, equipment, and supplies in ships(possibly at geographically separatedembarkation points).

Protecting essential information whileassembling, embarking, rehearsing, andmoving the amphibious force to the

I-5

Concept of Amphibious Operations

operational area, as well as denial anddeception measures to be employed atvarious stages of the operation to denyenemy intelligence collection.

Enemy surface, subsurface, air, andmine threats.

Conducting planning among forcesphysically separated among various shipsand shore-based locations.

Reconfiguring the combat loading of theamphibious ships in response to changingsituations in the operational area.

Maintaining surprise whileconducting reconnaissance and detectingand eliminating mines, surf zone andbeach obstacles, and other threats to theamphibious force.

Conducting complex ship-to-shoremovement using multiple landing means(e.g., amphibious assault vehicles(AAVs), surface craft, and aircraft),possibly in the face of enemy defenses.

Ensuring close cooperation anddetailed coordination among allparticipating forces. Forces involved

should train and/or rehearse together andeach possess a clear understanding of themutual obligations and the specialcapabilities and limitations of every otherelement of the joint force.

Establishing reliable and securecommunications between all forces (USand multinational) to ensure commonality,redundancy, security, and reliability inadvance of any operation.

Ensuring force protection, asapplicable.

Providing C2 in the littoralenvironment using a full complement ofsystems and sensors (radars, data links,etc.) whose performance may bedegraded at the land and sea interface.

Considering the impact of theamphibious operation on theenvironment.

Refer to JP 4-0, Doctrine for LogisticSupport of Joint Operations, for furtherinformation.

e. Unity of Effort and OperationalCoherence. The complexity of amphibious

Amphibious forces are task-organized based on the mission.

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operations and the vulnerability of forcesengaged in amphibious operations require anexceptional degree of unity of effort andoperational coherence. The difficultiesinherent in amphibious operations maydictate that the JFC participates inplanning, theater integration, and support. Tomeet contingencies, commanders of assignedand supporting forces must prepare inanticipation of the needs of the amphibious force.

5. Capabilities

a. The adaptability and versatility ofamphibious forces provide unique warfightingcapabilities to the JFC, along with being wellsuited to accomplish a wide variety ofmissions.

b. The conduct of an amphibious operationis possible under a wide variety of weatherconditions, various types of emission control(EMCON), and by either surface, submarine,or air insertion forces.

c. Amphibious forces have the capabilityto conduct amphibious operations from overthe horizon (OTH), beyond visual and radarrange of the shoreline. OTH capability alsoprovides flexibility in MOOTW. Politicalsituations may require keeping ATF ships outof view of a foreign shore, while retainingthe capability to insert LF ashore via air andlanding craft assets.

d. Routinely forward-deployed amphibiousforces, comprised of an ATF and an LF,provide the JFC with a force proficient in time-sensitive planning and capable of rapidresponse to taskings in crisis situations. Theseamphibious forces operate without therequirements for bases, ports, airfields, oroverflight restrictions. They can perform awide range of mission-essential tasks tofacilitate the accomplishment of the joint forcemission. Through enhanced training andspecial equipment, these forces may also becapable of special operations.

6. Sequence

Amphibious operations generally followdistinct phases, though the sequence may vary(see Figure I-1).

a. While planning occurs throughout theentire operation, it is normally dominant priorto embarkation. Successive phases bear thetitle of the dominant activity taking placewithin the phase.

b. When amphibious forces are forward-deployed, or when subsequent tasks areassigned, the sequence of phases may differ.Generally, forward-deployed amphibiousforces use the sequence embarkation,planning, rehearsal (to includepotential reconfiguration of embarkedforces), movement to the operationalarea, and action. However, significantplanning is conducted prior to embarkationto anticipate the most likely missions and toload assigned shipping accordingly. The samesequence is useful for subsequent tasks orfollow-on amphibious missions.

In short, the five phases of an amphibiousoperation are always required, but thesequence in which they occur may be changedas circumstances dictate.

