journal arhss 2011-8-1 klaipeda state college

ISSN 1822 – 3338

KLAIPĖDOS VALSTYBINĖ KOLEGIJA

SVEIKATOS IR SOCIALINIŲ MOKSLŲ TAIKOMIEJI TYRIMAI: SANDŪRA IR SĄVEIKA

KLAIPĖDA STATE COLLEGE

APPLIED RESEARCH IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL SCIENCES:

INTERFACE AND INTERACTION

Nr. 1(8)

Klaipėda * 2011

2

EDITOR – IN ‐ CHIEF

ŽYDŽIŪNAITĖ Vilma ‐ Prof. Dr. (Social Sciences, Education), Vytautas Magnus University / Klaipėda State College, Lithuania

ASSISTANT EDITOR

Asta Mažionienė ‐ Klaipėda State College, Lithuania

EDITORIAL BOARD

ANDRUŠKIENĖ Jurgita – Dr. (Biomedical Sciences, Public Health) Klaipėda University, Lithuania

BOTELHO Rebelo Maria Antonia ‐ RN, PhD (Health Sciences, Nursing) University of Lisbon, Portugal

BUBNYS Remigijus – Assoc. Prof. Dr. (Social Sciences, Education) Šiauliai College / Šiauliai University, Lithuania

CIBULSKAS Gintautas – Dr. (Social Sciences, Education) Kaunas University of Technology / Kaunas University of Medicine, Lithuania

EBBESKOG Britt ‐ PhD (Health Sciences, Nursing) Ersta Sköndal University College / Karolinska Institutet, Sweden

JANKAUSKIENĖ Danguolė ‐ Assoc. Prof. Dr. (Biomedical Sciences, Public Health) Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania

JANUŠONIS Vinsas – Prof. Habil. Dr. (Biomedical Sciences, Medicine) Klaipėda University Hospital / Klaipėda University, Lithuania

KARDELIS Kęstutis ‐ Prof. Habil. Dr. (Social Sciences, Education) Lithuanian Academy of Physical Education, Lithuania

KRZYSZKOWSKI Jerzy ‐ Prof. Habil. Dr. (Social Sciences, Sociology) University of Łódz, Poland

LEPAITĖ Daiva ‐ Assoc. Prof. Dr. (Social Sciences, Education) Vilnius University, Lithuania

PUNDZIENĖ Asta ‐ Prof. Dr. (Social Sciences, Psychology, Management) ISM University of Management and Economics, Lithuania

RAPPOLD Elisabeth – Dr. (Social sciences, Sociology; Biomedical Sciences, Nursing) Austrian Health Research Center, Gesundheit Österreich GmbH, Austrija

ROKA Vasiliki‐Skafidaki – PhD (Health Sciences, Nursing), Military Nursing Academy, Athens, Greece

RUPŠIENĖ Liudmila ‐ Prof. Dr. (Social Sciences, Education) Klaipėda University, Lithuania

RUŠKUS Jonas ‐ Prof. Dr. (Social Sciences, Education) Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania

SAKALAUSKAS Gintautas – Dr. (Social sciences, Law), The Institute of Law / Vilnius University, Lithuania

SLUŠNIENĖ Giedrė – Assoc. Prof. Dr. (Social Sciences, Education) Klaipėda State College, Lithuania

STIER Jonas ‐ Assoc. Prof. PhD (Social Sciences, Sociology) Mälardalen University, Sweden

SUOMINEN Tarja – Prof. PhD (Health Sciences, Nursing) Tampere University, Finland

SZABÓ Gyöngyvér Hervai – Prof. PhD (Social Sciences, Policy) Kodolányi János Föiskola, Hungary

SZABÓ Peter – Prof. PhD (Humanities, Cultural Sciences) Kodolányi János Föiskola, Hungary

ŠVEDAITĖ‐SAKALAUSKĖ Birutė ‐ Dr. (Social sciences, Sociology, Social Work) Vilnius University, Lithuania

URPONEN Kyösti ‐ Prof. PhD (Social Sciences, Social Policy and Social work) University of Lapland, Finland

VIMANTAITĖ Renata – Dr. (Biomedical Sciences, Nursing) Clinics of Kaunas University of Medicine, Lithuania

VIRBALIENĖ Akvilė – Assoc. Prof. Dr. (Social Sciences, Education) Klaipėda State College, Lithuania

EDITORIAL OFFICE

Donelaičio str. 8, Faculty of Health Sciences, Klaipėda State College, 92143 Klaipėda, Lithuania

INTERNET ADDRESS: http://www.kvk.lt/ E‐mail: [email protected]

PUBLISHED SINCE 2005

The journal is abstracted in the following international data basis: Index Copernicus Journal Master List: http://journals.indexcopernicus.com/masterlist.php since 2009 EBSCOhost databases SocIndex: http://www.ebscohost.com/ since 2010

© Klaipėda State College, 2011

3

VYR. MOKSLINĖ REDAKTORĖ

ŽYDŽIŪNAITĖ Vilma ‐ Prof. (hp) Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija), Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas / Klaipėdos valstybinė kolegija, Lietuva

MOKSLINĖ LEIDINIO SEKRETORĖ

Asta Mažionienė ‐ Klaipėdos valstybinė kolegija, Lietuva

REDAKTORIŲ KOLEGIJA

ANDRUŠKIENĖ Jurgita – Dr. (Biomedicinos mokslai, Visuomenės sveikata) Klaipėdos universitetas, Lietuva

BOTELHO Rebelo Maria Antonia ‐ PhD (Sveikatos mokslai, Slauga) SlMA, Lisabonos universitetas, Portugalija

BUBNYS Remigijus – Doc. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija) Šiaulių kolegija / Šiaulių universitetas, Lithuania

CIBULSKAS Gintautas – Doc. Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija) Kauno technologijos universitetas / Kauno Medicinos universitetas, Lietuva

EBBESKOG Britt ‐ PhD (Sveikatos mokslai, Slauga) Ersta Sköndal universitetinė kolegija / Karolinska Institutas, Švedija

JANKAUSKIENĖ Danguolė ‐ Doc. Dr. (Biomedicinos mokslai, Visuomenės sveikata) Mykolo Romerio universitetas, Lietuva

JANUŠONIS Vinsas – Prof. Habil. Dr. (Biomedicinos mokslai, medicina) VšĮ Klaipėdos universitetinė ligoninė / Klaipėdos universitetas, Lietuva

KARDELIS Kęstutis ‐ Prof. Habil. Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija) Lietuvos kūno kultūros akademija, Lietuva

KRZYSZKOWSKI Jerzy ‐ Prof. Habil. Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Sociologija) Lodzės universitetas, Lenkija

LEPAITĖ Daiva ‐ Doc. Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija) Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva

PUNDZIENĖ Asta ‐ Prof. (hp) Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Psichologija, Vadyba) ISM Vadybos ir ekonomikos universitetas, Lietuva

RAPPOLD Elisabeth – Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Sociologija; Biomedicinos mokslai, Slauga) Austrijos sveikatos tyrimų centras Gesundheit Österreich GmbH, Austrija

ROKA Vasiliki‐Skafidaki – PhD (Sveikatos mokslai, Slauga), Karo Slaugos Akademija, Atėnai, Graikija

RUPŠIENĖ Liudmila ‐ Prof. (hp) Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija) Klaipėdos universitetas, Lietuva

RUŠKUS Jonas ‐ Prof. (hp) Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija) Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Lietuva

SAKALAUSKAS Gintautas – Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Teisė), Teisės institutas / Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva

SLUŠNIENĖ Giedrė – Doc. dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija) Klaipėdos Valstybinė kolegija, Lietuva

STIER Jonas ‐ Doc. PhD (Socialiniai mokslai, Sociologija) Mälardalen Universitetas, Švedija

SUOMINEN Tarja – Prof. PhD (Sveikatos mokslai, Slauga) Tampere Universitetas, Suomija

SZABÓ Gyöngyvér Hervai ‐ Prof. Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Politologija) Kodolányi János Aukštoji mokykla, Vengrija

SZABÓ Peter ‐ Prof. Dr. (Humanitariniai mokslai, Kultūrologija) Kodolányi János Aukštoji mokykla, Hungary

ŠVEDAITĖ‐SAKALAUSKĖ Birutė – Dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Sociologija, Socialinis darbas) Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva

URPONEN Kyösti ‐ Prof. dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Socialinė politika, Socialinis darbas) Laplandijos universitetas, Suomija

VIMANTAITĖ Renata ‐ Dr. (Biomedicinos mokslai, Slauga) Kauno medicinos universiteto klinikos, Lietuva

VIRBALIENĖ Akvilė – Doc. dr. (Socialiniai mokslai, Edukologija) Klaipėdos Valstybinė kolegija, Lietuva

REDAKCIJOS ADRESAS: Donelaičio g. 8, Sveikatos mokslų fakultetas, Klaipėdos valstybinė kolegija, 92143 Klaipėda, Lietuva

INTERNETO SVETAINĖS ADRESAS: http://www.kvk.lt/

Elektroninis paštas: [email protected]

LEIDŽIAMAS NUO 2005 metų

Žurnalas referuojamas šiose tarptautinėse duomenų bazėse: Index Copernicus Journal Master List: http://journals.indexcopernicus.com/masterlist.php nuo 2009 metų EBSCOhost databases SocIndex: http://www.ebscohost.com/ nuo 2010 metų

© Klaipėdos valstybinė kolegija, 2011

4

CONTENT

EDITORIAL NOTE 6

EDUCATION 8

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ, MARIA‐CRISTINA DULAU, EVA MAREKOVÁ, SANDRINE RAFAEL. Comenius and

Grundtvig assistantships: opportunities and benefits in European countries 8

LIUDMILA RUPŠIENĖ, ASTA MAŽIONIENĖ. Students’ opinion on the education of management competencies

in the social pedagogy study programme 18

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ, VIRGINIJA BORTKEVIČIENĖ. The competence of the social partners and their

development needs, motives and forms 27

PHILOSOPHY 36

TOMAS VIRBALIS. Oniomania as a result of consumer culture 36

LAW 43

ŽANETA NAVICKIENĖ. Discourse of competencies acquired in legal education 43

PUBLIC HEALTH 54

JURGITA ANDRUŠKIENĖ, GIEDRIUS VARONECKAS, ARVYDAS MARTINKĖNAS. Role of oral health care

providers in early recognition of breathing disturbances during sleep 54

VILMA ŽYDŽIŪNAITĖ, LIJANA VAINORIŪTĖ. Living with HIV / AIDS diagnosis: personal and societal

perceptions 61

JURGITA ANDRUŠKIENĖ, VIDA STANIULIENĖ, REGINA RĖKLAITIENĖ, DALIA VIRVIČIŪTĖ, ASTA MAŽIONIENĖ,

ALDONA ŠUMSKIENĖ, DAIVA LENČIAUSKIENĖ, DAIVA USELIENĖ. Quality of life assessment among College

students

73

SOCIAL WORK 81

AKVILĖ VIRBALIENĖ, SKAIDRĖ RAČKAUSKIENĖ. Social rehabilitation process for victims of prostitution and

trafficking in women 81

JOLITA BUZAITYTĖ–KAŠALYNIENĖ, IEVA NARKELIŪNAITĖ. Promoting factors of youth participation in non‐

governmental organizations 88

AKVILĖ VIRBALIENĖ. Social workers who work with persons with Alzheimer’s disease and their experiences

that influence the risk of burnout syndrome 96

AUTHOR GUIDELINES 103

5

TURINYS

REDAKTORĖS ŽODIS 7

EDUKOLOGIJA 8

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ, MARIA‐CRISTINA DULAU, EVA MAREKOVÁ, SANDRINE RAFAEL. Comenius ir

Grundtvig asistentų programos: galimybes ir nauda Europos šalyse 8

LIUDMILA RUPŠIENĖ, ASTA MAŽIONIENĖ. Studentų nuomonė apie vadybinių kompetencijų ugdymą

socialinės pedagogikos studijų programoje 18

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ, VIRGINIJA BORTKEVIČIENĖ. Socialinių partnerių kompetencijos bei jų tobulinimo

poreikiai, formos ir motyvai 27

FILOSOFIJA 36

TOMAS VIRBALIS. Oniomanija – vartojimo kultūros pasekmė 36

TEISĖ 43

ŽANETA NAVICKIENĖ. Kompetencijų, įgytų teisės studijose, diskursas 43

VISUOMENĖS SVEIKATA 54

JURGITA ANDRUŠKIENĖ, GIEDRIUS VARONECKAS, ARVYDAS MARTINKĖNAS. Burnos priežiūros specialistų

vaidmuo ankstyvojoje kvėpavimo sutrikimų, pasireiškiančių miego metu, diagnostikoje ir gydyme 54

VILMA ŽYDŽIŪNAITĖ, LIJANA VAINORIŪTĖ. Gyvenimas diagnozavus ŽIV / AIDS: asmeninės ir visuomenės

sampratos 61

JURGITA ANDRUŠKIENĖ, VIDA STANIULIENĖ, REGINA RĖKLAITIENĖ, DALIA VIRVIČIŪTĖ, ASTA MAŽIONIENĖ,

ALDONA ŠUMSKIENĖ, DAIVA LENČIAUSKIENĖ, DAIVA USELIENĖ. Kolegijos studentų gyvenimo kokybės vertinimas 73

SOCIALINIS DARBAS 81

AKVILĖ VIRBALIENĖ, SKAIDRĖ RAČKAUSKIENĖ. Socialinės reabilitacijos procesas nukentėjusioms nuo

prostitucijos ir prekybos moterimis 81

JOLITA BUZAITYTĖ–KAŠALYNIENĖ, IEVA NARKELIŪNAITĖ. Jaunimo dalyvavimą nevyriausybinėse

organizacijose stiprinantys faktoriai 88

AKVILĖ VIRBALIENĖ. Su Alzheimerio liga sergančiu asmeniu dirbančių socialinių darbuotojų patirtys,

sąlygojančios profesinio ,,perdegimo“ sindromo riziką 96

GAIRĖS AUTORIAMS 104

6

EDITORIAL NOTE

In this volume of the Journal „Applied research in Health and Social Sciences: Interface and Interaction“ (2011, 1(8)) are published eleven articles, which represent the conceptual and empirical studies education, philosophy, law, public health, and social work:

In education area the international team of researchers such as G. Gedvilienė (Lithuania), M.‐C. Dulau (Romania). E. Mareková (Slovakia), S. Rafael (Portugal) discuss about opportunities and benefits of Comenius ir Grundtvig assistantship programmes in European countries on the basis of their performed documentary and literature review as well also n results of performed qualitative research. L. Rupšienė and A. Mažionienė presents the results of quantitative research about education / development of management competencies in the social pedagogy study programme in Lithuanian Universities and Colleges. G. Gedvilienė and V. Bortkevičienė offer the research evidence‐based arguments about competencies of social partners and the needs, forms and motives concerning their development.

In philosophical area T. Virbalis raises relevant questions of theoretical and practical reality on consumer culture, its consequences for development of values, attitudes and expectations in living world of society.

In law / legal area Ž. Navickienė raises important questions concerning development / education of competencies that are acquired in Law / legal studies in Lithuania and abroad.

In Public Health area J. Andruškienė, G. Voroneckas, A. Martinkėnas represents the role of oral health care providers in early recognition of breathing disturbances during sleep. V. Žydžiūnaitė and L. Vainoriūtė on the basis of the performed qualitative research, debate on societal and personal perceptions concerning people, who live with HIV / AIDS diagnosis. J. Andruškienė, V. Staniulienė, R. Rėklaitienė, D. Virvičiūtė, A. Mažionienė, A. Šumskienė, D. Lenčiauskienė, D. Uselienė empirically analyze the refinements of quality of life among College students.

In Social Work area A. Virbalienė and S. Račkauskienė characterize theoretically and empirically the process of social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking in women. J. Buzaitytė‐Kašalynienė and I. Narkeliūnaitė discuss about the factors concerning youth participation in non‐governmental organizations. A. Virbalienė analyses the risk for Professional burnout among social workers who work with patients with Alzheimer disease.

Vilma Žydžiūnaitė, Prof. PhD

7

REDAKTORĖS ŽODIS

Šiame 2011 m. Nr. 1(8) „Sveikatos ir socialinių mokslų taikomieji tyrimai: sandūra ir sąveika“ žurnale supažindiname su konceptualiųjų ir empirinių tyrimų idėjomis, pristatomomis vienuolikoje straipsnių edukologijos, filosofijos, teisės, visuomenės sveikatos ir socialinio darbo kryptyse.

Edukologijos kryptyje tarptautinė tyrėjų komanda G. Gedvilienė (Lietuva), M.‐C. Dulau (Rumunija). E. Mareková (Slovakija), S. Rafael (Portugalija) diskutuoja apie Comenius ir Grundtvig asistentų programų galimybes bei naują Europos šalyje, besiremdamos dokumentų ir mokslo šaltinių analize bei atlikto kokybinio tyrimo rezultatais. L. Rupšienė ir A. Mažionienė pristato kiekybinio tyrimo rezultatus apie vadybinių kompetencijų ugdymą socialinės pedagogikos studijų programoje Lietuvos universitetuose ir kolegijose. G. Gedvilienė ir V. Bortkevičienė pateikia tyrimais paremtus argumentus apie socialinių partnerių kompetencijas ir jų tobulinimo poreikius, formas bei motyvus.

