jonathan gressel - ask-force.org gressel. department of plant sciences. ... differentiate between...
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Environmental Risks from Transgenic Crops
Jonathan GresselDepartment of Plant Sciences
Rehovot, Israel
Pontifical Academy of SciencesMay 18, 2009
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A newbook
(Johns Hopkins Univ. Press - 2008)deals with further domesticating under-domesticated crops that lack genetic diversity Analyze and proposes where to get the genesDeveloping world has many such crops
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Transgenics allow rapid domestication
Bring in genes from whereever
Activate /suppress specific genes whenever
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HIVWitches
Problems in Africa
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These are beautiful plants
Photo: Lytton Musselman
HIV=Highly Invasive Vegetation
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that were never controlled until they emerged from the soil, which is too late.
Striga hermonthica(witchweed) on sorghum in Africa
Photo: Lytton Musselman
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Striga (witchweed) bewitches maize as wellPhoto: Lytton Musselman
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Human population displacements facilitatedisease epidemics- war - labor migration- land abandonment
Causes:- labor migration- land abandonment
HIV=Highly Invasive Vegetation
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Parasitic weeds germinate after stimulation by crop roots, and grow towards the crop roots, attach, and suck nutrients
Striga also poisons the crop.
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Sucks
Can’t remove by hoeing!
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Cannot remove with a hoe
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A theory was formulated -–The herbicide should move un-metabolized from the leaf, through the stem into the parasite, underground
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14Orobanche spp similarly attack other crops
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It took some convincing to get industry to provide the genetic
material for testing
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ALS Resistant tobacco EPSPS Resistant oilseed rape
+chlorsulfuron + glyphosate
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How could this work for Striga? Ğ farmers can’t afford herbicides
to spray over whole fields – farmers can’t afford sprayers Approach:
Treat crop seeds with herbicides instead of fields Need target-site resistant crops having a very large margin of resistance.
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Joel Ransom Fred Kanampiu
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IR – maize (homozygous)ALS try552 ⇒ leu
Pioneer – AmCy (BASF)
A mutant obtained through biotech
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Photo: Dennis FriesenDialloKanampiu
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Photo: Dennis Friesen
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Technology for witchweed commercializedfor maize through local seed companies
But not sorghum - although at least three groups now trying to get same mutant in… genetically - there is a good reason why transgenic better than mutant selection
Better technologies coming on line:e.g.Dan Kiambi (Nairobi) RNAi in crop for Striga specific genes
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Jane Rissler:“Herbicide resistant crops are….
…….a capitalist conspiracy…..(and later)….. a male chauvinist conspiracy”
Florence Wambugo:“A women’s place is in the lab engineering herbicide resistant crops so other women should not have to weed by hand”
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Environmental Risks from Transgenic Crops
Jonathan GresselDepartment of Plant Sciences
Rehovot, Israel
Pontifical Academy of SciencesMay 18, 2009
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European Corn Borer Lep pests worldwide16M ha infested in U.S. >60M infested ha1-3 borer generations per year Yield losses often >30%Mean 6% yield loss; up to 30% (Ostrinia, Spodoptera)
Non-Bt Corn
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What is environmental impact
Statistician –compared to what?
Most studies do not compare to current agprocedures
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Some African farmers put insecticide in whorl - medicine dropper- pinch of granules
Bt gene being put in maize - but not sorghum
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Storage of phosphorus in plants
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these P groups bind Fe and Zn
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Major crops produce ca. 50 M tons phytate/yr-binding 9 M tons phosphorus - not available to mono-gastric animalsMust add inorganic P to feeds of mono-gastric mammals, poultry and fish (not ruminates) -excrete the phytate, which releases pollutant levels of PPeople zinc and iron deficientThree approaches: 1. add thermostable phytase to feed (transgenically over-produced by microbes)2. Lower phytate production by breeding or transgenics3. Transform crops with phytase genes
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Iron availability in plants with transgenic phytase
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Oilseed rape is favored for temperate climes
Is it nice to the environment?Worldwide, oilseed rape emits ca. 9000 Tons
Before the ban Europe consumed 18,000T of methyl bromideIs “natural” MeBr ok and synthetic bad?Is it ok to double the area - for biofuel?*Gan, J., et al. (1998) Production of methyl bromide by terrestrial higher plants. Geophysical Research Letters 25, 3595-3598
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Brassica has a bifunctional methyl-transferase
methylates halides to methyl halides (MeBr)methylates bisulfides to methanethiol
(goes to H2SO 4 to acid rain)TDNA disruptive insertion in related Arabidopsis HOL (harmless to ozone layer) gene reduced MeBr >99% To meet intent of methyl bromide ban and reduce acid rain, must cultivate only transgenic oilseed rape with this gene suppressed; non-transgenic should be banned
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30% oil - seeds get US$140/ton (optimistic)- fruits hand harvested- fruits dried in the shade- seeds removed by hand
Is Jatropha a gimmick to keep the poor poor?
Processing reminiscent of backyard steel mills in China during the cultural revolution
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Info not in sites promoting Jatropha curcascommon plant names: Black vomit nut, Purge nut, etc.common oil names: hell oil, oleum infernale, etc.