7. Initiating an AmphibiousOperation

Amphibious operations commence withan order issued by the commander withestablishing authority to the amphibiousforce commanders. The order initiatingthe amphibious operation may come in theform of a warning order, an alert order, aplanning order, or an operation order(OPORD). The complete informationrequired to conduct an amphibiousoperation may come from a combinationof these orders (e.g., a warning orderfollowed by an alert or operation order).The order initiating the amphibious

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Concept of Amphibious Operations

operation should normally provide thefollowing information.

a. The establishing authoritys mission,intent, and concept of operations (CONOPS).

Figure I-1. Phases of an Amphibious Operation

The planning phase normally denotes the period extending from the issuanceof an order that directs the operation to take place and ends with theembarkation of landing forces. However, planning is continuous throughoutthe operation. Although planning does not cease with the termination of thisphase, it is useful to distinguish between the planning phase and subsequentphases because of the change that may occur in the relationship betweenamphibious force commanders at the time the planning phase terminates andthe operational phase begins.

The embarkation phase is the period during which the landing forces, withtheir equipment and supplies, embark in assigned shipping. The organizationfor embarkation needs to provide for flexibility to support changes to theoriginal plan. The landing plan and scheme of maneuver ashore are based onconditions and enemy capabilities existing in the operational area beforeembarkation of the landing force. A change in conditions of friendly or enemyforces during the movement phase may cause changes in either plan with noopportunity for reconfiguration of the landing force. The extent to whichchanges in the landing plan can be accomplished may depend on the ability toreconfigure embarked forces.

The movement phase is the period during which various elements of theamphibious force move from points of embarkation or from a forward-deployed position to the operational area. This move may be via rehearsal,staging, or rendezvous areas. The movement phase is completed when thevarious elements of the amphibious force arrive at their assigned positions inthe operational area.

The decisive action phase is the period from the arrival of the amphibiousforce in the operational area, through the accomplishment of the mission andthe termination of the amphibious operation.

The rehearsal phase is the period during which the prospective operation isrehearsed for the purpose of:

Rehearsal may consist of an actual landing or may be conducted as acommand post exercise.

Testing the adequacy of plans, timing of detailed operations, and combatreadiness of participating forces

Ensuring that all echelons are familiar with plansProviding an opportunity to reconfigure embarked forces and equipment

PHASES OF AN AMPHIBIOUS OPERATION

PLANNING

EMBARKATION

MOVEMENT

ACTION

REHEARSAL

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b. Designation of required commanders,establishment of their command relationships,and provision of special instructions asrequired to support the amphibious forceorganization and mission.

NOTE: Special instructions may include anestablishing directive if a support relationshipis established among designated commandersof the amphibious force. The establishingdirective is discussed in detail in Chapter II,Command and Control.

c. Designation of assigned, attached, andsupporting forces to the amphibious force.

d. Assignment of an operational area asappropriate.

e. Assignment of tasks.

f. Assignment of responsibility andprovision of necessary coordinating

instructions for the conduct of supportingoperations.

g. Target dates for execution of theoperation.

h. Additional coordinating instructions, asrequired.

8. Termination of anAmphibious Operation

The termination of the amphibiousoperation is predicated on the accomplishmentof the amphibious mission in accordance withthe specific conditions contained in the orderinitiating the amphibious operation. Uponcompletion of the amphibious operation,the establishing authority will provideinstructions as required for commandarrangements and assignment ofamphibious forces.

CHAPTER IICOMMAND AND CONTROL

II-1

1. General

a. Overview. Amphibious operations arenormally part of a joint operation. Thecommand relationships established within theamphibious force are in accordance with theconcepts and principles delineated in JP 0-2,Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF).

b. Multinational Operations. Commandrelationships during multinational operationsare based on international standardizationagreements or on bilateral agreementsbetween nations. The command relationshipsfor these operations will be defined in theorder initiating the amphibious operation.This allows the commander directing theamphibious operation to define therelationships in accordance with existingmilitary and political agreements. Simplicity

Amphibious warfare requires the closest practicable cooperation by all thecombatant services, both in planning and execution, and a commandorganization which definitely assigns responsibility for major decisionsthroughout all stages of the operation, embarkation, overseas movement,beach assault, and subsequent support of forces ashore.