Filosofijos kryptyje T. Virbalis kelia aktualius teorinės ir praktinės realybės klausimus apie vartojimo kultūrą, jos pasekmes visuomenės vertybių, nuostatų ir lūkesčių formavimuisi gyvenamajame pasaulyje.

Teisės kryptyje Ž. Navickienė kelia aktualius studijų / ugdymo/si klausimus apie kompetencijas, kurios įgyjamos teisės studijose Lietuvoje ir užsienyje.

Visuomenės sveikatos kryptyje J. Andruškienė, G. Voroneckas, A. Martinkėnas pristato empirinio tyrimo rezultatus apie burnos priežiūros specialistų vaidmenį ankstyvojoje kvėpavimo sutrikimų, pasireiškiančių miego metu, diagnostikoje ir gydyme. V. Žydžiūnaitė, L. Vainoriūtė, besiremdamos atlikto kokybinio tyrimo rezultatais, svarsto apie asmenines ir visuomenines sampratas, orientuotas į asmenis, kuriems diagnozuotas ŽIV / AIDS. J. Andruškienė, V. Staniulienė, R. Rėklaitienė, D. Virvičiūtė, A. Mažionienė, A. Šumskienė, D. Lenčiauskienė, D. Uselienė empiriškai analizuoja kolegijos studentų gyvenimo kokybės subtilybes.

Socialinio darbo kryptyje A. Virbalienė ir S. Račkauskienė teoriškai ir empiriškai apibūdina socialinės reabilitacijos procesą nukentėjusioms nuo prostitucijos ir prekybos moterimis. J. Buzaitytė‐Kašalynienė ir I. Narkeliūnaitė diskutuoja apie jaunimo dalyvavimo nevyriausybinėse organizacijose faktorius. A. Virbalienė nagrinėja socialinių darbuotojų, dirbančių su Alzheimerio liga sergančiais pacientais, profesinio perdegimo riziką.

Prof. dr. Vilma Žydžiūnaitė

8

APPLIED RESEARCH IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL SCIENCES: INTERFACE AND INTERACTION. 2011 1(8)

SVEIKATOS IR SOCIALINIŲ MOKSLŲ TAIKOMIEJI TYRIMAI: SANDŪRA IR SĄVEIKA. 2011 1(8)

EDUCATION

COMENIUS AND GRUNDTVIG ASSISTANTSHIPS: OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS IN EUROPE COUNTRIES

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ

Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania

MARIA‐CRISTINA DULAU

National College Octavian Goga, Romania

EVA MAREKOVÁ

Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia

SANDRINE RAFAEL

University of Coimbra, Portugal

Abstract

The paper presents Comenius and Grundtvig programmes of European Lifelong Learning Programme. The European Lifelong Learning Programme was created to support the implementation of European policy in education and training, which are essential to the development of today’s knowledge society and economy. The objective of the Comenius assistantship is to give future teachers the opportunity to gain a better understanding of the European dimension to teaching and learning; to enhance their knowledge of foreign languages, other European countries and their education systems; and to improve their teaching skills. The Grundtvig Assistantship is designed to give current or future adult educators the opportunity to gFGain a better understanding of the European dimension to adult learning; to enhance their knowledge of foreign languages, other European countries and adult education systems; and to improve professional and intercultural competences. Assistants who are about to go to work in host organizations have their own experiences, social and professional skills, but they will not only give something, but they will receive something as well. Thus, this article would like to present what opportunities and benefits the Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship give.

Keywords: European Lifelong Learning Programme, Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship, social skills.

Introduction

Nowadays it is very important to communicate together and have good relations among students and teachers. For European Union this question is very popular and important. Therefore, the main issue is that people who are about to become assistants in many various organizations have a limited amount of available information about what assistantship activities give them and what opportunities and benefits of the Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship there are. By means of working together people get a lot of information about other colleagues and pupils, they can develop their own knowledge, social skills, abilities and become more professional teachers or trainers.

Research focus ‐ Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship opportunities and benefits. Aim – is to detect opportunities and benefits of Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship. The following objectives were formulated to achieve this aim: to analyze Lifelong Learning Programme; to

detect Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship peculiarities; to demonstrate the importance of social skills in communication and cooperation of people; to define Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship opportunities and benefits.

The methods applied for the research: literature review, document analysis, interview, content analysis.

European Lifelong Learning Programme

Europe is living through a period of change, focusing more and more on education (on its quality and efficiency) and at the same time promoting equity, social cohesion and active citizenship. One of the main problems Europe encounters nowadays is the economical and financial crisis and as a response to this the Europe 2020 Strategy (European Commission, 2011) was elaborated in order to help get Europe back on track. The Lifelong Learning Programme was created to support the implementation of European policy in education and training, which are essential to the development of today’s knowledge society and economy.

9

Figure 1. The European Lifelong Learning Programme includes five programmes targeted at all stages of life

In this respect the European Union‘s strategy emphasizes countries working together and learning from each

other. Being labeled “a single umbrella for education and training” (Emya, 2011), The European Lifelong Learning Programme includes five programmes targeted at all stages of life:

Comenius (primary / secondary education) consists of: school partnerships (there are 31 countries involved in this programme), professional development (in‐service training in other countries), teacher training (placement in schools across Europe), visits and seminars (educators making contacts abroad). Some researches claim that there are at least 3 million pupils involved in joint educational activities in the Comenius programme (European Commission, 2010d).

Erasmus (higher education) involves: study abroad (experiencing Europe from a new perspective), work placements of students (internships in another European countries), intensive programmes (working together in multinational groups), and staff opportunities, university cooperation, enterprise involvement (involving business in higher education). This programme has reached a total of 3 million university participants since the programme begun.

Leonardo (vocational education) focuses on: training opportunities (sending stuff to train in partner countries), work abroad (sending learners to work in other countries in Europe), good practice (applying innovation in new settings), developing new vocational resources. Leonardo will increase placements in enterprises by 80 000 per year.

Grundtvig (adult education) emphasizes attending conferences (meeting partners from across Europe), adult workshops, senior volunteers (responding to an ageing population), work shadowing (sharing new workplace skills), practical learning (sending stuff to trainings in partners’ countries). The programme supports mobility for 7000 Europeans participating in adult education each year.

Transversal (education professionals) focuses mainly on shared knowledge (hosting study visits for other educators), exchange of experiences (discussing issues with regional experts), comparative research, language learning (participating in European language projects). These transversal participants work in education, government, labor, business and volunteer organizations (ibid.).

These programmes fund a range of actions including exchanges, study visits and networking activities. They are designed not only for individual students and learners, but also for teachers and trainers and all who are involved in educational and training field. The objective of the action programme in the field of lifelong learning 2007‐13 is to develop and foster interchange, cooperation and mobility, so that education and training systems become a world quality reference in accordance with the Lisbon strategy. It thus contributes to the development of the Community as an advanced knowledge‐based society, with sustainable economic development, more and better jobs and greater social cohesion. To realize this general objective, the programme pursues specific objectives concerning lifelong learning in the European Union (EU) which aim to: contribute to the development of quality lifelong learning and to promote high performance, innovation and the European dimension in systems and practices; help to improve the quality, attractiveness and accessibility of the opportunities for lifelong learning; reinforce their contribution to social cohesion, active citizenship, intercultural dialogue, gender equality and personal fulfillment; help to promote creativity, competitiveness, employability and the growth of an entrepreneurial spirit; contribute to increased participation in lifelong learning by people of all ages, including those with special needs and disadvantaged groups; promote language learning and linguistic diversity; support the development of ICT‐based resources; reinforce their role in creating a sense of European citizenship based on respect for European values, as well as tolerance and respect for other peoples and cultures; promote co‐operation in quality assurance in all sectors of education and training; improve their quality by encouraging the best use of results, innovative products and processes, as well as the exchange of good practice (European Union, 2006).

Participation in the programme is open not just to the Member States, but also to the EFTA (European Free Trade Association) countries that are members of the European Economic Area (Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway), to the Swiss Confederation and to the EU candidate and potential candidate countries of the western Balkans in

10

accordance with the rules and agreements governing their participation in Community programmes. In addition, the Commission may also organize cooperation with third countries and international organizations, such as the Council of Europe or the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). The beneficiaries of the programme are: ‐ pupils, students, trainees and adult learners; ‐ all categories of education personnel; ‐ people in the labor market; ‐ institutions and organizations providing learning opportunities within the programme; ‐ enterprises, social partners and their organizations at all levels, including trade organizations and chambers of commerce and industry; ‐ participants', parents' and teachers' associations; ‐ research centers and bodies; ‐ non‐profit organizations, voluntary bodies, and non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) (European Commission, 2010c).

The Comenius assistantship

‘Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten.’ The memorable words of Skinner, penned in the mid‐1960s, were as true then as they are in the 21st century. Education is something that is rooted deeply within a person. One fosters it with his individual experiences. At the same time, however, education is a wider concept that requires unified policies to function correctly. Thus, the European Union embarked on an ambitious pan‐European education scheme through which it aims to progressively join all its member states into one whole by means of a lifelong learning programme structure. One of five subprogram’s of the lifelong learning programme is called Comenius, whose main objective is ‘to help young people and educational staff better understand the range of European cultures, languages and values’ (European Commission, 2010b).

The name of the programme was inspired by a Czech philosopher and educator called Jan Amos Comenius (originally Jan Amos Komenský, 1592‐1670), popularly known as the “Father of Modern Education” and “Teacher of Nations”. Through his masterpiece, entitled Didactica Magna, he not only brought several practical innovations to education (like the use of visual aids in classroom teaching), but he also introduced several stages on which each person should be educated – from childhood through university and beyond. This was the cornerstone of what, in time, has become known as lifelong learning (Clemen, 2007).

The target group of the Comenius programme is individuals of all age groups connected with all levels of compulsory school education: pre‐school, primary and secondary schools, but also further education colleges and adult education institutions (Gallacher, 2011a). Thus, it involves not only pupils and teachers, but also ‘local authorities, representatives of parents’ associations, non‐governmental organizations, teacher training institutes and universities’ (European Commission, 2010b).

Comenius’ concept of cooperation in education is fulfilled by achieving the following five objectives: to ‘improve and increase the mobility of pupils and educational staff across the EU; enhance and increase partnerships between schools in different EU Member States; encourage language learning, innovative ICT‐based content, services and better teaching techniques and practices; enhance the quality and European dimension of teacher training; and improve pedagogical approaches and school management’ (ibid).

There are five different kinds of mobility in which interested persons can take part: individual pupil mobility; in‐service training of school education staff; assistantships; school partnerships; and bilateral Region partnerships. The Comenius assistantship (on which this article is focused, alongside the corresponding Grundtvig assistantship for adult education) is aimed towards aspiring or recently graduated teachers without any previous working experience in the field. Thanks to 13‐45 weeks spent in a foreign country they develop their professional skills for their future vocation in the educational system. During this period, assistants provide teaching support for one or more on‐site teachers, 12 to 16 hours per week. They teach foreign languages (English, German, French, and other European languages) or another school subject that is a subject of their specialization. When required, they teach their mother tongue or conduct linguistic and artistic after‐school activities as well.

It is necessary to emphasize that Comenius assistants develop not only their professional skills, but also a set of unique multicultural tools and abilities. These include language, social and cultural skills that are particular to each assistantship. Exchanging linguistic and cultural experience is a key element of the programme, as in terms of language, the teacher can become the taught. Crucially, assistants also get an opportunity to ‘gain an insight into another European education system’ (Gallacher, 2011b). By comparing and contrasting, returning assistants can therefore carry over their reflections from their Comenius experience to their teaching future back home or elsewhere, thus benefiting both their local and national community and the host country.

From the point of view of pupils and teachers working with assistants, the presence of an assistant in their classroom is an interesting and motivating element through which they learn about another European country, its culture, traditions, and life‐style. Subconsciously, this serves to breed in them a spirit of Europe. The presence of the assistant can broaden horizons and demonstrate that national borders are no limit in a unified Europe. Consequently, the assistant may prove to encourage the student towards mobility and thus enhance his intercultural competence and knowledge about the EU Member States.

The current popularity of the Comenius programme is proven by the fact that 11 000 schools all over Europe give an opportunity to more than 850 000 pupils and teachers to be a part of this mobility of people – they move across Europe, learn from one another and through it, the boundaries between the countries are disappearing

11

gradually, bringing education straight into the spotlight and at the forefront of European integration (National agency AEF EUROPE, Belgium, 2011).

The Comenius assistantship undeniably brings additional benefits to the European Union, both as a whole and on a country‐by‐country basis. The yearly hosting of thousands of young professionals and/or fresh graduates from the 27 Member States means that new technologies and current teaching methodologies are disseminated throughout Europe in a controlled way. By employing recent graduates, the European Commission is able to verify the efficiency of the Bologna Process in preparing teachers for mobility between the EU states. Given the large degree of liberty and flexibility provided to the assistant, they are free to explore and pursue new ways in which the assistantship can benefit Europe as much as Europe’s direct support benefits them. To conclude, the European Commission’s Comenius Programme is a vital component of European integration. It serves the general purposes of the European Union in directing the education of European citizens in all the Member States, promoting Europe’s rich and varied cultural heritage, fostering mutual understanding between the young citizens of the EU, strengthening cooperation in the field of education and encouraging a feeling of European citizenship while maintaining the sovereignty of each country. All these efforts go to show, in the end, that in the area of education, too, Europeans can celebrate unity in diversity.

The Grundtvig assistantship

This initiative’s creation in 2000 occurs at a moment when the European society presents increasing rates of aged population but also with a paradigm change regarding learning. The programmes motto is very revealing: “It’s never too late to learn.” The public of the programme is very wide, including teachers, trainers, staff and organizations working in the sector, learners in adult education, counseling organizations, information services, associations, enterprises, volunteer groups and research centers.

Grundtvig, the name of the programme, is a tribute to the Danish pastor, composer, philosopher and pedagogue Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (1783‐1872). His main goal was to create a single school that could serve people of all ages and social classes. The pedagogue defended an intrinsic relation between learning and life experience and that education is the key to an active participation in the community and in the society. Following this lifelong learning paradigm, the main goals of this initiative are: ‐ provide adults with more ways to improve their knowledge and skills; ‐ facilitate their personal development and boost their employment; ‐ help to tackle problems associated with Europe’s ageing population (European Commission, 2010a). We can also highlight other goals such as the promotion of mobility and cooperation between people and organizations involved in adult education, favoring innovative practices and the improvement of pedagogical methodologies and adult education institution management. To follow these goals the programme is divided into three comprehensive actions that are: learning partnerships between adult education institutions from different European countries; multilateral projects and networks in the field of adult education; individual mobility to further the professional development of trainers/teachers and other staff in adult education (European Commission, 2010a). These actions have several possibilities ‐ the education partnerships, the senior volunteer projects, preparation visits, continuous education scholarships, personnel visits and interchange from adult education organizations, workshops and assistance periods.

In the present document it is important to broach the assistance periods. The assistance period consists of an individualized action, which allows any person that already has some experience in the adult education area or that wishes to have it by doing an assistance period at an adult education institution in European countries. The assistants will be completely integrated in the hosting institution and they can develop activities in several fields. This is the great potentiality of the assistance period, its intervention flexibility. Before the departure for the assistantship, the assistants have to find a host organisation that has applied for hosting an assistant and that is willing to accept him/her. Only if he/she is accepted by a host organisation he/she can apply for an assistance period in his/her national agency. The assistant can participate during the period of 3 months up to 9 months. The scholarship covers the traveling and staying expenses. The main goal of this measure is to allow that assistants have an experience at a foreign country institution favoring the professional skills development, but also cultural and social ones.

The beneficiary of this programme is not just an assistant, but also a host institution that will have much to gain from this experience ‐ in the acquisition of knowledge about a different culture as well as in the exchange of methodologies and working materials between the professional staff and the assistant. This situation will lead to some changes of certain forms of work, promoting greater motivation of the technical‐pedagogical team and consequently the beneficiaries of the host institution. The exchange experience, knowledge, difficulties and potentialities facilitate a more consistent adult education at a European level and closer to the real need of the adults in all European countries.