Toxins: Curcin (a toxalbumin) - similar to ricinPhorbol esters - diterpenoids Alkaloidsskin tumor promotersNo antidote knownSee: http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/plant/jcurc.htmAlso: A case of Jatropha poisoning resembling organophosphate intoxication Clin. Tox. 44 337,2006Could one release a transgenic crop with such components? What to do with toxic byproducts?
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Websites claim “curcin is heat degradable”Quoted citation says “degradable by prolonged autoclaving”
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What to do with toxic byproducts?
Websites suggest - Use residue as manureno environmental impact studies
Could one release a transgenic crop with such components? Jatrofraud! ?
Remember - with soybeans there is more value from meal than oil….Where are the economics of discarding “castropha” meal?
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Are countries cultivating guinea pigs?Where is precautionary approach?
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If you want “Castropha” as an oil crop -engineer or breed:- dwarfing (increase harvest index)- single stalk (high IAA?)- Antishattering - fruits dry on stems
-machine harvesting and threshing- RNAi curcin genes- RNAi terpene synthase to rid of phorbols-better yield, oil content / quality
The engineered crop might then be environmentally/human safe to grow
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The press warns about
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The implications are that natural ecosystems are endangered
Peter Raven dispelled this
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The newspapers tell us:
Horizontal gene flow often implied
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Horizontal gene flow is rare in eukaryotes
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Good source of information
Does not differentiate between wild and weedy
Usually the problem is weedy
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Two perceived problems fromtransgenic crops1. Can the crop become a volunteer
weed?2. Can the crop introgress transgene
trait into related wild species?These problems are not unique totransgenic crops; they are general toall crops.
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The question usually asked is:Can transgenic trait introgress (cross into and become established) in related wild species?If the answer is “yes” Introgression Fever sets in.If the answer is yes, the question “so what?”should be asked
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“So what?” means:How likely is introgression? when? where?What are the consequences?Can the related hybrid or its offspring become weeds?
Does gene have selective advantage?Will there be over-riding benefits till introgression occurs?
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Some crops have severe weed problems from related weeds:
RiceSorghumWheat (limited areas - diagonal only)Oilseed rapeSunflowersSugarbeetCarrots
No problems in corn, soybean or potatoes
How did these weed problems evolve?
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Ancient man has domesticated many crops
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Cropprogenitor
Wildspeciesnear home
Stages of Domestication
millennia
Gathering Planting/selection more selection
Crop
Wildspecies
Better crop
Modern breeding Transgene technology
centuryBetter yet crop2 decades
millennia
Wildspecies Weeds
At the same time:
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CropWild SpeciesDomestication
Crop
centuries/millennia(recessive traits)
Volunteerweed
Shattering De-domestication
annuallyFeral weed
cumulative(dominant traits)shatteringsecondary dormancyheight, branching, etc.
Ferality is thus an evolutionary problem
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54Move from transplanting to direct seeding
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Feral ⇒
Transplanted field- ca. 10% yield loss predicted
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Taller than crop and matures earlier - shatters
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Found in one Malaysian paddy
cultivated
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Another case: Sorghum bicolor
Feral/weedy type(shattercane)
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Few selective herbicides can control feral/weedy sorghum in sorghum or maize
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Sorghum crosses with a native wild species
X =
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Sorghum halepensejohnsongrass
Stupidly spread by man
Evolved resistance to ALS, ACCase and glyphosate
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We must learn about the feral weedy enemy, and make sure that the right things get done to keep it under our control!
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For more information- see the book
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Generate transgenic, herbicide resistant crops
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A non-transgenic – herbicide resistant riceGave excellent control of weedy rice
for 2-3 yearsResistant gene introgressed into weedy rice
technology lost
Must prevent gene flow- by not making transgenic rice/sorghum?
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At places where stupidities flourish
Wisdom is considered a weed
Can wisdom be used to delay / preclude introgression?
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Two types of transgenic strategies proposed:
- Containment- keeping the gene in the crop
- Mitigation - preventing establishment and spread of
escaped transgenes
How do they work?