Admiral Henry K. Hewitt, USN

and clarity of expression concerningcommand relationships are critical.

Refer to JP 3-16, Joint Doctrine forMultinational Operations, for moreinformation.

2. Organization of Joint Forces

a. General. JFC is a general termapplied to a combatant commander,subunified commander, or joint task force(JTF) commander authorized to exercisecombatant command (command authority) oroperational control (OPCON) over a jointforce. A JFC has the authority to organizeforces to best accomplish the assigned missionbased on the concept of operations. Theorganization should be sufficiently flexible tomeet the planned phases of the contemplated

Command relationships in a joint amphibious operation must be clearly defined.

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operation and any development that maynecessitate a change in plan. The JFC willestablish subordinate commands, assignresponsibilities, establish or delegateappropriate command relationships, andestablish coordinating instructions forthe component commanders. Soundorganization should provide for unity ofeffort, centralized planning, anddecentralized execution. Refer to JP 0-2,Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF), formore details on joint force organization.

b. Service Components. All joint forcesinclude Service component commands thatprovide administrative and logistic support.The JFC may conduct operations through theService component commanders or, at lowerechelons, Service force commanders. Thisrelationship is appropriate when stability,continuity, economy, ease of long-rangeplanning, and scope of operations dictateorganizational integrity of Service forces forconducting operations. The JFC has fullauthority to assign missions, redirect efforts,and direct coordination among subordinatecommanders. The JFC should allow Servicetactical and operational assets and groupingsto function generally as they were designed.The intent is to meet the needs of the JFCwhile maintaining the tactical and operationalintegrity of the Service organizations.

c. Functional Components. The JFC canestablish functional component commands toconduct operations. Functional componentcommands can be appropriate when forcesfrom two or more Military Departments mustoperate in the same dimension or medium orthere is a need to accomplish a distinct aspectof the assigned mission. Joint force land, air,maritime, and special operations componentcommanders are examples of functionalcomponent commanders.

NOTE: Functional component commands arecomponent commands of a joint force and donot constitute a joint force with the

authorities and responsibilities of a joint forceas normally described in JP 0-2, UnifiedAction Armed Forces (UNAAF), even whencomposed of forces from two or more MilitaryDepartments. The JFC establishing afunctional component command has theauthority to designate its commander.Normally, the Service component commanderwith the preponderance of forces to be taskedwill be designated as the functionalcomponent commander; however, the JFCwill always consider the mission, nature, andduration of the operation, force capabilities,and C2 capabilities in selecting a commander.The JFC must designate the military capabilitythat will be made available for tasking by thefunctional component commander and theappropriate command relationship(s) that thefunctional component commander willexercise. Most often joint forces are organizedwith a combination of Service and functionalcomponent commands with operationalresponsibilities.

d. Subordinate Joint Task Forces. A JFCmay also establish a subordinate JTF on ageographical area or functional basis whenthe mission has a specific, limited objectiveand does not require centralized control oflogistics. The mission assigned to a JTFshould require execution of responsibilitiesinvolving a joint force on a significant scaleand close integration of effort, or shouldrequire coordination within a subordinate area.A JTF is dissolved by the JFC when thepurpose for which it was created has beenachieved or when it is no longer required.

3. Command and Control ofAmphibious Forces

a. Unity of Command. The JFC ensuresunity of effort in achieving amphibiousobjectives by establishing unity ofcommand over amphibious forces. The JFCmay establish unity of command overamphibious forces by retaining OPCON overthe Service or functional component

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Command and Control

commands executing the amphibiousoperation, or by delegating OPCON ortactical control (TACON) of the amphibiousforce to a Service or functional componentcommander. Forces, not command relationships,may be transferred between commands.When forces are transferred, the commandrelationship the gaining commander willexercise (and the losing commander willrelinquish) over those forces must bespecified.

b. Control of Amphibious Forces. TheJFC will organize the amphibious force insuch a way as to best accomplish the missionbased on the concept of operations.