Social skills conception

Life changes condition transformations in thinking about education, search for new and effective learning theories and methods. The object of modern didactics is not just teaching, but also learning that is approached as an interactive, dynamic and individual process. Learning involves learners' thinking and feelings. Circulation of knowledge

12

and abilities takes place at individual, group and organizational levels. Therefore when the principles of teamwork are mastered, more power to solve encountered problems is acquired. According to Teresevičienė and Gedvilienė (2003) one of the key aspects of developing social skills in learning groups is learning with others and learning from each other. Thus, to us this information is important because assistants work with learners and also collaborate in groups. During group collaboration much attention is focused on generic and interpersonal skills, such as listening to others, collaboration, reflection and formation of agreement. Teaching is easier when social interaction – and not the disregarding of individuals and roles deemed unworthy – occurs, acknowledging the uniqueness of each person’s dignity and equality. In this way, it is possible to develop personalities who are able to possess their own point of view on life and are capable of justifying their self‐decision making. Working together may become a value itself, which has a goal to develop social skills and also creative and critical thinking (O’Donohue, Krasner, 1995). Assistants can see what is the most important based on the observation of others and choose their own way of thinking. Through the discussion of their aims and strategies assistants may compare their viewpoint and ideas with others and thus acquire new abilities to act in new teaching/learning situations. The most important thing when people are assistants is that social skills should be discussed in teaching/learning context that is specifically relevant while looking at changes in learning, searching for effective teaching and learning methods.

Comenius and Grundtvig assistants’ attitude towards social skills: results and discussion

The qualitative research presented below was elaborated on the basis of the experience of the assistants who participated in Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship programmes which took place in the period 2010‐2011 in Belgium (Wallonia). The informants were 9 assistants (from Walloon region) who come from 8 different European countries (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Lithuania, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia). The respondents answered nine questions. In the research material respondents’ answers have codes (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I). Every time the interview was made in the form of conversation during the individual meetings with the respondents. The recorder was used to record the conversations. Interviews were conducted and transcribed to the results of content analysis. Finally, the results were divided into four categories and several subcategories: International Cooperation Experience (Language, Culture, and Social skills), General Comenius / Grundtvig (Professional aspect, Social aspect), Benefits of multicultural cooperation (Individual acquirement, Interpersonal relations), Communication experience (Strength, Weakness). The subject of this interview is to find out assistants’ opinion about their experience in assistantship programmes. Most of the Comenius assistants are graduates of universities and some of them language teachers who carried out their apprenticeships in primary and secondary schools; the Grundtvig assistants are educators and university teachers who are involved in adult education, work with adult students and conduct researches in schools for adults (Promotion Sociale schools).

Table 1 Results of qualitative research

Category Subcategory Examples

Language improvement in English (A) and French (C, G, D, E, H) learning French (A, B, I) “I started to learn French 3 months before my arriving to Belgium.” (G) “noticing and making use of the differences between standard French and the Walloon French“ (C) Learning words and expressions from the assistants’ language (B,E,F)

Culture Sunday dinners with specific meals from each country (A, H) journeys during the weekends to discover Belgium and surroundings (A) “I learnt a lot of things about the culture in Belgium (the way of eating, literature, art, history).” (B, D, E) Learning about …“greetings and saying goodbye (going well beyond the one‐kiss‐two‐kiss‐or‐three‐kiss dilemma), […] relation between Belgians from different regions and between Belgians and Charleroi’s significant immigrant population… “ (C, E) “I had the chance to compare my culture with another and find similarities and differences.” (F, G, H) “It was interesting to find out that even if we don’t have a common history and our countries are different (of course!!), in several aspects we are so similar. Because it doesn’t matter which country somebody comes from – it’s a personality that matters. Moreover, these people motivated me to travel even more and explore the world.” (I)

International Cooperation Experience

Social skills Evening tea meetings (A) Celebrating birthdays and other holidays together (A) Creating a long lasting friendship with another assistants “I can consider this period and these programmes as gates towards new cultures, new countries, and new European opportunities.” (B) “It greatly increased openness and self‐confidence in communication, experience in a variety of social situations involving the use of a foreign language, as well as the ability to make certain decisions and take responsibility for a group.” (C)

13

the respect of students towards teachers from other countries (D) “Maybe now I’m more open and tolerant to people when I meet them for the first time.” (G) Sharing “with them (other assistants) ideas, projects, activities, travels and special moments” (H) Good collaboration with the teachers from local schools (H) “Since all of us are from different countries, I trained my skills to deal with people who think a bit differently than I do.” (I)

Professio‐nal aspect

Grundtvig programme focuses on “how adults of different ages can learn together, help to understand cooperation between generations.” (A) “I had the opportunity to experience a new educational system, different from the one in my country.” (B, C, E, F) It helped to “define my teaching style”. (C, G) Opportunity to teach mother tongue in class (H) “Exchange experiences about other realities, weaknesses, potentials, find common methods…” (E) Attending to classes (D) Working for international Comenius school projects that the schools had (C)

Comenius / Grundtvig in general

Social aspect

“I think that there are a lot of advantages in such approaches: open mind, motivation to learn another language, durability of contact, etc.” (A) discovery of new cultures by meeting people of other nationalities (B, D, F, H) ability to adapt to new situations and new people in a foreign country (E)

Individual acquire‐ment

A great opportunity “to know the identities of the other countries, history, culture, traditions and customs better” (A, H) “This learning helps me to have a new way of resolution of problems, bigger flexibility in the culture acceptance” (E) Finding friends for all your life, precious memories (G, I)

Benefits of multicultural cooperation

Interper‐sonal relations

Benefits for the students ‐ “it is necessary that each year brings new assistants from cultures that are new to them ‐ especially in the case of cities and schools with noticeable social problems and/or individuals normally limited by being unfamiliar with cultures outside of their own. The benefit of this for the students is the opening of their cultural horizons.” (C, B, D) Ttrying to overcome inadaptability problems (“In my daily life I was like a foreigner that didn’t take part in multicultural cooperation” (F) ) constructing a close relationship with the other assistants and with the tutors (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I) The spirit of helping each other with the problems of language speaking. (“…for instance, when a member of the group that can’t speak French fluently had a doubt about an expression in French, the other assistants tried to help him, explain him the meaning in English and teach him how to pronounce the expression correctly.” (H) )

Strength Learning different languages and sharing their cultures (A, E) Having a good relation with the other assistants (A, B, E, I) “…the common planning and realization of trips; assistance in the preparation of materials; countless private conversations that deepened the bond between the assistants; certain small yet significant social traditions within the group (meals and tea at a regular time, rotation of certain tasks); common problems (inevitable when living in the same place) and their resolution; integration between the activities of the Comenius and Grundtvig assistants (e.g. during the Grundtvig mobility in March); informal language lessons among the assistants; and unexpected Random Acts of Kindness (RAK) ‐ to name but a few” (C, B, D, F, G) “The cultural gap wasn't a problem when developing friendships and personal relationships, since there was always respect and it was the personality of each one that stood out while communicating and interacting with the others” (E)

Communica‐tion experience

Weakness Language barrier (A,B, H, E, I) “From time to time there were some misunderstandings due to the fact that not everybody could speak and understand correctly both languages, French and English, but this never brought us huge troubles.” (H) “My biggest problem is my very weak knowledge of French that is spoken all around. I am depended on the others and since a feeling of dependence makes me feel weak and incapable, sometimes it is difficult for me to deal with it ‐ my self‐confidence is influenced by it pretty much (not very positively).” (I)

In this research the answers of the respondents are divided into four categories:

14

International Cooperation Experience (Language, Culture, Social skills), Comenius / Grundtvig in general (Professional aspect, Social aspect), Benefits of multicultural cooperation (Individual acquirement, Interpersonal relations), and Communication experience (Strength, Weakness).

Category of International Cooperation Experience contains tree subcategories ‐ Language, Culture, Social skills. In language subcategory the respondents stated improvement in English and French, learning French, differences between standard French and the Walloon French, learning words and expressions from the assistants’ language as some of their international cooperation experiences. In cultural subcategory the respondents highlighted Sunday dinners with specific meals from each country, journeys to discover Belgium, getting a lot of information about the Belgian culture; they learned the ways of greeting, relation between Belgians from different regions and between Belgians and Charleroi’s significant immigrant population. They were able to compare their own culture with another and find similarities and differences. In social skills subcategory the respondents indicated that for them these experiences were very important: evening tea meetings, celebrating birthdays and other holidays together, creating a long lasting friendship with the other assistants. In their point of view, Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship programmes represent gates towards new cultures, new countries, and new European opportunities. The respondents also admitted that it was a good occasion to make decisions and take responsibility for a group. The social skills mentioned by the respondents are respect, tolerance, sharing, collaboration, deal, openness and self‐confidence in communication, experience in a variety of social situations involving the use of a foreign language.

Category of General Comenius / Grundtvig consists of two subcategories ‐ Professional aspect, Social aspect. In professional and social aspect subcategories the respondents claimed that Grundtvig programme focuses on “how adults of different ages can learn together, help to understand cooperation between generations”. As a result of these assistantships they got an opportunity to experience a different education system, define their own teaching style, teach their mother tongue in class, work for international Comenius school projects, and discover new cultures by meeting people of other nationalities.

Category of Benefits of multicultural cooperation contains two subcategories such as Individual acquirement, Interpersonal relations. In these two subcategories the respondents emphasized their opportunity to get to know the identities of the other countries, history, culture, traditions and customs better, to learn new ways of resolution of problems, and to achieve bigger flexibility in the culture acceptance. Moreover, they found friends for the rest of their lives and thanks to their stay in Belgium they left or will leave with a lot of precious memories. The benefits of multicultural cooperation are significant not only for the assistants, but also for the students who are in contact with them. Each year brings new assistants from different cultures and by means of it the students, assistants and tutors become a part of multicultural cooperation. Last but not least benefits include the previously mentioned construction of a close relationship with the other assistants and tutors and mutual help with problems while speaking a foreign language.

Category of Communication experience consists of two subcategories ‐ Strength, Weakness. The respondents indicated numerous strengths of communication experience ‐ learning different languages, sharing cultures, having good relations with the other assistants, the common planning and realization of trips; countless private conversations that deepened the bond between the assistants; certain small yet significant social traditions within the group (meals and tea at a regular time, rotation of certain tasks); common problems (inevitable when living in the same place) and their resolution; integration between the activities of the Comenius and Grundtvig assistants; informal language lessons among the assistants; assistance in the preparation of materials for lessons in school. Language barrier, misunderstandings and difficulties caused by the cultural and character differences belong to the weaknesses in the field of communication experience.

Conclusions

We analyzed the Lifelong Learning Programmes to emphasize the idea how closely linked learning and well‐being have become in the twenty‐first century – and how pervasive both awareness of and participation in lifelong learning activities are among contemporary populations. Numerous questions remain, not least among them the inequality of opportunities between well‐educated persons and the less advantaged in given societies, and between developed and developing countries. Lifelong learning advocates can only hope that enough of the early fervor and optimism of the movement remain to find solutions to these issues.

One of the significant differences between the Comenius and Grundtvig assistantship programmes lies in the area of recruitment of assistants. It is important to emphasize that the Grundtvig assistants are free to choose the place of their stay, even though they have to contact the organisation beforehand and be accepted. On the other hand, the Comenius assistants apply only for a country they are interested in. In both the cases it is a national agency who decides who will participate in an ongoing period. The Comenius assistantship is aimed towards schooling system (primary and secondary education), whereas the Grundtvig assistantship focuses on adult education in a wide range of partaking organizations, i.e. all kinds of organizations that deal with adults (from education system to cultural associations). The Comenius assistantship is intended for aspiring or recently graduated teachers without any previous working experience in the field, on the contrary to the Grundtvig where an assistant can be without any working

15

experience, but it is not a requirement. The Comenius assistants spend in school 12‐16 hours per week, the Grundtvig ones are completely integrated in the activities of their host institution ‐ they follow a beforehand agreed full‐time timetable. As a matter of fact, the Comenius assistants provide only teaching support. The Grundtvig assistants are allowed to conduct their own activities and they are provided with flexibility thanks to their previous work experience. Both the programmes offer the opportunity to gain work experience. As mentioned above, the Comenius programme is appropriate for those who are at the beginning of their professional carrier; the Grundtvig programme is more suitable for those who already have some work experience and want to enhance their competences. Due to the assistance period, assistants improve not only their professional, but also intercultural skills successively.

Social skills (communication and cooperation) help people to live together and participate in the social and economic life of the country; they help to create good relations among colleagues at work and in the life of the community. Therefore it is important to start the development of social skills as soon as possible. However, it is wrong to assume that once acquired social skills can be used throughout the entire life. Having acquired them it is necessary to renew them constantly, i. e. we have to develop them by means of the lifelong learning constantly.

As the results of the research showed there are plenty of benefits that participating in the Comenius or Grundtvig assistantship programme brings. The participant gets an opportunity to benefit in several areas: linguistically (improvement of language – all the skills, but mainly speaking; extension of vocabulary), culturally (increase in cultural awareness by means of interacting with another assistants, tutors, teachers, students, natives, by sharing ideas, by traveling, etc.), socially (development of social skills mainly through interaction with the people – communication, openness, adaptability and tolerance are strengthened, incentive to travel and even professionally cooperate in the future, discovering new countries and their cultures, creating tight bonds with newly‐made friends, increasing the ability to work as a team, collaborate, solve problems together), and professionally (discovering different education systems, new methods and strategies, being a part of international school projects, defining assistants’ teaching style and, in fact, whether they want to become teachers in the future, and many others). Of course, there are negative sides to the assistantships, but the positive ones overshadow them. An occasion to meet new people who they would not meet if they did not participate in this kind of programme, an occasion to find partners for future cooperation, an occasion to develop their professional, language, social and cultural skills ‐ all these are a guarantee of opening horizons for those who decide to take part in one of the European Union’s lifelong learning programmes. Both the Comenius and Grundtvig assistantships offer assistants long‐term benefits, since the assistantship experience does not finish on the last day spent in a particular country. It is something priceless that will always remain inside a person. One can take advantage of his stay and apply his experience, newly‐acquired knowledge, ideas and different point of view on education in his everyday life.

References

1. Clemen, J. A. Philosophy of education of John Amos Comenius. [Research Journal]. 2007. [Online]. Available at: <http://www.hnu.edu.ph/main/publication/kinaadman/2181007/218100719.pdf>.

2. Gallacher, Ch. Host a Comenius Assistant: Welcome the European Dimension into your school. [On‐line]. 2011a. Available at: <http://www.britishcouncil.org/comenius‐hosting‐an‐assistant.htm>.

3. Gallacher, Ch. Be a Comenius Assistant: Spend up to an academic year living and working in another European country. [Online]. 2011b. Available at: <http://www.britishcouncil.org/comenius‐becoming‐a‐comenius‐assistant.htm>.

4. O’Donohue, W., Krasner, L. (1995). Psychological skills training. In W. O’Donohue, W., Krasner, L. (Eds.), Handbook of psychological skills training: Clinical techniques and applications. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

5. Teresevičienė M., Gedvilienė G. (2003). Mokymasis grupėse ir asmenybės kaita. Kaunas: VDU leidykla. 6. Vassiliou, A. (2010). Ten years of the Grundtvig programme. Copenhagen. [Online]. Available at:

<http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/10/473&type=HTML>.

Documents

1. European Commission. Europe 2020 – EU economic reform package. [Online]. 2011. [Accessible 2011‐04‐02]. Available on Internet: <http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm>.

2. European Commission. Grundtvig actions: Assistantships. [Online]. 2010a. Available at: <http://ec.europa.eu/education/grundtvig/doc982_en.htm>.

3. European Commission. Lifelong learning programme ‐ Comenius: Europe in the classroom. [Online]. 2010b. Available at: <http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong‐learning‐programme/doc84_en.htm>.

4. European Commission. Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) Guide 2011. Part I: General provisions. [Online]. 2010c. Available at: <http://www.cmepius.si/files/cmepius/userfiles/razpisi/LLP11/guide_part1_en.pdf>.

5. European Commission. LLP Guide 2011. Part II a. Sub‐programmes and Actions. [Online]. 2010d. Available at: <http://ec.europa.eu/education/llp/doc/call11/part2_en.pdf>.

6. European Commission. LLP Guide 2011. Part II b. Explanations by Action. [Online]. 2010e. Available at: <http://www.cmepius.si/files/cmepius/userfiles/razpisi/LLP11/fiches_en.pdf>.

7. European Communities. Grundtvig Adult Education Mobility creates opportunities. European success stories (2008). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

16

8. European Union. Decision No1720/2006/EC of European Parliament and of the council of 15 November 2006 establishing an action programme in the field of lifelong learning. In Official Journal of the European Union. [Online]. 2006. Available at: <http://eur‐lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:327:0045:0068:en:PDF>.

9. Lifelong Learning Programme (2011). [Accessible 2011‐04‐02]. [Online]. Available at: <http://emya‐mentoring.eu/llp/item/75‐lifelong‐learning‐programme‐.html>.

10. National agency AEF EUROPE (2011). Comenius. L’apprentissage de l’Europe pour petits et grands. Belgium. [online]. Available at: <http://www.aef‐europe.be/index. php?Rub=comenius>.

Santrauka

COMENIUS IR GRUNDTVIG ASISTENTŲ PROGRAMOS: GALIMYBES IR NAUDA EUROPOS ŠALYSE

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ, MARIA‐CRISTINA DULAU, EVA MAREKOVÁ, SANDRINE RAFAEL

Reikšminiai žodžiai: Europos mokymosi visą gyvenimą programa, Comenius ir Grundtvig asistentų programos, socialiniai įgūdžiai.