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“Terminator” or similar “GURT” (genetic use restriction technology)
Chemically induced promotersInsert gene(s) of choice into plastomePlastids maternally inherited-no pollen transmission“Repressible seed-lethal system”.Schernthaner et al PNAS 100, 6855-9, 2003Single generation transformationUse of attenuated viruses
to transiently transform crops
Containment Strategies
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Mitigator technologyA primary (e.g. Bt, herbicide resistance)transgene is coupled in tandem withmitigator genes that are positive orneutral to a crop but deleterious tooffspring
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Need genes that are carriers of incompetence in volunteers and offspring, ok in crop
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Two types of mitigators
- Eco/morphologicalUnfitness of hybrids/offspring is due to ecological or morphological traits
- Eco/biochemical Unfitness due to super-susceptibility to rotational herbicides
Both can be transgenically stacked with each other
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Lets think about some TM genes by looking at the differences between rice and red rice
Genes for dwarfing, anti-shattering or no secondary dormancy would turn a weed into a non-competitive entity
Eco-morphological differences
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TM genes that would be neutral or useful for the crop but deleterious to the related weedDwarfing has been transgenically achieved with:– antisensing many genes for GA biosynthesis– introducing truncated GA receptor gene (∆GAI) - antisensing brassinosteroid biosynthesis genes – introducing antisensed phytochrome genes
- prevents shading response in a crop(no perception of end of day FR) PHYPapophytochromes (PHYA, PHYB, PHYE)
PHYB- Robson et al. Nature Biotech 14: 99, 1992PHYD – Aukerman et al. Plant Cell 9: 1317, 1997PHYE – Devlin et al. Plant Cell 10: 1479, 1998
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Antiweediness Transgenic Mitigation Traits(Anti) – Seed Shattering– Prevents weed replenishing seedbank– Prevents crop from being volunteer– Prevents crop lossGenes:– Determinacy (uniform ripening/harvest)– “Shatterproof” (no dehiscence layer)
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Antiweediness Transgenic Mitigation Traits(Lack) of secondary dormancyGenes:– Arabidopsis abscissic acid insensitive
Steber et al. Genetics 149: 509, 1998– enhance gibberellin biosynthesis– Abolish light requirement (phytochrome)– (Anti) wall thickening
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Will studying a model of Beethoven teach why he was stone deaf?
Any evidence Transgenic Mitigation works?
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Hani al-Ahmad exPhD student
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Generated transgenicTobacco
Wild type
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0
40
80
120
60 80 100 120 140
12.55
cm
60 80 100 120 140
1/ 2.55cm
Mixed SegregantsWT TM 0
40
80
120
cm12.5cm
2.5
1
WT Alone TM Alone
Time (d)
Measure height of WT and TM grown separately
and mixed 1:1
Al-Ahmad, Galili & Gressel Mol. Ecol 13:697-710, 2004
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Time (d)
0
400
800
1200
1600
100 120 140 100 120 140
12.55 cm
1/ 2.5 / 5 cm
0
400
800
1200
1600
1
2.5 cm
2.5 cm
1
WT Alone TM Alone
Mixed Segregants WT TM
Measure flowering of WT and TM grown separately
and mixed 1:1
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Similar results with dwarf TM oilseed rape
Al-Ahmad et al. Plant Biotech J. 4:23-33, 2006
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Non-transgenic
Alone
Mixed (1:1)
TM
Oilseed rape (B. napus)
5-cm spacing
yield/plant
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Transgenic mitigated oilseed rape has high productivity and low competitive fitness Biotype Productivity
grown alone (mg/plant)
Reproductive fitness in competition with B. napus
B. napus NT 320 B. napus TM 503 0.20 B. rapa 119
(Al-Ahmad and Gressel, Plant Biotech J 2006). -increased yield when grown by itself- unfit in competition with wild type- unfit when crossed into B. rapa
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-increased yield when grown by itself
- unfit in competition with wild type
- unfit when crossed into B. rapa
Works in the field –Neal Stewart’s group
Transgenic mitigated B. napus:Thus
Similar mitigation strategies to prevent establishment of weedy rice/sorghum -many useful genes already cloned for dwarfing and anti-shattering
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PloS One 3(3):e1818.Doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001818
Eco-biochemical gene flow mitigation
(Despite title not containment)
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1. Use cv A and glyphosate2. Use cv B and glufosinate
volunteers and hybrids are super-sensitive to glufosinate - killed
3. Use cv A and glyphosatevolunteers and hybrids super-sensitive to glyphosate - dead
4. Use cv B and glufosinatevolunteers and hybrids super-sensitive to glufosinate - deceased
5. Use cv A and glyphosatevolunteers and hybrids killed by glyphosate
6. Use bentazon + selective graminicide bentazon kills super-sensitive volunteers /hybrids
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Such a rotation would:- kill weedy rice 5 of 6 seasons- prevent establishment of hybrids withweedy rice - all seasons
- kill herbicide resistant Echinochloa 5of 6 seasons (or 6 of 6)
- extremely delay evolution of all weed resistances to all herbicides used
Will work even better if eco-biochemical mitigation coupled with morphological mitigation
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In summary - learn from:- Non-transgenic herbicide resistance rapidly
appears in weedy rice -Cibus Genetics- Transgenic herbicide resistance could allow
selective control of weedy rice / other weeds - but genes could flow
- Two types of strategy to deal with gene flow:1. Containment
probably always leaky - escapes can propagate
2. Mitigationintrogressed progeny always less fit -stay at low frequency unless selection pressure
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- Transgene flow can be mitigated
- Evolution of herbicide resistance delayed Best strategy:
Stack containment with mitigationget unfit escapes
There are severe regulatory problems to be overcome - multigene constructs
Industry must collaborate to compete with weeds
Otherwise herbicides lost!
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Biotechnology can prevent / mitigate transgene introgression – regulators should ensure it is done where needed - and prevent unacceptable levels of gene flow
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Only with hand me down genes
The developing world needs new genes
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We must decide:Use biotech to helporSit and do nothing
The world needs solutions- must consider transgenics to supply them
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We in the “west” need more modestyWe should beware of cultural imperialism
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