If conducting operations through theService components, the JFC mayestablish a support relationship betweenthe Navy component commander and theService component commander of theLF, or delegate OPCON or TACON ofthe assigned or attached amphibiousforces to a Service component.

If conducting operations through acombination of Service and functionalcomponent commands with operationalresponsibilities, the JFC may establish asupport relationship between thefunctional components, Servicecomponents, or other appropriatecommanders, or delegate OPCON orTACON of the assigned or attachedamphibious forces to a functionalcomponent or Service componentcommander. Normally, joint forces areorganized with a combination of Serviceand functional component commandswith operational responsibilities.

c. Command Authority Options BetweenAmphibious Forces. The commandrelationships established among the CATF,CLF, and other designated commanders of theamphibious force is an important decision.The type of relationship chosen by the

common superior commander, or establishingauthority, for the amphibious force should bebased on mission, nature and duration of theoperation, force capabilities, C2 capabilities,battlespace assigned, and recommendationsfrom subordinate commanders. Commandrelationship options include either anOPCON, TACON, or support relationshipsas described in JP 0-2, Unified Action ArmedForces (UNAAF).

Typically a support relationship isestablished between the commanders andis based on the complementary rather thansimilar nature and capabilities of the ATFand LF. However, it is not the intent tolimit the common superiors authority toestablish either an OPCON or TACONcommand relationship as appropriate.

d. Planning Relationships. Regardless ofthe command relationships, when the orderinitiating planning for the amphibiousoperation is received, unique relationships areobserved during the planning phase. Thecommanders designated in the orderinitiating the amphibious operation arecoequal in planning matters and decisions.All decisions must be reached on a basis ofcommon understanding of the mission,objectives, and procedures and on a freeexchange of information. Any differencesbetween commanders that cannot be resolvedare referred to the establishing authority. If achange in the mission occurs aftercommencement of operations or if anamphibious operation is initiated from anafloat posture, coequal-planning relationships(either as described above or as specified inthe order initiating the amphibious operation)will apply to any subsequent planning.However, as the operational situation dictates,the commander delegated OPCON of theamphibious force may specify planningrelationships to coordinate planning efforts,especially where time-sensitive planning isrequired under the provisions of the Chairmanof the Joint Chiefs of Staff Manual (CJCSM)

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3122.01, Joint Operation Planning andExecution System, Vol I: (Planning Policiesand Procedures).

e. Establishing Directive. An establishingdirective is essential to ensure unity of effortwithin the amphibious force. Normally, thecommanders within the amphibious force willdevelop a draft establishing directive duringthe planning phase to provide the specifics ofthe support relationship. The commanderswithin the amphibious force submit the draftestablishing directive to the establishingauthority for approval. The establishingdirective is normally issued to specify thepurpose of the support relationship, the effectdesired, and the scope of the action to be taken.It may also include but is not necessarilylimited to the following.

Forces and other resources allocated tothe supporting effort.

Time, place, level, and duration of thesupporting effort.

Relative priority of the supporting effort.

Authority, if any, of the supportingcommander(s) to modify the supportingeffort in the event of exceptionalopportunity or an emergency.

Degree of authority granted to thesupported commander over thesupporting effort.

Establishment of air, sea, and groundmaneuver control measures.

Development of joint tactical air strikerequests and air support requests.

Development of target nominations,establishment of fire supportcoordinating measures, integration of airdefense, and the role of the supportingarms coordination center.

Development of the amphibious forceintelligence collection plan.

Non-organic logistic support.

Force protection responsibilities afloatand ashore.

Unless otherwise stated in the orderinitiating the amphibious operation or theestablishing directive, the CATF and CLF willidentify the events and conditions for anyshifts of the support relationship throughoutthe operation during the planning phase andforward them to the establishing authority forapproval.

The establishing authority will resolve anydifferences among the commanders.