Straipsnyje analizuojamos dalyvavimo Mokymosi visą gyvenimą programos Comenius ir Grundtvig asistentų programose dalyvaujančiųjų galimybės. Mokymosi visą gyvenimą programa remia mokymosi galimybes visais gyvenimo atvejais, kuriant žiniomis pagrįstą visuomenę geresniais socialiniais ryšiais.

Comenius asistentų praktikos veiklos tikslas ‐ suteikti būsimiems mokytojams galimybę plėsti supratimą apie europinę dimensiją, pagerinti užsienio kalbų mokėjimą, pažinti kitas Europos šalis ir jų švietimo sistemas, patobulinti mokymo įgūdžius.

Grundtvig veiklos tikslas ‐ suteikti dalyviams galimybę geriau suprasti europinę suaugusiųjų švietimo dimensiją, tobulinti užsienio kalbų žinias, pažinti kitas Europos šalis ir jų švietimo sistemas, plėtoti profesinę ir kultūrinę kompetenciją. Praktika atliekama suaugusiųjų švietimo institucijoje vienoje iš Mokymosi visą gyvenimą programoje dalyvaujančių šalių, tačiau ne gimtojoje asistento šalyje.

2010‐2011 metais Belgijoje, Valonijos regione (prancūziškai kalbančioje dalyje) atliktas kokybinis tyrimas. Tyrimo metu intervuoti 9 Comenius ir Grundtvig programų asistentai iš aštuonių Europos šalių. Transkribavus rezultatus paaiškėjo, kad dalyvavusieji Comenius ir Grundtvig asistentų programose įgyja galimybę tobulėti lingvistikos, kultūros, socialinių gebėjimų ir profesijos srityse.

Résumé

LES OPPORTUNITÉS ET LES BÉNÉFICES DES PROGRAMMES D’ASSISTANAT COMENIUS AND GRUNDTVIG DANS LES PAYS EUROPÉENS

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ, MARIA‐CRISTINA DULAU, EVA MAREKOVÁ, SANDRINE RAFAEL

Cet article présente les programmes Comenius et Grundtvig qui font partie du programme européen pour l'éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie. Celui‐ci a été créé afin de soutenir la mise en œuvre de la politique européenne concernant l’éducation et la formation, qui sont essentielles pour le développement de la connaissance de la société et de l’économie actuelles. L’objectif de l’assistanat Comenius consiste à donner aux futurs enseignants l’opportunité d’acquérir une compréhension plus profonde de la dimension européenne au niveau de l’enseignement et de l’apprentissage, d’améliorer leur connaissance de langues étrangères, d’autres pays européens et de leurs systèmes éducatifs aussi bien que de développer leurs compétences en ce qui concerne l’enseignement. L’assistanat Grundtvig a été conçu pour donner aux actuels ou futurs éducateurs d’un public adulte l’opportunité d’acquérir une compréhension plus profonde de la dimension européenne au niveau de l’apprentissage des adultes ; d’améliorer leur connaissance de langues étrangères, d’autres pays européens et des systèmes d’éducation pour les adultes ; et de développer des compétences professionnelles et interculturelles. Les assistants qui vont travailler dans des organisations ont leurs propres expériences et des capacités sociales et professionnelles. Un réel échange se fait. Ainsi, cet article a pour objectif de présenter les opportunités et les avantages des programmes d’assistanat Comenius et Grundtvig.

Mots‐clé: programme européen pour l'éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie, assistanat Comenius et Grundtvig, compétences sociales.

Aujourd’hui, il est très important de communiquer ensemble et d’avoir de bonnes relations entre les étudiants et les enseignants. Dans tous les pays de l’Union Européenne, cette question est très importante et très à la mode. Dans ce sens, le problème principal consiste dans le fait que les gens qui vont être assistants dans des différentes institutions ne sont pas bien informés sur le type d’activités qu’ils peuvent développer et par conséquent sur les opportunités et les bénéfices que les programmes d’assistanat Comenius et Grundtvig peuvent leur apporter. En travaillant ensemble, les gens ont plus d’informations sur les autres collègues et les élèves, donc, ils peuvent développer leurs propres connaissances, compétences sociales, capacités et, ainsi, devenir des enseignants ou formateurs plus professionnels.

L’objet de la recherche – les opportunités et les avantages des projets d’assistanat Comenius et Grundtvig ;

17

La méthode utilisée pour cette recherche a été basée sur trois éléments : analyse de la littérature scientifique, analyse de documents et interview (analyse de contenus).

La recherche qualitative présentée a été élaborée d’après l’expérience des assistants qui ont participé dans les programmes d’assistanat Comenius et Grundtvig pendant l’année scolaire 2010/2011 en Belgique (Wallonie). Les participants sélectionnés ont été neuf assistants en provenance de huit pays européens : Bulgarie, Chypre, Lituanie, Portugal, Pologne, Roumanie, Slovaquie et Slovénie. Ils ont dû répondre à neuf questions. Dans le matériel de recherche, nous avons utilisé des codes (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I) pour chacun des personnes qui ont répondu. L’interview a toujours été fait sous la forme d’un entretien pendant la réunion individuelle avec la personne interviewée. Les entretiens ont été enregistrés. L’interviewer a conduit et transcrit les résultats de l’analyse de contenus.

On a pu distinguer quatre catégories et sous‐catégories: expérience de coopération internationale (langage, culture, compétences sociales), présentation générale des programmes Comenius et Grundtvig (dimension professionnelle et sociale), les bénéfices de la coopération multiculturelle (enrichissement individuel et relations interpersonnelles), expérience de communication (points forts et points faibles). L’objet du questionnaire consistait à connaitre l’opinion des assistants sur leur expérience dans ces programmes d’échange. Les assistants Comenius participants sont tous diplômés des universités et quelques‐uns sont des enseignants de langue ayant fait leur formation professionnelle dans des écoles de l’enseignement primaire au secondaire. Les assistants Grundtvig sont des pédagogues et des professeurs de niveau universitaire qui sont en charge de l’éducation pour les adultes, travaillant avec des étudiants adultes et réalisant de la recherche dans des établissements scolaires (des écoles de Promotion Sociale).

Nous avons analysé le programme pour l'éducation et la formation tout au long de la vie afin de mettre en évidence la façon dont l’apprentissage et le bien‐être sont devenus si intimement liés au vingt et unième siècle et la façon comme la sensibilisation et la participation à des activités d’apprentissage au long de la vie sont décisives pour les populations contemporaines. Il reste de nombreuses questions, dont les plus importantes sont, l’inégalité d’opportunités existante entre les gens bien instruits et ceux moins privilégiés dans certains groups sociaux aussi bien qu’entre les pays développés et ceux en cours de développement. Les défenseurs de l’apprentissage au long de la vie ne peuvent espérer que l’optimisme du mouvement reste afin de trouver des solutions pour ces problèmes.

Le bénéficiaire de ce programme ce n’est pas uniquement l’assistant, l’institution d’accueil a aussi beaucoup à gagner avec cette expérience, notamment en ce qui concerne l’acquisition de connaissances sur une culture différente aussi bien qu’au niveau des échanges de méthodologies et des matériels de travail entre le personnel scolaire et l’assistant. Cette situation entraîne des changements dans certaines formes de travail, ce qui apporte une plus grande motivation à l’équipe pédagogique et, par conséquence, aux bénéficiaires de l’institution d’accueil. L’expérience de l’échange, la connaissance, les difficultés et les potentialités facilite une éducation pour les adultes plus enrichis à un niveau européen et plus proche des besoins réels des adultes dans tous les pays européens.

Accepted for publication: 05 March 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 gegužės 05

18



EDUCATION

STUDENTS’ OPINION ON THE EDUCATION OF MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES IN THE SOCIAL PEDAGOGY STUDY PROGRAMME

LIUDMILA RUPŠIENĖ

Klaipėda University, Lithuania

ASTA MAŽIONIENĖ

Klaipėda University, Klaipėda State College, Lithuania

Abstract

In modern society high‐level requirements are applied for various specialists including a social care teacher who helps children purposefully in the socialization process. The main supervisor of the socialization process in a comprehensive school is a social care teacher who becomes an intermediary between a child, his / her family, various institutions, and the society. That’s why the management competencies of a social care teacher are emphasized. It means that while working in education institutions a social care teacher should control professionally the process of children socialization not only in education institutions, but also beyond the borders of these institutions. Management competencies are necessary for a social care teacher that could be described as capabilities of a social care teacher to realize interdependent management functions. That’s why in the structure of a social care teacher’s management competencies such competencies as planning, organization, management, and control could be separated. Whereas, researches in recent years have shown that the majority of social care teachers lack the management competence. In this context the questions arise such as: how management competencies are educated in social pedagogy study programmes? Which subjects form management competence?

Focus is the education of students’ management competencies. Aim is to reveal the opinion of students on the education of management competencies in the social

pedagogy study programme. Results show that all students of social pedagogy study programme peceive the importance of management

competencies in educational work. In the opinion of students of social pedagogy (at universities and colleges); they acquire only fairly average management competencies that are necessary for successful activity of a social care teacher. Organizational and leadership competencies have been evaluated best which include the formation of various people groups, commands, and the coordination of their activity on the purpose to evaluate purposes and tasks uplifted. Planning competencies acquired during studies which are necessary for the successful activity of a social care teacher have been evaluated well by the part of students. However, it has emerged that students of social pedagogy study programmes have not acquired enough control competencies which influence directly the quality of social pedagogical help rendering and the efficiency of social pedagogical impact on a learner. In the opinion of students, management competencies are educated not only through study subjects oriented to the acquisition of management competencies, such as Institution Management, Project Management, Business Management, Social System Management, but also through other subjects which were not oriented purposefully to the education of management competencies.

Keywords: management competencies, social pedagogy studies.

Introduction

In modern society, that encounters the consequences of globalization processes, the problems of children and youth socialization are becoming more and more complex (Kvieskienė and others, 2006). That‘s why high‐level requirements are applied for various specialists including a social care teacher who helps children purposefully in the socialization process. Scientists emphasize that social care teachers should manage the child socialization process competently in educational institutions and beyond its borders (Leliūgienė et al, 2008, Kvieskienė, 2001, 2005; Kvieskienė, Šimaitis, 2005). The management of the child socialization process is emphasized in the main documents regulating the work of social care teachers (Qualification Requirements for a Social Care Teacher, 2001; Employment Position Instruction of a Social Care Teacher, 2001): social care teachers should plan working activities, make decisions, organize, mass, control, and supervise the process of children social education. Whereas, researches fulfilled in recent years have shown that the majority of social care teachers lack the management competence (Leliūgienėet al, 2008; Indrašienė et al, 2008; Kvieskienė et al, 2006; Švedaitė, 2005; Buzaitytė‐Kašalynienė, 2003). The problem of

19

competencies and their education is not novel. Pukelis (2009; 2000), Laužackas et al (2000; 2005); Jucevičienė, Lepaitė (2000), Žydžiūnaitė (2005, 2001, 1999), Jovaiša (1993) have endeavored to base the conception of competencies, purify their place in the qualification structure. Žydžiūnaitė (2005), Jucevičienė, Lepaitė (2000) have separated the notions of competence and competencies. Other authors such as Adam (2004), Adelman (2009), Brockmann, Clarke (2009), Kenedy et al (2009) have highlighted the differences between the notions of competencies and competency. Pukelis (2009) have tendered and motivated the structure of competence and competency phenomena raised the significance of the entitlement and definition of these phenomena for the quality security of research and education at the academic studies. It should be mentioned that there is no common definition of the management competence analyzed (Martinkienė, 2009). However, two attitudes predominate: functional‐analytical and personal characteristics. From the analytical point of view, the management competence is shown by working results, whereas from the point of view of personal characteristics, the management competence is determined by personal characteristics, features, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and motives (Darškuvienė et al, 2008; Petkevičiūte, Kaminskytė, 2003). Meanwhile, fairly little attention is devoted to the competencies of social care teachers in academic literature. It is considerable to mention the attempts of Kvieskienė (2001), Buzaitytė‐Kašalynienė (2003), Leliūgienė (2002), Kučinskas, Kučinskienė (2000) to outline the competence of social care teachers in a comprehensive school; whereas, management competencies of social care teachers have been studied only by Leliūgienė et al (2008) who substantiated management activities and management competencies of social care teachers.

The question arises necessarily, how management competencies are educated in social pedagogy study programmes, and which subjects form management competence. By singling out them, an opportunity to improve study process would appear substantially. In consideration of this, it has been decided to fulfill the research focusing attention on one problem aspect – education of social care teachers’ management competencies in higher schools.

Focus is the education of students’ management competencies. Aim is to reveal the opinion of students on the education of management competencies in the social pedagogy

study programme. Methods: the analysis of documents regulating the training and professional work of a social care teacher; the

analysis of academic literature, the method of data collection – the survey; and methods of statistic data analysis. Answers to open questions have been analyzed by qualitative content analysis.

Theoretical substantiation of social care teacher‘s management competencies

The main supervisor of the socialization process in a comprehensive school is a social care teacher who becomes an intermediary between a child, his/her family, various institutions, and the society (Kvieskienė, 2005, 2003, 2001). Although social pedagogical work in the first place is associated with the help rendered to an individual, social pedagogical work in modern society exists only as organized help (that means, help is rendered only through organizations or institutions which form the social security system (Švedaitė, 2005; in Bommes, Scherr, 2000)), whereas the purpose of a social care teacher is to warrant purposeful, balanced, and coordinated activity of all of these institutions. That’s why the management competencies of a social care teacher are more and more emphasized; it means that while working in education institutions a social care teacher should control professionally the process of children socialization not only in education institutions, but also beyond the borders of these institutions.

Consequently, social pedagogical help shall be contributed through organizations and institutions which form the social security system, while a social care teacher becomes the supervisor of this system and process. With reference to documents regulating the work of a social care teacher (Employment Position Instruction of a Social Care Teacher, 2001; General Regulations of Rendering of Social Pedagogical Help, 2004), the analysis of academic literature, and researches fulfilled (Kvieskienė, 2003, 2001; Buzaitytė‐Kašalynienė, 2003; Švedaitė, 2005), four levels of the work of a social care teacher in his/her work are to be separated: individual work with students/ student groups, work with family/parents and their groups, work with school community (school administration and teachers/ form masters and others), work with environment (local community and various institutions).

While working individually with students, social care teachers help solve social and pedagogical problems, render support in case of crises (Buzaitytė‐Kašalynienė, 2003; General Regulations of Rendering of Social Pedagogical Help, 2004). When working with teachers and their groups, social care teachers fortify cooperation between parents (foster‐parents, guardians) and a school, help parents understand social and pedagogical needs of a child, the importance of satisfaction of them, help in solving problems that disturb the process of child’s development, and inform parents about their right to receive social and pedagogical help (Employment Position Instruction of a Social Care Teacher, 2001; General Regulations of Rendering of Social Pedagogical Help, 2004). When working with school community, a social care teacher should be the main actor in the process of creating qualified and professional team for social pedagogical help in a comprehensive school (Kvieskienė et al, 2006). Main (key) members in the team of social pedagogical help are: a social care teacher, psychologist, special teacher / logopedist, form masters, teachers of supplementary education (leisure), healthcare workers, librarians, educators of physical culture/healthy lifestyle; teachers of art disciplines, teachers of civil education, and heads of most influential institutions of a community.

20

However, the executive activity of the system of social pedagogical help, as well as the role of coordinator and moderator shall be implemented by a social care teacher (Kvieskienė, 2003).

A social care teacher should work with local community; he/she should constantly liaise and cooperate with various public institutions and non‐governmental organizations (Children’s Rights Protection Institution, Pedagogical Psychological Institution, Police, social care workers in municipalities and elderships, day centers, the centers of crises, child development, primary healthcare, and culture, children informal education schools, and others).

According to Švedaitė (2005), the lifestyle alteration of a client/person is mostly determined by purposeful planning and coordination of educational work together with all institutions which are related to a client. In order to warrant the efficiency of social pedagogical help, as well as purposeful, balanced, and coordinated activity of all these institutions, management competencies are necessary for a social care teacher that could be described as capabilities of a social care teacher to realize interdependent management functions; that’s why in the structure of a social care teacher’s management competencies such competencies as planning, organization, management, and control could be separated.

One of the main management functions is the planning function which defines tasks and purposes; whereas, invoking the organizational function is strived to create particular structures for the realization of tasks and purposes (Želvys, 2003). A social care teacher plans the process of the rendering of social support to a child. He/she should anticipate particular purposes and tasks of social pedagogical support, choose appropriate (effective) work methods, organize preventive and social projects and programmes, make decisions related to child’s social problems, structure the plan of social pedagogical help activity (The Standard for Training of a Social Care Teacher, 2008; Qualification Requirements for a Social Care Teacher, 2001; Employment Position Instruction of a Social Care Teacher, 2001; Leliūgienė et al, 2008). The essence of organizational function is to select people, form their teams, and make them become effective concentrated commands where successful and productive work could be done rendering social pedagogical help in a school, as well as beyond its borders (Leliūgienė et al, 2008).