4. Operational Control

a. General. The establishing authoritymay choose to delegate OPCON to a singlecommander within the amphibious force.When OPCON is delegated, it will includethe following authority (in accordance withJP 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces(UNAAF)) unless otherwise specified.

Exercise or delegate OPCON andTACON, establish support relationshipsamong subordinates, and designatecoordinating authorities.

Give direction to subordinate commandsand forces necessary to carry out missionsassigned to the command, includingauthoritative direction over all aspects ofthe amphibious operation and training.

Prescribe the chain of command to thecommands and forces within thecommand.

Organize commands and employ forceswithin the amphibious force, asnecessary, to carry out assigned missions.

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Command and Control

Employ forces within the command, asnecessary, to carry out missions assignedto the command.

Assign command functions tosubordinate commanders.

Plan for, deploy, direct, control, andcoordinate the action of subordinateforces.

Establish plans, policies, priorities, andoverall requirements for the intelligenceactivities of the command.

Suspend from duty subordinatecommanders and recommend reassignmentof any officer assigned to the command.

Assign responsibilities to subordinatecommanders for certain routineoperational matters that requirecoordination of effort of two or morecommanders.

Establish an adequate system of controlfor local defense and delineate such areasof operation for subordinate commandersas deemed desirable.

Delineate functional responsibilities andgeographic areas of operation ofsubordinate commanders.

b. OPCON normally provides fullauthority to organize commands and forcesand employ those forces as the commanderin OPCON considers necessary to accomplishassigned missions. It does not, in and of itself,include authoritative direction for logistics ormatters of administration, discipline, internalorganization, or unit training.

5. Tactical Control

a. General. TACON is the commandauthority over assigned or attached forces orcommands (or military capability or forces

made available for tasking) that is limited tothe detailed and usually local direction andcontrol of movements or maneuvers necessaryto accomplish assigned missions or tasks. Theestablishing authority may choose todelegate TACON to a single commanderwithin the amphibious force. WhenTACON is delegated, it will include thefollowing authority (in accordance with JP0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF))unless otherwise specified.

Give direction for specified militaryoperations.

Control designated forces.

b. TACON does not provide organizationalauthority or authoritative direction foradministrative and logistic support; thecommander of the parent unit continues toexercise these authorities unless otherwisespecified in the establishing directive.

6. Support

a. General. Support is a commandauthority. The establishing authority of theamphibious operation establishes a supportrelationship between commanders withinthe amphibious force as well as otherdesignated commanders as appropriate.This relationship is appropriate when oneorganization should aid, protect, complement,or sustain another force. The designation ofthe supporting relationships is important as itconveys priorities to the commanders andstaffs who are planning or executing theoperation. The support relationship is, bydesign, a somewhat vague and therefore veryflexible arrangement. This flexibility isenhanced by the publishing of an establishingdirective to specify the purpose of the support,the desired effect, and the scope of action tobe taken.

b. Planning. In a support relationship, theCATF and CLF and other commanders

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designated in the order initiating planning forthe amphibious operation are coequal. Alldecisions made by these commanders arereached based on a common understandingof the mission, objectives, and procedures andon a free exchange of information. Unlesspublished in the order initiating theamphibious operation, the CATF and CLFwill identify the events and conditions for anyshifts of the support relationship throughoutthe operation during the planning phase andforward them to the establishing authority forapproval. The establishing authority willresolve any differences among thecommanders.

c. Supported Commander. A supportedcommander may be designated for the entireoperation, a particular phase or stage of theoperation, a particular function, or acombination of phases, stages, events, andfunctions. Unless limited by the establishingdirective or the order initiating the amphibiousoperation, the supported commander hasthe authority to exercise general directionof the supporting effort. General directionincludes the designation and prioritization oftargets or objectives, timing and duration ofthe supporting action, and other instructionsnecessary for coordination and efficiency. Theestablishing authority is responsible forensuring that the supported and supportingcommanders understand the degree ofauthority that the supported commander isgranted.