The leadership function is defined as direction prescription when spreading information about purposes of an organization, motivation of personnel, introduction of rules, and demand to obey them, coordination of the activity of divergent people and their groups (Želvys, 2003). Activities belonging to the leadership function of a social care teacher are: conflict resolution, supervision on meetings for tackling problems of children social education, stress management and others (Leliūgienė and others, 2008). Control function is described as a process during which it is established to what extent the accomplished work corresponds to results expected, and, under the necessity, corrective actions are to be taken (Želvys, 2004, 2001). Social care teachers evaluate and control the quality of social pedagogical help that is rendered, and the efficiency of social pedagogical influence (The Standard for Training of a Social Care Teacher, 2008; Employment Position Instruction of a Social Care Teacher, 2001. Management competencies of a social care teacher involving the competences of planning, organization, leadership, and control, as well as their education are one of essential factors determining successful process of children socialization. Last‐mentioned competencies can be itemized in consideration of the work particularity of a social care teacher which is revealed in main documents regulating the work of social care teachers and academic publications (for example, Leliūgienė et al, 2008; Majauskienė, Leliūgienė, 2007; Merfeldaitė, 2008; Kvieskienė et al, 2006; Buzaitytė‐Kašalynienė, 2003).

Research Methodology

Sample

The final‐year students of social pedagogical study programme in Lithuanian higher schools (colleges and universities) have been chosen as the research population (because namely the final‐year students can outline best which competencies they have acquired during studies).

201 final‐year students of social pedagogical study programme in higher schools (2 universities and 3 colleges) have participated in the research. After receiving acceptances from the heads of institutions, the research has been accomplished with the participation of the researcher or by sending questionnaires by mail to the respectively selected higher education institutions.

Major part of respondents were college students (80.6%); minor part were university students (19.4%). 50.2% of respondents are students of extended studies form; 49.8% ‐ students of continuing studies form. Age of respondents spread between 19 and 54 years (average age 26.24 years). Major part of respondents was females (95.0%), and only a few were males (5.0%). Since higher schools were chosen by convenient means, research conclusions are of hypothetic character.

21

Methods and tools

Management competencies of a social care teacher revealed by means of theoretical analysis have become the background of the research instrument. Respondents were asked to evaluate management competencies acquired during studies by 1‐6 points (1 means that a student has not acquired any competencies, 6 points mean that a student acquired competencies of very high level). Thus, it was attempted to reveal the structure of management competencies acquired during studies by the students of social pedagogical specialty.

By other survey questions it was aimed to know students’ opinion whether management competencies are significant to a social care teacher, whether they studied subjects which, in their opinion, were oriented to the acquisition of management competencies, and during studies of which subjects they had an opportunity to educate management competencies, whether the subjects indicated by them were beneficial for them. In order to get more comprehensive data about the management competencies acquired during studies by the social pedagogy study programme, respondents received the question, which particular management competencies have been educated by subjects they have designated.

Moreover, respondents received a separate question, which management competencies they have not acquired during studies. All statistic data in all cases has been analyzed in order to determine differences of answers according to these criteria: the type of a higher school (university/college), study form (continuing/extended). Intergroup differences have been evaluated applying to chi square and Mann‐Whitney test. Answers to various questions have been analyzed by means of quantitative content analysis.

Ethics

It was being followed the main ethical principles, that is justice, respect for individual dignity, right to get accurate information and other principles when doing the research. All respondents were introduced to the aim of the questionnaire and explained what for and where the results of research would be used. Trying to maintain the principle of justice it was trying to assure the anonymity and confidentiality of exploratory regarding to the information submitted during the research.

Results

When analyzing data, it has been determined that almost all the students comprehend the significance of management competencies in the work of a social care teacher: In the opinion of more than half of students (61,7%) who have participated in the research, management competencies are important for a social care teacher, more than one third (33.7%) think that management competencies are of high importance for a social care teacher, and only a few students indicated that management competencies are not important for a social care teacher.

Archetypal value of data set researched (Mode) – 2. The data centre value (Median) is also as (Mode’s) – 2. Comparing according to criteria analyzed, that means, the type of a higher school (university/college) and the

form of studies in a higher school (continuing, extended), student opinions about this matter are not statistically of significant difference (in all of cases p > 0.05).

Although the majority of students realize the significance of management competencies in the work of a social care teacher, they evaluate management competencies acquired during studies quite ambiguously: 61.3% of respondents evaluate them as average, 21% ‐ well, others – even as bad.

Comparing intersectional differences according to the type of a higher school (university/college) and according to study form (continuing/extended), the differences of student opinion statistically are trivial (in all of cases p > 0.05).

When analyzing research results, variables constituting management activity of a social care teacher were reduced to the factors reflecting management competencies acquired by students during studies. After the verification of suitability of management activity variables for factorial analysis, it has been determined that KMO coefficient is high – 0.947. Bartlett’s criterion is statistically significant (χ2= 4879.138; df = 528; p = 0.000).

During factorial analysis two factors have been distinguished which have values (Eigen values) higher than one and clarify 56.295% of data dispersion.

Denominations of factors have been chosen in consideration of variables that constitute groups (see Table 1). The reliability of subscales of management competencies has been evaluated by measuring inner compatibility of variables constituting the subscale. Cronbach alpha of the subscale constituting the first factor is 0.952; Cronbach alpha of the subscale of the second factor is 0.871.

Table 1 Management competencies of students acquired during the studies in higher school

Factor content Factorial weight

Factor 1. Organization and leadership competencies L1

Coordinate the work of other school employees 0,938

Organize inter‐institutional work 0,850

Organize implementation of social projects 0,825

Initiate implementation of various social projects 0,811

22

Continuation of Table 1

Factor content Factorial weight

Implement alterations in the field of social education 0,806

Inform the administration, educators, and other specialists of an education institution about the problematic situation of social education field

0,798

Mass teams of social assistance in an institution and beyond its borders 0,796

Initiate the programs of students‘ study motivation and class attendance 0,772

Motivate partnership connections between a school and its environment 0,769

Initiate the search of resources necessary for satisfaction of needs of children and their families 0,744

Initiate investigatory work within institution community 0,721

Organize the work of support and self‐contribution groups 0,719

Organize meetings for the solution of children social education problems 0,705

Create and implement social projects 0,669

Care about the organization of free nourishment of students 0,662

Factor 2. Planning competencies L2

Plan particular purposes and tasks of social pedagogical support 0,783

Plan the process of rendering of social pedagogical support to a child 0,780

Make particular decisions related to child‘s social problems 0,749

Evaluate child‘s social problems and needs 0,737

Formulate his/her work plan 0,713

Ascertain all possible alternatives while searching for a solution 0,707

Plan his/her working day 0,705

Research results show that, in the opinion of students, they acquire planning, organizational, and supervising

management competencies during studies in a higher school. Planning competencies include the formation of activity plans of a social care teacher: the formation of

purposes and tasks, the forethought of resources and work methods, whereas organizational and leadership competencies involve people of various groups, the formation of commands, and the coordination of their activity in order to implement purposes and tasks that have been uplifted.

The first factor ‐ Organizational and Leadership Competences – clarifies most of all – 50.580% of the common dispersion. The major weight in it belongs to the variables constituting organizational competencies: to coordinate the activity of other school workers, organize inter‐institutional activity, organize the implementation of social projects, and implement alterations in social education sphere.

Slightly smaller weight belongs to the variables constituting leadership competencies: to inform the administration of an educational institution, educators, and other specialists about the problematic situation in social education sphere, mass the teams of social help in an institution and beyond its borders, initiate the programmes for the motivation of schoolchildren studies and lesson attendance, stimulate partnership relations between a school and its environment, initiate the search for resources that are necessary for the satisfaction of children and their families’ needs, and initiate exploratory activity in the community of an institution. The strongly conveyed ‘pure’ variables of the first factor demonstrate that students have evaluated best management competencies acquired during studies.

The second factor – Planning competencies – explaining 5.715 % of the common dispersion is constituted of these variables: to foresee particular purposes and tasks of social pedagogical help, plan the process of rendering of social pedagogical help to a child, make particular decisions related to child’s social problems, evaluate child’s social problems and needs, formulate his/her work plan, while searching for the decision to ascertain all possible alternatives, plan his/her work day. That means part of students evaluated well the planning competencies acquired during studies necessary for management activity.

While evaluating intergroup differences according to the type of a higher school (university/college) and according to the form (continuing/extended) it has been determined that differences of student opinions about the level of organizational and leadership as well as planning competencies acquired during studies (1 and 2 factors) are statistically trivial (p > 0.05).

However, evaluating separate variables constituting these management competencies, it has been determined that according the type of a high school student opinions evaluating competence – to create and implement social projects ‐ differ with meaning statistically, whereas according to study form evaluating competencies – to care about the organization of free nourishment for schoolchildren, determine and coordinate the terms of his/her activity fulfillment.

While analyzing the differences of student opinions according to the type of a high school it has been determined that university students better than college students are subject to evaluate competence – to create and implement social projects, and according to study form in a higher school it has been determined that students of the extended study form better than student of continuing study form are subject to evaluate such competencies as to care about the organization of free nourishment for schoolchildren, and determine and coordinate the terms of his/her activity fulfillment (see Table 2).

23

Table 2

Evaluation of student management competencies acquired in a higher school

Competencies Mann‐Whitney U

p Type of higher school

Form of studies Grade average

At university ‐ 129,90 Create and implement social projects 1993,000 0,000

At college ‐ 93,38

‐ Full‐time study form 79,95 Care about free nourishment for schoolchildren

2965,000 0,000

‐

Extended study form 119,85

‐ Full‐time study form 87,25 Establish and coordinate his/her terms of work accomplishment

3674,500 0,001

‐ Extended study form 113,76

In the opinion of more than half (59.2%) of students who have participated in the research, during their studies they studied subjects that, in their estimation, were oriented purposefully to the acquisition of management competencies. Comparing according to criteria analyzed, university students more rarely indicated that they studied subjects oriented purposefully to the acquisition of management competencies (Mann‐Whitney U=2354.000; p=0.005; the average of university students’ rank is 80.36; college students’ – 105.97). The student opinions of those of continual and extended study form on this matter do not differ purposefully with meaning (p > 0.05).

Students also indicated study subjects studied at a higher school that is oriented, in their opinion, to the acquisition of management competencies: Organization Management, Project Management, Business Management, Social System Management, Management, and other. In the opinion of nearly half of students (58.9%), these study subjects were beneficial for them; in the opinion of one third of students (30.8%) who participated in the research, indicated subjects were even very beneficial. However, in the opinion of more than half of students participated in the research, they had an opportunity to educate management competencies while studying other study subjects (that were not purposefully oriented to the education of management competencies, such as: Theories and Technologies of Social Work, Psychology of Communication and Conflict Salvation, Methodology and Management of Event Organization, Career Planning, Methodology of Social Research, and other. A few students indicated that the education of management competencies does not depend on study subject, but depends on their activity during studies, that means, management competencies are educated when implementing group projects, surveys for researches, and organizing various events. Comparing according to criteria analyzed, that means, the type of a higher school (university/college) and the study form at a higher school (continual, extended), differences were not determined.

In order to obtain more comprehensive data about management competencies acquired by the students of social pedagogy study programme, respondents received such an open question: Which particular management competencies did study subjects help to acquire? After analyzing respondent answers to this question, during content analysis, the main categories were separated: even 72 respondents (from 105 surveyed) answered that they acquired organizational and planning competencies during their studies, that means, to arrange projects, work with a group, work in a command, make decisions, organize help rendering, organize events, plan his/her activity, and other. For the work with a group, students indicted that they acquired such competencies: to organize work in a group, organize the activity in a group of learners, as well as the activity of self‐help groups. A few students indicated that during their studies they acquired such competencies: to plan and organize the process of social pedagogical help rendering. During the fulfillment of the content analysis, leadership competencies were also separated. Student indicated that during studies it showed up that they could control an audience, solve conflicts, and choose an appropriate leadership style. Evaluating differences of respondent choices according to criteria analyzed, significant distinctions were not determined statistically.

When researching which competencies necessary for management activity of a social care teacher were not acquired during studies, it was determined that the opinions of university and college students statistically differ with meaning (χ2= 4.187; df = 1; p = 0.041) about the competence necessary for the activity of a social care teacher – to supervise the process of social education: college students more frequently than university students are subject to think that they did not acquire this management competence during their studies (Mann‐Whitney U=2586.500; p = 0.041; the average of university students – 86.32; college students’ – 101.53). When analyzing the student opinion differences of distinct study programmes, it was determined that the opinions of continual and extended study form students statistically diverge with meaning (χ2= 5.201; df = 1; p = 0.023) about this competence significant to the activity of a social care teacher: students of the extended study form more frequently than students of continual study form are subject to think that they did not acquire this management competence during studies (Mann‐Whitney U=4138.500; p = 0.023; the rank average of extended study form students is 105.43, whereas those of continual study form – 91.80).

24

Conclusions

Research results let consider that all students of social pedagogy study programme realize the importance of management competencies in educational work. Social pedagogical activity is managing complex activity that raises high tasks for itself, and the final success of which depends strongly on management competencies of a social care teacher. Overtaking of management competencies in the professional activity of a social care teacher determines the efficiency of his/her professional activity

In the opinion of students of social pedagogy, study programmes (at universities as well as in colleges); they acquire only fairly average management competencies that are necessary for successful activity of a social care teacher. Organizational and leadership competencies have been evaluated best which include the formation of various people groups, commands, and the coordination of their activity on the purpose to evaluate purposes and tasks uplifted. Planning competencies acquired during studies which are necessary for the successful activity of a social care teacher have been evaluated well by the part of students. A social care teacher can organize and conduct activity successfully only after defining it specifically and the preparation of plans of social pedagogical activity. However, it has emerged that students of social pedagogy study programmes have not acquired enough control competencies which influence directly the quality of social pedagogical help rendering and the efficiency of social pedagogical impact on a learner. In the opinion of students, management competencies are educated not only through study subjects oriented to the acquisition of management competencies, such as Institution Management, Project Management, Business Management, Social System Management, but also through other subjects which were not oriented purposefully to the education of management competencies, such as Theories and Technologies of Social Work, Psychology of Communication and Conflict Solution, Methodology and Management of Event Organization, Career Planning, Social Research Methodology, and other.

When evaluating management competencies acquired by the student of social pedagogy study programme, significant distinctions have been settled: university students better than college students evaluate planning competencies that is to create and implement social projects; comparing study forms, the students of extended studies programme better than students of continuing study form are subject to evaluate organizational competencies, that means, to concern about the organization of free nourishment for schoolchildren; establish and coordinate terms of his/her activity fulfillment. It has been defined that college students more frequently than university students are subject to think that during studies they have not acquired the management competence to supervise the process of social education; whereas, comparing the students’ opinions of different study forms, students of extended study programme more frequently than students of continuing study form are subject to think that during studies they have not acquired this management competence.

References

1. Adam, S. (2004). Using learning outcomes: A consideration of the nature, role, application and implications for European education of employing learning outcomes at the local, national and international levels. Report on United Kingdom, Heriot – Watt University.

2. Adelman, C. (2009). The Bologna Process for U.S Eyes: Re‐learning High Education in the Age of Convergence. Washington, DC: Institute for High Education Policy.

3. Brockmann, M., Clarke, L. (2009). Competence and competency in the EQF and European VET systems. Journal of European Industrial Training. 33(8/9), 787‐799.

4. Buzaitytė‐Kašalynienė, J. (2003). Socialinio pedagogo veikla bendrojo lavinimo mokykloje. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia. 10, 29‐47.

5. Darškuvienė, V., Kaupelytė, D., Petkevičiūtė, N. (2008). Vadybinės kompetencijos nustatymo galimybės mokymo procese. Organizacijų vadyba: sisteminiai tyrimai. 45, 17‐28.

6. Indrašienė, V., Merfeldaitė, O., Petronienė, O. (2008). Šiuolaikinių vadybinių funkcijų taikymas organizuojant mokyklos veiklą. Mokslinio tyrimo ataskaita. Vilnius: Lietuvos socialinių pedagogų asociacija.

7. Jovaiša, L. (1993). Pedagogikos terminai. Kaunas: Šviesa. 8. Jucevičienė, P., Lepaitė, D. (2000). Kompetencijos sampratos erdvė. Socialiniai mokslai. 1 (22), 44 ‐ 50. 9. Kenedy, D., Hyland, A., Ryan, N. (2009). Learning Outcomes and Competences. Introducing Bologna Objectives and Tools,

B2.3 – 3. Bologna: Bologna Handbook. 10. Kučinskas, V., Kučinskienė, R. (2000). Socialinis darbas švietimo sistemoje. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla. 11. Kvieskienė, G. (2001). Socialinio pedagogo kompetencijos samprata. Pedagogika. 53, 63‐69. 12. Kvieskienė, G. (2003). Socializacija ir vaiko gerovė. Vilnius: Baltijos kopija. 13. Kvieskienė, G. (2005). Pozityvioji socializacija. Vilnius: Vilniaus Pedagoginio universiteto leidykla. 14. Kvieskienė, G., Indrašienė, V., Merfeldaitė, O. (2006). Socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos komandos narių atrankos kriterijai.

Pedagogika. 83, 103‐107. 15. Kvieskienė, G., Šimaitis, A. (2005). Socialinio pedagogo efektyvaus darbo prielaidos. Socialinis ugdymas. 53, 7‐13. 16. Laužackas, R., Pukelis, K. (2000). Kvalifikacija ir kompetencija: samprata, santykis bei struktūra profesijos mokytojo veiklos

kontekste. Profesinis rengimas, tyrimai ir realijos, 3, 10‐17. 17. Laužackas, R., Stasiūnaitė, E., Teresevičienė, M. (2005). Kompetencijų vertinimas neformaliajame ir savaiminiame mokymesi.

Kaunas: VDU leidykla. 18. Leliūgienė, I. (2002). Socialinė pedagogika. Kaunas: Technologija.

25

19. Leliūgienė, I., Baršauskienė, V., Mertinkaitytė, E. (2008). Socialinio pedagogo vadybinė veikla. Socialinis darbas. 7(3), 129‐139.

20. Majauskienė, L., Leliūgienė, I. (2007). Mokyklos socialinio pedagogo veikla: bendrieji struktūros komponentai kaip lyginamosios analizės rezultatas. Socialinis darbas. 6(2), 5‐12.

21. Martinkienė, J. (2009). Vadybinių kompetencijų taikymas verslo praktinio mokymo firmoje. Journal of Management. 1 (14), 79‐87.

22. Merfeldaitė, O. (2008). Socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos komandos veiklos modelis bendrojo lavinimo mokykloje. Socialinis ugdymas. 5 (16), 93‐102.

23. Petkevičiūtė, N., Kaminskytė, E. (2003). Vadybinė kompetencija: teorija ir praktika. Pinigų studijos. 1, 65‐80. 24. Pukelis, K. (2009). Gebėjimas, kompetencija, mokymosi / studijų rezultatas, kvalifikacija ir kompetentingumas: teorinė

dimensija. Aukštojo mokslo kokybė. 6, 15‐22. 25. Savanevičienė, A., Šilingienė, V. (2005). Darbas grupėse. Kaunas: Technologija. 26. Švedaitė, B. (2005). Sėkmingos socialinės pedagoginės veiklos veiksniai: empirinės išvados. Acta paedagogica Vilnensia. 14,

133‐144. 27. Želvys, R. (2003). Švietimo organizacijų vadyba. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. 28. Žydžiūnaitė, V. (1999). Bendrųjų gebėjimų (bendrųjų kvalifikacijų) koncepcijos Europos mokslinėse mokyklose: sampratos

problema. Socialiniai kaitos procesai ir profesinio rengimo vyksmas. Kaunas: VDU leidykla. p. 98 – 103. 29. Žydžiūnaitė, V. (2001). Formakotechnikos specialybės studentų įgalinimas motyvuotoms studijoms, remiantis probleminiu

mokymu ir refleksijomis. Kaunas: Technologija. 30. Žydžiūnaitė, V. (2005). Komandinio darbo kompetencijos ir jų tyrimo metodologija slaugytojų veiklos požiūriu. Kaunas: Judex. Documents 1. Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2009‐04‐14 įsakymas Nr.ISAK‐704 Dėl Švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2004 m.

birželio 15 d. įsakymo Nr.ISAK‐941 „Dėl Bendrųjų socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos teikimo nuostatų patvirtinimo“ pakeitimo (Valstybės žin., 2009, Nr.44‐1724).

2. Socialinio pedagogo kvalifikaciniai reikalavimai (2001). Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2010‐12‐14 įsakymas Nr.1667 „Dėl socialinio pedagogo kvalifikacinių reikalavimų ir pareiginių instrukcijų patvirtinimo“ (Valstybės žin., 2002, Nr.24‐896).

3. Socialinio pedagogo pareiginė instrukcija (2001). Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo ir mokslo ministro 2010‐12‐14 įsakymas Nr.1667 „Dėl socialinio pedagogo kvalifikacinių reikalavimų ir pareiginių instrukcijų patvirtinimo“(Valstybės žin., 2002, Nr.24‐896).

4. Socialinio pedagogo rengimo standartas (2008). Vilnius: Profesinio mokymo metodikos centras. Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo ir mokslo ministro ir Lietuvos Respublikos Socialinės apsaugos ir darbo ministro 2008‐06‐26 įsakymas Nr.ISAK – 1872/ A1 – 209.

Santrauka

STUDENTŲ NUOMONĖ APIE VADYBINIŲ KOMPETENCIJŲ UGDYMĄ SOCIALINĖS PEDAGOGIKOS STUDIJŲ PROGRAMOJE

LIUDMILA RUPŠIENĖ, ASTA MAŽIONIENĖ

Reikšminiai žodžiai: vadybinės kompetencijos, socialinės pedagogikos studijos.

Šiandieninėje visuomenėje dideli reikalavimai taikomi įvairiems specialistams, tame tarpe ir socialiniams pedagogams, kryptingai padedantiems vaikams jų socializacijos procese. Pagrindinis socializacijos proceso vadovas bendrojo lavinimo mokykloje yra socialinis pedagogas, kuris tampa tarpininku tarp vaiko, jo šeimos, įvairių institucijų ir visuomenės. Vis labiau pabrėžiama mokyklos socialinio pedagogo vadybinė veikla, t.y. dirbdamas ugdymo institucijose, socialinis pedagogas turi profesionaliai valdyti vaikų socializacijos procesą ne tik ugdymo institucijose, bet ir už šių institucijų ribų. Socialiniam pedagogui būtinos vadybinės kompetencijos, kurios apibūdinamos kaip socialinio pedagogo gebėjimai realizuoti tarpusavyje susijusias valdymo funkcijas, todėl socialinio pedagogo vadybinių kompetencijų struktūroje galima išskirti planavimo, organizavimo, vadovavimo ir kontrolės kompetencijas. Tuo tarpu pastaraisiais metais atlikti tyrimai rodo, jog daugeliui socialinių pedagogų trūksta vadybinių kompetencijų. Neišvengiamai kyla klausimas, kaip ugdomos vadybinės kompetencijos socialinės pedagogikos studijų programose, kurie dalykai formuoja vadybinę kompetenciją. Atsižvelgiant į tai buvo nuspręsta atlikti tyrimą, sutelkus dėmesį į vieną problemos aspektą ‐ socialinių pedagogų vadybinių kompetencijų ugdymą aukštojoje mokykloje.

Tyrimo objektas: studentų vadybinių kompetencijų ugdymas. Tyrimo tikslas ‐ atskleisti studentų nuomonę apie vadybinių kompetencijų ugdymą socialinės pedagogikos

studijų programoje. Tyrimo metodai: socialinio pedagogo rengimą bei profesinę veiklą reglamentuojančių dokumentų analizė;

mokslinės literatūros analizė, duomenų rinkimo metodas ‐ apklausa raštu; statistinės duomenų analizės metodai. Atsakymai į atvirus klausimus buvo analizuojami kiekybinės kontentinės turinio analizės būdu.

Tyrimo imtis. Tyrime dalyvavo 201 penkių aukštųjų mokyklų socialinės pedagogikos studijų programų baigiamojo kurso studentai.

26

Tyrimo instrumento pagrindu tapo teorinės analizės būdu atskleista socialinio pedagogo vadybinių kompetencijų struktūra.

Tyrimo rezultatai leidžia manyti, kad visi socialinės pedagogikos studijų programų studentai suvokia vadybinių kompetencijų svarbą socialinio pedagogo darbe. Studentų nuomone, jie įgyja tik pakankamai vidutiniškas vadybines kompetencijas, kurių reikia sėkmingai socialinio pedagogo veiklai.

Geriausiai studentai įsivertino studijų metu įgytas organizavimo ir vadovavimo kompetencijas, kurios apima skirtingų žmonių grupių, komandų formavimą ir jų veiklos koordinavimą, siekiant iškeltų tikslų ir uždavinių įgyvendinimo. Dalis studentų gerai įsivertino ir studijų metu įgytas planavimo kompetencijas, reikalingas sėkmingai socialinio pedagogo vadybinei veiklai.

Paaiškėjo, kad socialinės pedagogikos studijų programų studentai neįgijo pakankamai kontrolės kompetencijų, nuo kurių tiesiogiai priklauso socialinės pedagoginės pagalbos teikimo kokybė ir socialinio pedagoginio poveikio ugdytiniui veiksmingumas. Studentų nuomone, vadybines kompetencijas padėjo ugdytis ne tik studijų dalykai, orientuoti į vadybinių kompetencijų įgijimą: „Organizacijų vadyba“, „Projektų vadyba“, „Verslo vadyba“, „Socialinių sistemų vadyba“, bet ir kiti studijų dalykai, kurie nebuvo tikslingai orientuoti į vadybinių kompetencijų ugdymą.

Accepted for publication: 12 December 2010 Priimtas publikuoti 2010 gruodžio 12

27



EDUCATION

THE COMPETENCE OF THE SOCIAL PARTNERS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT NEEDS, MOTIVES AND FORMS

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ, VIRGINIJA BORTKEVIČIENĖ

Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania

Abstract

The article presents an overview of changes in vocational education and training as well as challenges posed to social partners, by seeking for more efficient organization of vocational training and education. In order to create knowledge, high technology and skilled‐based economy in Lithuania, it is necessary to have an effective interaction between training and business and provide not only the professional’s ability to compete in the European labor market, but also enable them to ensure quality of life in Lithuania. By this reason, the State involves the stakeholders to vocational training system: employers, trade unions, employers, representatives associations. Since 1994, in Reform of vocational education and training, the social partnership has taken specific forms, and the Lithuanian Republic Law (1997) on Vocational Training defines the competences of social partners in vocational training. Ten years after the adoption of new Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training (2007), the social partners’ activities were expanded. Therefore, the main issue addressed in this article – the improvement of qualification needs for social partners, as the competences in their activities do not comply with the required knowledge, skills and abilities by contemporary education and business aspects.

The significance of the study is illuminated issue of social partnership in vocational training concerning improvement of qualification needs, forms and motives.

Keywords: qualification improvement, vocational training, social partners, the world of work.

Introduction

At the end of the 20th century the sudden transition to a democratic sweep processes and a market economy has led Lithuania to the development of vocational training systems.

The concept of vocational training is treated as a continuous process of human development through lifelong learning, which aim is to provide and to maintain professional competence needed for their activities and labor market. Together with the European Union expanding process in Lithuania, there also came a new management ideas in order to bring vocational training and activities of the world. Recently, more often is emphasized the link between education and business: processes of globalization, education system and technology progress increasingly demands higher requirements for the workplace, impacting the nature of the change of human activities. Also increases the difference between the skills acquired at vocational training institutions and qualification needs in order to meet the expectations of modern business world. We are changing world of work in order to create receptive innovations and cost‐effective vocational training system, prior to the start of training programs requires comprehensive examination of the labor market needs (Digrienė et al, 1999). This task is difficult to achieve if there are no social partnership in vocational training, which involves vocational training, employees and employers into the social dialogue. Thus, in order to make vocational education and training system flexible, the State involves into vocational training system the stakeholders‐social partners: employees, trade unions, employer’s representatives associations.

The issue of social partnership in vocational training is discussed in various articles, conferences (Šileikis, 2002; Gruževskis et al, 1998; Digrienė et al, 1999; Šileikis 2001; Vocational Education and Modernization, 2000), but the Chamber, as social partners and their qualification improvement needs, forms and motives, has not yet been widely studied.

Research issue. Performing the reform of vocational education and training since 1994, the social partnership has taken specific forms, as the Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training defines the competences of social partners in vocational training processes (Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training, 1997). In this paper the concept of "social partners” is used to define the employees of Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Crafts and Chambers of Agriculture of the Lithuanian Republic (hereinafter Chamber). The Chamber, as social partners of vocational education and training, in 1997 were involved into the system of vocational education and training. The vocational education acted according to Lithuanian Republic laws that directly regulate their activity. The Vocational education and training departments were established in the Chamber and employees of the Chambers were

28

committed to a new tasks and functions. Such a turn towards a social dialogue requires qualitative development of human resources in social partner organizations.

Each of the professional activities require the relevant qualifications, competences high quality and creativity, in order to act competently in a particular field or profession. Professional content includes not only the ability to carry out the certain business functions, but is inevitably linked with the coordination or interaction between them. In the Lithuanian Republic Law on Education (Lithuanian Republic Law on Education, 2003) the competence is defined as the ability to carry out certain activities on the basis of the knowledge, skills, capacity, and security provisions as a whole. Jucevičienė, Lepaitė (in Jucevičienė et al, 2000) argue that the concept of competence in terms of epistemology may be equated with the notion of qualification.

Searching for similarities and differences between the concepts of qualification and competence Laužackas and Pukelis (in Laužackas et al, 2001) note that the difference between the definitions of qualification and competence is not so big, that would influence the daily usage. Researchers indicate that the use the concept of qualification, when talking about what the man is preparing to acquire or acquires in the education system. In other words, a qualification is acquired and the competence is gradually formed throughout professional career.

Therefore, the social partners and the performance of their professional tasks have to constantly adapt to technical, technological and social changes of the world of labor market and acquire vocational qualification which meets the requirements of changes and determines the change in vocational education and training (Laužackas, 1999).

Therefore, the main issue dealt with the improvement of the qualification needs for social partners, because the competences in their activities do not comply with the required knowledge, skills and abilities in labor market as well as in contemporary training and education.

The subject of research is professional development of social partners. Research question is the following: what are the needs, forms and motivation for social partners’ qualification

improvement? The aim is to determine the social partners’ qualification improvement needs, forms and motivations.

Social partners participation in the VET system processes

The employees of the Chamber started to participate in vocational training system processes after the adoption of the Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training in 1997. They are constantly involved in the coordination of qualification assessment and the relevant processes: supervision of practical training and organization of the final qualification examinations. Today, the social partners are active not only in the qualification activities, but also in the most educational institutions and the quality of performance assessment.

After adoption of the new Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training (Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training, 2007), almost ten years later, the social partners activities were expanded. These changes led to a variety of social and economic processes.

Thus, in 2007 adoption of the Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training, has opened up the social partners more extensive cooperation with vocational training institutions perspectives: social partners are involved in the formation of vocational training policy, they initiate new qualifications, professional standards, vocational training curriculum, participate in creating their content, participate in the assessment of vocational training programs in compliance with the economic needs and coordinate them, within its competence, participate in the planning of enrollment in state‐funded vocational training programs, participate in counseling; combine personal gain competency assessment in the organization and the competencies acquired by a person participate in the organization of practical work experience in an enterprise institution or in the farm and its supervision, participate in the vocational training of managerial and educational institutions operating an external evaluation of the participation of Lithuanian and training of county councils, the Central Office for Professional and the sector committees of the trade.

Today the role of social partners in recognizing the competencies acquired in non‐formal and informal learning is particularly emphasized (Laužackas et al, 2006): in creating the system of recognition of competencies acquired in non‐formal and informal learning in Lithuania; in supporting the forming and improvement of employee motivation in the organization; in cooperating and performing effective means of employment; in informing and counseling on the issues of competencies and qualifications acquired in non‐formal and informal learning; in organizing and performing assessor training‐consultations.

One of important missions of social partners is the organization of the final assessment and evaluation of the achievements of the learning outcomes. Already in all districts qualification examinations are organized by the Chambers.

The enlargement of the social partner’s activities, so that they can make their quality of assigned tasks (for example, to carry out sector studies and qualifications, the application of new teaching methods, to carry out the competences, acquired in informal way, assessment and recognition, the future execution of employers, training of assessors to do consulting in vocational training schools, etc.) there was advisable to do research of social partners qualification improvement needs.

29


Sample

The study target group ‐ the Lithuanian Chamber, Industry and crafts (5 regions: Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipeda, Šiauliai and Panevežys) and the Lithuanian Republic Chamber of Agriculture, vocational education and training department personnel.

Research participants were chosen by a purposeful sample ‐ employees of vocational education and training departments in five Lithuanian Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Crafts and the LR Chamber of Agriculture. 14 employees of vocational education and training departments of the Chambers participated in the research (full range).

Methods and organization

The research instrument was composed of two major research methods ‐ questionnaires and interviews. In order to determine the needs, forms and motives for qualification improvement of social partners ‐ employees of vocational education and training department at the Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Crafts and the Chamber of Agriculture of the Lithuanian Republic, has been carried out a two‐part test: quantitative analysis using a two‐part questionnaire; a qualitative research using a structured interview.

Methods of social research questionnaire consisted of two parts; the first part of the questionnaire allowed an assessment of formal data of the social partners (qualifications,

work experience and work, etc.), the second part of the questionnaire was designed on the basis of Vocational Education Management Master

programme in Education Science field at Vytautas Magnus University. Job descriptions and guidelines of employees of vocational education and training department at the Chamber

were also used. Social research method structured interviews helped to identify training needs, forms and motives. The information of the qualitative research was formalized in such a way that it was suitable for quantitative analysis. It mobilized a complex package that allows an overview of these results to evaluate the issues and respond to the survey.