If not specified in the order initiating theamphibious operation, the CATF andCLF will determine who has primaryresponsibility for the essential tasksduring the mission analysis in theplanning process.

See Chapter IV, Approach to Planningand Primary Decisions, for missionanalysis and the planning process.

In an operation of relatively shortduration, normally the establishingauthority will choose one commander forthe entire operation. When there is nolittoral threat to the amphibious force (forexample, in a particular NEO) theestablishing authority may designate theCLF as the supported commander for theentire operation. During the movementor transit phase, the CATF may bedesignated the supported commanderbased on having responsibility for themajor action or activity during that phase.The CATF may be designated thesupported commander based oncapabilities for airspace control and airdefense for the entire operation if, forexample, the landing force does notintend to establish a tactical air commandcenter ashore (see Figure II-1).

The establishing authority shouldconsider several factors whendesignating the supported commander atvarious phases and events during theamphibious operation, including butlimited to the following.

Responsibility for the preponderanceof the mission.

Force capabilities.

Threat.

Type, phase, and duration ofoperation.

C2 capabilities.

Battlespace assigned.

Recommendations from subordinatecommanders.

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Command and Control

d. Supporting Commander. Thesupporting commander determines the forces,tactics, methods, procedures, andcommunications to be employed in providingthis support. The supporting commander willadvise and coordinate with the supportedcommander on matters concerning theemployment and limitations (e.g., logistics)of such support, assist in planning for theintegration of such support into the supportedcommanders effort as a whole, and ensurethat support requirements are appropriatelycommunicated throughout the supportingcommanders organization. The supportingcommander has the responsibility to ascertainthe needs of the supported force and take fullaction to fulfill them within existingcapabilities, consistent with priorities andrequirements of other assigned tasks. Whenthe supporting commander cannot fulfill theneeds of the supported commander, theestablishing authority will be notified by eitherthe supported or supporting commander. The

establishing authority is responsible fordetermining a solution.

7. Parallel Chains of Command

Elements of the amphibious force (ATF, LF,and other forces) may be embarked for whatcould be extended periods of time on the sameplatforms, but responsible to different orparallel chains of command. Such parallelchains of command create specialrequirements for coordination. Except inemergencies, no significant decisioncontemplated by a commander in the chainof command that affects the plans,disposition, or intentions of acorresponding commander in anotherchain of command will be made withoutconsultation with the commanderconcerned. In emergency situations, thecommander making an emergency decisionwill notify corresponding commanders of hisor her action at the earliest practicable time.

Figure II-1. Examples of Shifts in the Support Relationship

EXAMPLES OF SHIFTS IN THE

SUPPORT RELATIONSHIP*

Assault

Raid with coastal threat

Inland Raid with no coastal threat

Demonstration

Withdrawal

Humanitarian Assistance

CATF

CLF

Commander, Amphibious Task Force

Commander, Landing Force

MISSION SUPPORTED COMMANDER

CATF, then CLF

CATF, then CLF, then CATF

CLF

CATF

CLF, then CATF

CATF or CLF

*Actual supported-supporting commanders will be designated by theestablishing authority based on the specific mission requirements

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8. Amphibious Force TaskOrganization and TaskDesignators

a. Task Organization. Amphibious forcesare task-organized based on the mission. Nostandard organization is applicable to allsituations that may be encountered in anamphibious operation. Flexibility is essential.Once the organization has been promulgated,numerical task organization designations (e.g.,CTF 62.1) or unit command titles (e.g., CG 2dMEB, CPG 2) will be used exclusively foroperational purposes.

b. Task Designators. The taskdesignators utilized by US and NorthAtlantic Treaty Organization naval forcesthat assign forces in a task force, task group,task unit, and task element hierarchicalstructure are utilized for task structuring ofthe amphibious force.

c. Navy Forces. At the CATFs discretionand as promulgated in the order initiating theamphibious operation and establishingdirective, two or more of these groups may becombined and others added or deleted asdictated by operational requirements. For

example, control groups may not be requiredwhen conducting OTH operations.

d. Landing Forces. The LF consists ofground combat units and any of its associatedsupport units assigned to the CLF to conductthe amphibious operation. The LF may becomposed of Marine Corps and/or Armyforces, other forces, and multinational forces.The amphibious operation requires that theLF be organized at various times in one ofthree functional forms. The first two arespecific to amphibious operations.