Ethics

The research was based on ethical principles: kindness, respect for individual dignity, justice and the right to receive accurate information.

Results

Social partner’s qualification improvement needs. The research findings revealed formal and real qualification of the employees at vocational education and training department. The formal qualification of vocational education and training department employees is characterized by their educational background level. Research data indicated that all employees of vocational education and training department held higher education; however, only a small part of them (28.57%) had a qualification necessary to be employed in a position of a vocational education and training department employee, i.e. a qualification degree in education. The research outcomes indicate that Chamber vocational education and training department personnel are required qualification improvement: general and vocational/subject competencies.

Data of research, which helped to clarify vocational competencies of the Chamber employees, were obtained by a questionnaire survey method. The questionnaire was designed on the basis of Vocational Education Management Master programme in Education Science field at Vytautas Magnus University, dispositions of vocational education and training department employees and work conduct specifications.

These documents were used as the basis to indicate that qualitative and efficient work of the Chamber of vocational education and training specialist requires methodological – education and management ‐ knowledge; it is possible to claim that vocational/subject competence development is very important and necessary for vocational education and training department employees, as it determines the quality of vocational education and training department employee activity.

Therefore, the activity of vocational education and training department employees in contemporary society is oriented to the acquisition of competencies and their improvement.

Analysis of research results helped to identify training needs: general competences need improvement: foreign language skills (see fig. 1) and information technology management (see 2 fig.); vocational competences need improvement (see fig. 2).

30

Figure 1. Foreign language competencies

Figure 2. Need to learn to work with Windows NT medium programs

Meeting the Chamber employee learning needs calls for the renewal of in‐service training curriculum, thus, the curriculum of employee in‐service training should embrace methodological issues of the system of vocational education and training, necessary for their vocational activity (see fig. 3).

Figure 3. Improvement of subject competences

The results showed that the qualification improvement needs of all age groups were fairly even. The improvement of the Qualification needs of all age groups and different levels of education are likely due to the rapid formation of information society factor, which requires from employees more and more new competences. If the

31

needs of professional improvement of the Chamber vocational training department were satisfied, their knowledge in vocational education and training organization, and achievements in the fields of assessment would be deepen.

Social partners qualification improvement forms and motives. Rapid changes in technologies and consumer needs cause the improvement of the employee qualification and acquisition of new competencies. The research aimed at clarifying how the Chamber of vocational education and training department employees improve and upgrade their qualification (see 1 tab.) and what motives for them to promote their improvement of the qualification (see fig. 4). Self‐education was emphasized as one of the most accessible ways to improve qualification: seminars, traineeships, and conferences. International, national or regional projects were also mentioned as they provide vocational education and training department employees with opportunities to acquire new competencies and allow upgrading their qualification: 71.43% of research participants stated that they most often improved their qualification on their own initiative ‐ in various forms of self‐education; half of the respondents (50%) indicated frequently improving their qualification in seminars; 78.57% of the respondents asserted they sometimes improved their qualification in conferences which often happened outside Lithuania; 64.29% of the respondents claimed they sometimes upgraded their qualification in traineeships abroad; the same part (64.29%) of the research participants claimed they sometimes improved their qualification communicating with social partners. However, such forms of in‐service training as seminars, traineeships and conferences often do not satisfy learning demands, seeking to acquire vocational competencies; besides, they are not enough for long‐term experience and practice in vocational education and training organization processes and qualitative vocational education and training system activity.

Table 1 Qualification improvement forms

FORM MOST OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER DO NOT KNOW

Self‐education 71,43% 28,57% 0% 0% Higher non‐university studies 0% 0% 64,29% 35,71% Master studies 14,28% 21,43% 21,43% 42,86% Bachelor studies 7,14% 7,14% 28,57% 57,14% Cooperation with social partners 28,57% 64,29% 7,14% 0% Presentations, conferences 0% 78,57% 14,28% 7,14% Traineeships abroad 14,28% 64,29% 21,43% 0% Seminars 50% 42,86% 14,28% 0% In‐service training courses 21,43% 42,86% 35,71% 0%

Therefore, though a number of competencies have been acquired by vocational education and training department employees in a non‐formal way ‐ under their own initiative, through experience ‐ however, such activities as Training curriculum and assessment of teaching programs, designing teaching methodological material, assessment of standards, vocational education and training quality assurance in vocational education and training require for methodological knowledge in order to assure qualitative work outcomes. Research participants actively emphasized the need for knowledge (see fig. 3).

Figure 4. Reasons to promote qualification improvement

The research also revealed motives, which promote vocational education and training department employees to meet the improvement of the qualification needs. To improve their qualification and to raise their learning needs,

32

Chamber employees assume in‐service training as they are driven by the motives of professional growth and professional safety (see 4 fig.): The motive of professional growth/improvement was named as the most important, enhancing improvement

(71.43%). The respondents asserted that this motive expands the areas of vocational education and training and fosters assuming new activity functions. This motive ensures acquisition of new knowledge and skills in the area of occupation, continuous in‐service training from self‐education to vocational studies (see Table 1). According to the respondents, vocational education and training motive provides self‐confidence; however, it also reveals a contradiction between actual competencies and the competencies necessary to acquire new activities and functions. Consequently, learning need emerges. In order to satisfy the new learning need, the renewal of in‐service curriculum is necessary; designing a new curriculum it is necessary to ensure that employee in‐service curriculum embraced the subjects of vocational education and training system, necessary for vocational activity performance.

The motive of professional safety is rather important, according to the respondents; this motive was named as second (21.43%) or third (28.57%) according to importance. This motive enhances employees to acquire competencies necessary in their vocational activity meeting challenges of technical, technological and social advancement.

Conclusions

A Vocational training is an ongoing and lifelong process of human development, with the aim to provide and maintain professional competencies needed to be able to quickly adapt to constantly changing business, social and educational partners to ensure coherence of the world. Due to constant changes in the world of labor market and educational system, social partners are faced with new objectives in vocational education and training. The principle of social partnership in vocational education and training functions emphasized the duties and responsibilities in planning, organizing, execution and evaluation of the Chamber vocational education and training department personnel and also ensure the quality of vocational training and labor market needs.

Data results from the investigation, confirm given problematical situation, that the majority of the Chamber employees do not always have sufficient competencies to perform new and constantly changing work functions. The research findings confirm the problematic situation, highlighting that the majority of the Chamber employees do not always have sufficient competencies to perform new and constantly changing work functions. In order to meet the Chamber Vocational education and training department employees qualification improvement needs there were defined general and professional competences. The research results helped to identify the needs of new competencies in Chamber vocational education and training departments: be able to analyze the training system as the needs of the world's full of personality development and population; be able to investigate the processes of vocational training (knowledge and practical skills necessary for vocational training, vocational training, vocational guidance and counseling activities to carry out the investigation) to determine the needs of the world; be able to investigate training needs (for a sector, labor market, professional qualifications and research), and define the main purpose of vocational education and training; to be able to improve the content of vocational training (training to carry out the objectives, content, teaching methods and assessment) to be able to develop curriculum and evaluate it; be able to identify the need for training standards, the standard structure of the organization and standardization; be able to identify the most important quality vocational education and training criteria and indicators for quality assurance and managerial models; be able to prepare an evaluation methodology to determine the assessment criteria, taking into account the learning objectives and content; be able to provide guidance and counseling services for career (pre‐vocational training, labor market training and skills development) area; the research results showed that the professional growth and professional safety motives enhance employees of the chamber of vocational education and training department to meet the emerged learning needs: professional growth motive fosters the acquisition of competencies related to newly emerged work functions and tasks and their performance; professional safety motive fosters the employees of the chamber of vocational education and training department to acquire competencies related to meeting the challenges of technical, technological and social economic advancement. References

1. Adaškevičienė, V. (2007). Towards competencies. Educator competencies for the expression in the process of education: teacher development programmes for the material. Vilnius: VU leidykla.

2. Descy, P., Tessaring, M. (2001). Training and Learning for Competence. Second report on vocational training research in Europe: executive summary. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

3. Digrienė, G. (1999). Social partnership and the role of labour unions in vocational training. Vocational Education: Research and Reality. 2, 92‐96.

4. Ruževskis, B., Morkūnas, A. (1998). The role of social partners. Vocational Education: Research and Reality. 2, 138‐142. 5. Jucevičienė, P., Lepaitė, D. (2000). Kompetencijos sampratos erdvė. Social science. 1 (22), 44‐50. 6. Kaminskienė, L., Šileikis, V. (2006). The social partnership in recognition of qualifications. Vocational Education: Research

and Reality. 12, 54–63. 7. Laužackas, R. (1999). Sistemoteorinės profesinio rengimo dimensijos. Kaunas: VMU.

33

8. Laužackas, R. (2000). Curriculum design. Standards and programs in vocational training. Kaunas: VMU. 9. Laužackas, R., Danilevičius, E., Gurskinė, O. (2004). Vocational education and training reform in Lithuania: parameters and

results. Kaunas: VMU. 10. Laužackas, R. (2005). The glossary of vocational education terms. Kaunas: VMU. 11. Laužackas, R., Gedvilienė, G., Kaminskienė, L., Oželytė, V. (2006). Needs for social partner general and vocational

competences in the context of changes in work and education systems. Vocational Education: Research and Reality. 12, 126–139.

12. Laužackas, R., Kaminskienė, L. (2004). Recognition of informal learning in organizing vocational training: the aspect of the social partnership. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia, 12, 19–27.

13. Laužackas, R., Pukelis, K (2006). Qualifications and competencies: conception of the relationship between the structure teacher of vocational training. Vocational Education: Research and Reality. 3, 10‐17

14. Šileikis V. (1999). Development of social partnership in vocational training. Engineering Economics. 4 (15), 70‐74. 15. Šileikis V. (2001). Social Partnership Experience in Lithuania. In Lifelong Learning and social dialogue. Malmo: Malmo

University. p. 16‐27. 16. Šileikis V. (2002). Employers functions of initial and continuing training. In The vocational training changes in Lithuania and

the challenges of European integration. Kaunas: VMU. p.48‐56

Documents

1. Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training added., 1997‐10‐30, No. 98‐2478. 2. Lithuanian Republic Law on Vocational Training, 2007‐04‐19, No. 43‐1627. 3. Lithuanian Republic Law on Education, No. IX‐1630, 2003‐06‐17, Žin., 2003, No. 63‐2853(2003‐06‐28) 4. Vocational Education and Modernization (2000). Vilnius: Ministry of Sciences and Education. Vocational Education and

Training Reform Programme Co‐ordination Centre. 5. Vocational training as a tool of ensuring social and economic cohesion (1999). Report. Vilnius: Vocational Education and

Training Authority (VETA). 6. The role of social partners in the development of vocational training in Lithuania (1998). Report. Vilnius: Vocational

Education and Training Authority (VETA). 7. Vocational education in need of reforms (1997). Vilnius: Ministry of Economics, Technology and Transport.

Santrauka

SOCIALINIŲ PARTNERIŲ KOMPETENCIJOS BEI JŲ TOBULINIMO POREIKIAI, FORMOS IR MOTYVAI

GENUTĖ GEDVILIENĖ, VIRGINIJA BORTKEVIČIENĖ

Reikšminiai žodžiai: kvalifikacijos tobulinimas, profesinis rengimas, socialiniai partneriai, veiklos pasaulis.

XX amžiaus pabaigoje staigus Lietuvos posūkis į demokratinės raidos kelią ir rinkos ekonomiką lėmė profesinio rengimo sistemos kaitą. Pereita prie plačiausios profesinio rengimo sampratos, kuri apima nuolatinį mokymąsi, informacinę visuomenę ir žmogiškųjų išteklių plėtrą. Ši samprata profesinį rengimą traktuoja kaip nenutrūkstamą žmonių ugdymo procesą per visą gyvenimą, kurio tikslas ‐ suteikti ir nuolat palaikyti jiems tinkamas ir visuomenei reikalingas profesines kompetencijas. Kartu su ES plėtros procesais į Lietuvą atėjo ir naujos profesinio rengimo valdymo idėjos. Pastaruoju metu vis dažniau akcentuojama ir aktualizuojama švietimo ir darbo interesų dermė. Intensyvūs globalizacijos procesai, mokslo ir technologijų pažanga, kelia vis didesnius reikalavimus darbo vietai, daro įtaką žmonių veiklos pobūdžio kaitai. Palaipsniui vis didėja skirtumas tarp kvalifikacijos, įgytos profesinio mokymo institucijose ir kvalifikacijos, reikalingos patenkinti šiuolaikinio veiklos pasaulio reikalavimus. Nuolat kintančiame veiklos pasaulyje, norint sukurti imlią naujovėms ir rentabilią profesinio rengimo sistemą, prieš pradedant mokymo programas, reikia nuodugniai ištirti darbo rinkos poreikius. Ši užduotis sunkiai įgyvendinama, jei profesiniame rengime nėra socialinės partnerystės, kuri įtraukia profesinio rengimo , darbdavių bei darbuotojų atstovus į socialinį dialogą. Siekiant, kad profesinio rengimo sistema būtų lanksti, kad žmonės galėtų lengviau prisitaikyti prie nuolat kintančių sąlygų, valstybė į profesinio rengimo sistemą įtraukia ir kitus dalyvius – socialinius partnerius: darbdavius, profesines sąjungas, darbdaviams atstovaujančius susivienijimus.

Tyrimo problema. Nuo 1994 m., vykdant profesinio rengimo reformą, socialinė partnerystė įgavo konkretesnes formas, o priimtas LR profesinio mokymo įstatymas apibrėžia socialinių partnerių kompetenciją profesinio mokymo srityje. Šiame darbe sąvoka socialiniai partneriai vartojama kalbant apie Lietuvos Prekybos Pramonės ir Amatų bei Lietuvos Respublikos Žemės Ūkio Rūmų (Toliau – Rūmų) profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojus. Rūmai, kaip profesinio rengimo socialiniai partneriai, 1997 metais buvo Lietuvos Respublikos profesinio mokymo įstatymo numatyta tvarka įjungti į profesinio rengimo sistemą ir veikė pagal tiesiogiai jų veiklą reglamentuojančius įstatymus. Rūmuose buvo įsteigti profesinio rengimo skyriai, o Rūmų darbuotojams patikėti nauji uždaviniai ir funkcijos. Rūmų darbuotojai pradėjo vykdyti profesinio rengimo įstatymu jiems deleguotas funkcijas. Jie yra įtraukiami į kvalifikacijų vertinimo koordinavimą ir su tuo susijusius procesus: praktinio mokymo priežiūrą, baigiamųjų kvalifikacinių egzaminų organizavimą. Šiandiena socialiniai partneriai aktyvūs ne tik kvalifikacijų vertinimo veikloje, bet ir pačių ugdymo institucijų veiklos kokybės vertinime. Plečiasi socialinių partnerių, kaip kompetentingų

34

institucijų, kompetencijos. Toks posūkis glaudaus socialinio dialogo link, reikalauja socialinių partnerių organizacijų žmogiškųjų išteklių kokybinės plėtros: kvalifikacijos tobulinimo. Kiekviena profesinė veikla reikalauja atitinkamos kvalifikacijos, kompetencijų, kaip turimo sugebėjimo savarankiškai, kokybiškai ir kūrybiškai, t.y. kompetentingai veikti tam tikroje srityje ar profesijoje. Profesinės veiklos turinys apima ne tik gebėjimą kokybiškai atlikti tam tikras veiklos funkcijas, bet yra neišvengiamai susijęs ir su jų tarpusavio derinimu arba sąveika. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo įstatyme kompetencija apibrėžiama kaip mokėjimas atlikti tam tikrą veiklą, remiantis įgytų žinių, įgūdžių, gebėjimų, vertybinių nuostatų visuma. Epistemologiniu požiūriu kompetencijos samprata gali būti tapatinama su kvalifikacijos samprata. Ieškoma panašumų ir skirtumų tarp sąvokų „kvalifikacija" ir „kompetencija". „Kvalifikacijos" ir „kompetencijos" sąvokų skirtumai nėra tokie dideli, kad darytų įtaką kasdieniniam vartojimui. Mokslininkai nurodo, kad „kvalifikacijos" sąvoką vartojame tada, kai kalbame apie tai, ką žmogus rengiasi įgyti arba įgyja švietimo sistemoje. Kitaip tariant, kvalifikacija yra įgyjama, o kompetencija — laipsniškai formuojasi profesinėje veikloje. Kvalifikacija – tam tikrų žinių bei gebėjimų (kompetencijų) visuma, kurią įgijęs žmogus gali efektyviai ir kokybiškai (kompetentingai) dirbti atitinkamoje profesijoje. Įgytą kvalifikaciją pripažįsta įgaliotos institucijos bei jų išduodami diplomai. Todėl ir socialiniai partneriai atlikdami savo profesinės veiklos uždavinius, “turi siekti nuolat prisitaikyti prie veiklos pasaulyje vykstančių techninių, technologinių bei socialinių pokyčių ir įgyti juos atitinkančią bei profesinio rengimo turinio kaitą lemiančią profesinę kvalifikaciją” (Laužackas, 1999).