Organization for Combat. Taskorganizat ion of LF uni ts foraccomplishment of missions ashore. Thisorganizational form is employed as soonas possible following the landing ofvarious assault elements of the LF.

Organization for Landing. Specifictactical grouping of forces for a landing.

Organization for Embarkation.Temporary adminis t ra t ive taskorganization of forces established tosimplify planning and facilitate executionof embarkation at all levels of command.

Organization for combat and landing is specific to amphibious operations.

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Command and Control

9. Operational Areas

a. General. To assist in the coordinationand deconfliction of joint action, JFCs maydefine operational areas or joint areas. Thesize of these areas and the types of forcesemployed within them depend on the scopeand nature of the crisis and the projectedduration of the operation. Amphibiousoperations normally require a three-dimensional geographic area, within whichis located the amphibious forcesobjective(s). The operational area must beof sufficient size to conduct necessary sea,land, and air operations required to executethe mission of the amphibious force. Inaddition, JFCs employ various maneuver andmovement control and fire supportcoordinating measures to facilitate effectivejoint operations. These measures includeboundaries, phase lines, objectives,coordinating altitudes to deconflict airoperations, air defense areas, amphibiousobjective areas, submarine operating patrolareas and minefields. JFCs may useboundaries to define areas of operations (AOs)for land and naval forces. Within thedesignated operational area, the designatedcommander will synchronize maneuver, fires,and interdiction. The operational areas thatmay be assigned to an amphibious force in anorder initiating the amphibious operation arean amphibious objective area (AOA) or anAO normally in conjunction with a high-density airspace control zone (HIDACZ).

An AOA is a geographical area(delineated for C2 purposes in the orderinitiating the amphibious operation)within which is located the objective(s)to be secured by the amphibious force.This area must be of sufficient size toensure accomplishment of theamphibious forces mission and mustprovide sufficient area for conductingnecessary sea, air, and land operations.

An AO is an operational area defined bythe JFC for land and naval forces. AOsdo not typically encompass the entireoperational area of the JFC, but shouldbe large enough for componentcommanders to accomplish theirmissions and protect their forces.

A HIDACZ is airspace designated in anairspace control plan (ACP) or airspacecontrol order (ACO) in which there is aconcentrated employment of numerousand varied weapons and airspace users.A HIDACZ has defined dimensions thatusually coincide with geographicalfeatures or navigational aids. Access toa HIDACZ is normally controlled by themaneuver commander. The maneuvercommander can also direct a morerestrictive weapons status within theHIDACZ.

For additional guidance on boundariesand synchronization of joint efforts withinland and naval AOs, refer to JP 3-0,Doctrine for Joint Operations.

b. Assigned Area. The commanderdesignated in the order initiating theamphibious operation is responsible forairspace control, defense of friendly forces,and direction and deconfliction of supportingarms. The order initiating the amphibiousoperation will also specify the degree ofauthority that the designated commander hasover supporting forces entering the assignedgeographic area. The designated commanderwill request the air control measures requiredfor inclusion in the establishing directive (fora support relationship) or in the concept ofoperations to further ensure success of themission.

c. Disestablishment of Assigned Area.Once the type of operational area (AOA orAO) is defined, it is not necessarily dissolved

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upon termination of the amphibious operation.The operational area may be required for thecoordination of follow-on logistic support ofthe operation. As with its establishment,disestablishing the area is the decision of

the establishing authority (with CATF or CLFrecommendations) and should be delineatedin the order initiating the amphibiousoperation or in follow-on orders.

CHAPTER IIIAIR COMMAND AND CONTROL

III-1

1. Joint Air Operations

Joint air operations are performed with aircapabilities and forces made available bycomponents in support of the JFCs operationor campaign objectives, or in support of othercomponents of the joint force. To createsynergy and avoid duplication of effort, theJFC synchronizes and integrates theactions of assigned, attached, andsupporting capabilities and forces in time,space, and purpose. This is normallyaccomplished through designation of a jointforce air component commander (JFACC),area air defense commander (AADC), andairspace control authority (ACA). A briefdescription of these functions is provided inFigure III-1. With current capabilities, thesefunctions could be performed afloat or ashore,and normally a single functional componentcommander will be designated to perform allthree roles. It is within this context that jointair tasking, air defense activities, and airspacecontrol are conducted during amphibiousoperations.

For more information, see JP 3-30, Commandand Control for Joint Air Operations (formerlyJP 3-56.1).

2. Airspace Control inAmphibious Operations

a. Assignment of airspace allows the JFCto exercise C2 of forces, deconflict highvolumes of different types of aircraft and

The doctrine and performance of Marines and airmen matured in Pacificcampaigns as the hesitancy and missteps of Guadalcanal, New Guinea,and Tarawa were heeded. Coordinated amphibious assault and air warfarebecame irrepressible.

Struggle for the Marianas, CAPT Bernard D. Cole, USNJoint Force Quarterly, Spring 95

missiles, and defend forces. During maritimeoperations such as amphibious operations, theACA will normally designate the maritimecommander as the control authority for aspecific airspace control area during theconduct of the amphibious operation. Thecomplexity and size of an amphibiousoperation directly affects the amount ofairspace allocated.

See JP 3-52, Doctrine for Joint AirspaceControl in the Combat Zone, for furtherinformation on control authority designation.

b. The level of air control allocated to theamphibious force depends on the degree ofair control measures approved by the ACA.If only an AO is established, theamphibious force may request that theACA establish a HIDACZ over thisgeographic area. A HIDACZ is airspacedesignated in an ACP or ACO in which thereis a concentrated employment of numerousand varied weapons and airspace users.Access is normally controlled by themaneuver commander who can direct a morerestrictive weapons status within thedesignated area. The items shown belowshould be considered when establishing aHIDACZ.

Airspace control capabilities of theamphibious force.

Minimum risk routes into and out of theHIDACZ and to the target area.

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Chapter III

JP 3-02

Air traffic advisory as required.Procedures and systems must also beconsidered for air traffic control serviceduring instrument meteorologicalconditions.

Procedures for expeditious movement ofaircraft into and out of the HIDACZ.

Coordination of fire support, as well asair defense weapons control orders orstatus within and in the vicinity of theHIDACZ.

Range and type of naval surface firesupport (NSFS) available.

Figure III-1. Command and Control of Joint Air Operations

COMMAND AND CONTROLOF JOINT AIR OPERATIONS

The joint force commander (JFC) normally assigns a JFACC to plan,coordinate, allocate, and task joint air operations based on the JFCs conceptof operations and air apportionment decision. The authority and commandrelationships of a JFACC are established by the JFC. These typically includeexercising operational control over assigned and attached forces and tacticalcontrol over other military capabilities and forces made available for tasking. Ifa JFACC is not designated, the JFC may plan, direct, and control joint airoperations. If this option is exercised, the JFCs staff will assist in providingdirection and coordination of the forces assigned.

The JFC normally designates an AADC with the authority to plan, coordinate,and integrate overall joint force defensive counterair operations. AADCimplements theater- and joint operations area-(JOA) wide defense prioritiesthrough promulgation of a joint air defense plan. AADCs focus is ondefensive counterair measures that include all measures designed to detect,identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy air and missile forcesattempting to attack or penetrate the friendly air environment. Both activeand passive measures are employed to protect joint force assets andinterests.

ACA is designated by the JFC to assume overall responsibility for theoperation of the airspace control system in the airspace control area. ACAdevelops, coordinates, and publishes airspace control procedures for thearea of responsibility or JOA. The airspace control plan (ACP) isimplemented through airspace control orders. The ACP is directive