Pagrindinė darbe sprendžiama problema – socialinių partnerių profesinis tobulėjimas: realios darbuotojų kompetencijos neatitinka jų veikloje reikalaujamų žinių, įgūdžių bei gebėjimų. Tyrimo objektas – socialinių partnerių profesinis tobulėjimas. Tyrimo klausimas ‐ kokie yra socialinių partnerių kvalifikacijos tobulinimo poreikiai, formos ir motyvai? Siekiant atsakyti į tyrimo klausimą buvo keliamas tikslas ‐ nustatyti socialinių partnerių kvalifikacijos tobulinimo formas, poreikius ir motyvus.

Tyrimo aktualumą lemia pagrindinis prieštaravimas profesinio rengimo socialinių partnerių veikloje ‐ tai neatitikimas tarp realių Rūmų profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojų žinių, įgūdžių ir gebėjimų ir kompetencijų, būtinų jų darbe, siekiant užtikrinti kokybišką Rūmų, kaip socialinių partnerių, veiklą profesiniame rengime.

Tyrimo metodologija. Tyrimo instrumentas buvo sudarytas taikant du pagrindinius tyrimo metodus ‐ anketavimą ir interviu. Socialinių tyrimų metodas anketinė apklausa buvo sudaryta iš dviejų dalių: pirmoji anketos dalis leido įvertinti profesinio rengimo socialinių partnerių darbuotojų formalius duomenis (kvalifikaciją, darbo stažą, darbovietę ir kt.); antroji dalis buvo sudaryta remiantis Vytauto Didžiojo Universitete, Socialinių mokslų fakulteto edukologijos katedroje esančia Profesinio mokymo vadybos studijų programa bei Rūmų profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojų pareiginėmis instrukcijomis ir nuostatais. Socialinių tyrimų metodas struktūruotas interviu padėjo nustatyti kvalifikacijos tobulinimo poreikius, formas ir motyvus. Gauta kokybinė informacija formalizuojama taip, kad tiktų kiekybinei analizei. Taip sukaupiamas informacinis kompleksas, leidžiantis apžvelgti gautus tyrimo rezultatus, įvertinti sprendžiamą problemą bei atsakyti į tyrimo klausimą.

Tyrimo imtis. Tyrimo tikslinė grupė ‐ Lietuvos prekybos, pramonės ir amatų (5 regionuose: Vilniuje, Kaune, Klaipėdoje, Šiauliuose ir Panevėžyje) bei Lietuvos Respublikos Žemės ūkio rūmų, profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojai. Tyrimo dalyviai buvo pasirinkti tikslingos atrankos būdu ‐ penkių Lietuvos prekybos, pramonės ir amatų rūmų bei Lietuvos Respublikos Žemės ūkio rūmų profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojai. Viso tyrime dalyvavo 14 Rūmuose profesinio rengimo skyriuose dirbantys darbuotojai (visa galima imtis; N=14). Vykdant kiekybinį tyrimą buvo užtikrinti etikos principai: geranoriškumas, pagarba asmens orumui, teisingumas ir teisė gauti tikslią informaciją.

Tyrimo rezultatai. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė formaliąją ir realiąją profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojų kvalifikaciją. Formaliąją profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojų kvalifikaciją apibūdina jų išsilavinimo lygis. Tyrimo duomenys atskleidė, kad visi profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojai yra įgiję aukštąjį išsilavinimą, tačiau tik maža jų dalis (28,57%) turi profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojui reikiamą kvalifikaciją ‐ edukologijos kvalifikacinį laipsnį. Realias darbuotojų kompetencijas padėjo išsiaiškinti pareigų instrukcijų analizė. Tokie tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojams yra reikalingas kvalifikacijos tobulinimas. Jų veiklos kokybės gerinimui yra svarbios tiek bendrosios, tiek profesinės‐dalykinės kompetencijos. Tyrimo duomenys, kurie padėjo išsiaiškinti Rūmų darbuotojų profesines kompetencijas, buvo gauti anketinės apklausos būdu. Remiantis šiais duomenimis, rodančiais, kad kokybiškam ir efektyviam Rūmų profesinio rengimo specialisto darbui reikalingos metodologinės ‐ edukologijos ir vadybos ‐ žinios, galime teigti, kad labai svarbus ir reikalingas profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojams yra profesinės / dalykinės kompetencijos (nuo kurios priklauso profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojo veiklos kokybė) tobulinimas. Todėl profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojų veikla šiandieninėje visuomenėje yra orientuota į kompetencijų įgijimą ir tobulinimą. Tyrimo rezultatų analizė padėjo nustatyti kvalifikacijos tobulinimo poreikį: bendrųjų kompetencijų tobulinimas: užsienio kalbų mokėjimas ir informacinių technologijų valdymas; profesinių kompetencijų tobulinimas. Norint patenkinti atsiradusį socialinių partnerių kvalifikacijos tobulinimo poreikį: tobulinti senas ir įgyti naujų kompetencijų, reikia atnaujinti kvalifikacijos tobulinimo turinį, o formuojant šį turinį svarbu, kad jį sudarytų profesinei veiklai būtini profesinio rengimo sistemos dalykai.

Kaip vieną prieinamų būdų tobulinti savo kvalifikaciją, dalyviai akcentavo savišvietą: seminarus, stažuotes, konferencijas. Buvo minimi tarptautiniai, nacionaliniai ar regioniniai projektai, kurių metu profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojai turi galimybę įgyti naujas kompetencijas ir tobulinti savo kvalifikaciją. Tačiau tokios kvalifikacijos

35

tobulinimo formos kaip seminarai, stažuotės, konferencijos dažnai nepatenkina mokymosi poreikio siekiant įgyti profesines kompetencijas. Ilgametės patirties ir praktikos dažnai nepakanka norint organizuoti ir kokybiškai atlikti profesinį rengimą. Tyrimo metu tuo pačiu buvo aiškintasi, kokie motyvai profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojus skatina tenkinti atsiradusius kvalifikacijos tobulinimo poreikius. Labiausiai tobulinti savo kvalifikaciją ir patenkinti atsiradusį mokymosi poreikį, Rūmų darbuotojus skatina profesinio augimo bei profesinio saugumo motyvai. Kvalifikacijos tobulinimo poreikį visose amžiaus ir skirtingo išsilavinimo grupėse greičiausiai lėmė spartus informacinės visuomenės kūrimosi faktorius, kuris iš darbuotojų reikalauja vis naujų kompetencijų. Patenkinus atsiradusį Rūmų darbuotojų profesinio tobulėjimo poreikį, pagilėtų Rūmų profesinio rengimo skyriaus darbuotojų žinios profesinio rengimo organizavimo ir pasiekimų vertinimo srityse, tobulėtų gebėjimai vykdyti, vadovauti, plėtoti ir vertinti profesinio rengimo sistemos nuolatinės kaitos vyksmą nuolat besikeičiančios darbo rinkos, veiklos modernizavimo ir globalizavimo bei veiklos pasaulio sąveikos kontekste.

Accepted for publication: 08 November 2010 Priimtas publikuoti 2010 lapkričio 08

36



PHILOSOPHY

ONIOMANIA AS A RESULT OF CONSUMER CULTURE

TOMAS VIRBALIS

Klaipėda State College, Lithuania

Abstract

In this article we present oniomania as a result of consumer culture. Constantly changing postmodern world has cluttered one’s identity. The market society turns from subject to the consumption object, i. e.; a person qualifies himself and is qualified by others according to his ability to easily spend the money he earns. The satisfaction that comes after spending the money or buying an object is inconsistent due to the publicity that is an engine of consumer culture and keeps stimulating continual consumption. Thus one is obliged to perpetually seek the satisfaction that can be a reason for the appearance of oniomania. The problem of this analysis can be formulated with the following question: how can the standards and objectives of consumer society evoke the addiction to purchasing mania? The object of the research is oniomania as a result of consumer culture. The aim of this research is to reveal oniomania as a result of consumer culture. The method of the research is the analysis of theoretical literature. After the analysis of the chosen theoretical literature we can highlight the dangers aroused by the consumer culture that influence strongly the person’s attitude. Consumption that bases on promotional dynamism and aesthetics is one of the ways to invoke psychological discomposure which is called oniomania, that is, a mania of consumption, and a compulsory attraction to buy.

Keywords: postmodernism, consumer society, consumer culture, pastiche, addiction, oniomania.

Introduction

Research novelty and relevance. Oniomania is an uncontrolled attraction to buy. This addiction was included in the category of psychical discomfitures already at the beginning of XX century and a more detailed analysis was started at the end of the last century (Black, 2007). Oniomania appeared together with consumer society and its culture. This new society that arose from post‐modernity declares consumption as a value. An individual and his attitudes fall to be not interesting and the subject is transformed to the consumption object. The whole totality is organized agreeably to the guideline of consumer culture and everything is automatically subdued to the cult of consumerism object. One’s values and self‐image no longer interest the masses because the century of postmodernism interprets fundamental ideas in its own ways: these concepts get features of volatility. Consumer culture can be characterized with its variation of ideas: something that is new today can turn to be old tomorrow. An individual becomes totally dependent on the consumption object (Baudrillard, 2010). The postmodern person’s world is created agreeably to the steady norms of consumer society which has its main aim: to seek the highest possible level of oneness and recognition. When one becomes the object of consumption, the way to implement oneself is to consume. A thing‐merchandise often overshadows or displaces its owner and the latter’s identity is expressed through the things that he has and seeks: all these objects can cause a partial satisfaction. The promoted competition in consumer society does not ensure the long‐lasting pleasure in your purchase due to the fact that others could buy something even more expensive. This purchase is valued by the level of pleasure that it can cause for the consumer. While nowadays the acquirement of a thing is sacred and has to deal with the norms of ethics and aesthetics which the biggest shopping malls follow. They adapt postmodern art to stimulate the attraction for getting one or the other loaf of bread, etc. Market specialists tendentiously form the attitude with advertisements so this process would not end. The aesthetic promise of the advertisement hypnotizes the consumer who identifies himself with the consumption object. Consumerism that is formed from one’s childhood frequently causes the addiction to consumption. This addiction can easily develop to consumer mania, a compulsory need of buying which could be called oniomania.

Research issue. Lithuanian authors such as Černavičiūtė (2006, 2007), Pruskus (2008), Vosyliūtė (2003), Česnavičius (2009), Andrijauskas (2010) and foreign authors like Bauman (1988, 1997, 1998, 2004), Bell (1990), Habermas (1990), Kurnitzky (2004), Jameson (2002), Baudrillard (2010), Campbell (1994) and others have written about the problems and dilemmas of consumer culture and society manifestations. However, oniomania as a phenomenon still has not been researched by Lithuanian scientists, while foreign investigators, for example, Black (2007) and others introduce oniomania as a psychical discomfiture. For this reason we raise the following problematic question: how can the standards and objectives of consumer society evoke the addiction to purchasing mania?

37

Research focus: oniomania as a result of consumer culture. Research aim: reveal oniomania as a result of consumer culture. Research method: analysis of scientific literature.

Postmodern challenges for person’s identity

Postmodern world has transformed one’s identity to consumerism object. If you want to be an active unit in today’s society, you are forced to consume (Bauman, 1998). Unfortunately, we have to admit that latter‐day society is quiet closed. Bauman (1998) affirms that persons of the lowest class are not required in the postmodern society. Those who belong to the latter are not able to create even insignificant added value, so it is handy to forget them while they do not form investment and market spheres. Therefore today the representatives of higher classes are more appreciated (Bauman, 1998). An individual as a consumption object is obliged to earn money and spend them without relaxing; otherwise, he would have to face the criminalization of the poor with all its consequences. As we may see, the ontological freedom problem raises. Freedom as consumer culture’s axiological value is wedged in its norms. This freedom of postmodern consumers is not a value; it is more like a pseudo‐freedom of choices in a market. The consumer must choose there is no way of not choosing (Bauman, 2004). Thus the consumer culture overwhelms not only the phenomenon of freedom but also the ethics as a first philosophy (Levin, 1994). The balance between the good and the bad in the modern world was understood as a main criterion of human communication (face to face). Moral criterion is innate. Our value orientation requires feeling the responsibility for other person who lives together at the same world (Levin, 1994). As Bauman (2004a) puts it, volatility, as an attribute of postmodern times, associates with insecurity and uncertainty and implicates permanent change in our sociopolitical, cultural, professional, religious and sexual identity. Our whole world is unknowable. Existence and universal ideas also acquires features of volatility. That is why the steady ethical norms one moment could be not appropriate in the permanently changing world.

In the modern times, it was tried to structure all subcultures hierarchically. Every individual had to blend in a productive sphere that he preferred (Bauman, 1988). Post‐modernity brings together unconditional freedom of decision. Bauman (2004b) thinks that one’s identity no longer depends on hierarchies or some kind of frames. Identity is even no longer dependant on national mentality. Hence, it is hard to recognize individual’s identity for it is no longer one‐valued and we could not describe it in one or few terms. There is a free way given for the formation of identity; that is, only the person himself creates his personality according to his perception and power. In consumer culture individual loses his valued identity and the responsibility for other person becomes impossible. The fundamental concept of identity is reduced to “post” culture. Bauman (2004b) writes that the identity is not solid because it has to be adapted to today’s uncertainty and insecurity (Bauman, 2004c), i.e., it is always changing. Individual’s daily self‐expression is short‐termed and has no roots. The personal “I” comes to be a metaphor.

According to the postmodern philosopher Bauman (2004a), the new informative and communicative media is the main reason of the reduction of identity. Virtual reality replaces the traditional society, but the belonging to this illusionary society is just ostensible. Every member disputes with virtual names as the real name is no longer interesting. This virtual society causes person’s identity split (Bauman, 2004a). Physical closeness, which was previously considered as a value, no longer crosses with spiritual distance. Relationship between members of postmodern society does not fulfill the norms of ethics: there is no personal background; no one distinguishes between the good and the bad human characteristics. These features are similar one to the other and together accidental. One pays attention to trivialities that become raison d’être of person’s identity. American philosopher Rorty (1989) affirms that everything from the sound of a word or color of a leaf to the feeling of a fine touch could help while dramatizing and crystallizing one’s identity.

As a feature of postmodernism we could mention accidental moral norms that are not necessarily based on the norms of ethics. Therefore this ambiguity creates a person without relations (Bauman, 2003), i. e., the contemporary individual likes to live a life free from relationship. Thus we can ask: why does the problem of the split and integrity of individual’s identity appear in the modern ages? Postmodern theoretic Bauman (1998) says that it is necessary to investigate the changes that are caused by the globalization process and also the superficiality of consumer society. Desire is the main stimulus that foments the need to consume. And here we have an opposition to the development of identity of a modern individual. As the philosopher puts it, consumer society dissociates from the responsibility for an individual, the hierarchy of values is no longer possible and the individual tends to identify himself with marginal world (Bauman, 1998).

While the consumer society is getting stronger, the moral remains without ethics and this means that ethical relations are changed by marketable communication. Subject that is understood as a substitute of a person loses his identity and attains the status of an object whose value depends on his purchasing power. Consequently, freedom and liberation of ideas appear and serve for the consumption of mass culture production (Bell, 1990). Mass communication is also integrated to the purchasing system. Post‐modernism raises the consumer society and simultaneously destroys the humanity. According to Bauman (2004b), the new informative and communicative technologies limit the spread of Levin’s and Kant’s ethics. Today the leadership is taken by managers of advertisement

38

and market, specialists of public relations, TV producers and representatives of show business. Hence these new leaders influence strongly the consumption that is pierced with hedonism which also joins the formation of postmodern culture. Postmodern existence lacks of social identity and obedience; likewise we confront with the lessened nation’s importance in one’s life, continual competence and wish to win (Habermas, 1990). Moral as a value is no longer possible in the consumer society.

Individual and society are subdued to the business health and continual competence stimulates a person to dissociate from his own value judgments: “The humanist and social creature of the future is changed by a new hero – a business‐man” (Kurnitzky, 2004). Those who like speed, are ambitious and can adapt to relations of demand and offer create the myth of a new man who needs an ideal luxury life. Thus, as we see, a person is automatically forced to reach the highest economical results. A person is appreciable by his possibilities to satisfy hedonistic needs. The main aim is to reach pleasure; there is no need for strong personal identity. So in the postmodern society that tends to marginalities the cooperation is based on the principles and interests of consumption. Firstly one is seen as a consumption object. If someone does not correspond to the criterions of consumer culture, he becomes unwanted.

Charm of consumer culture

The consumer culture started to develop since the Second World War. We could also name it as post‐industrious society, a culture of capitalization of international corporations, of mass media, etc. New consumption forms, the ageing of production, faster change in styles of mode, advertisements, television and mass media are the engine of consumer society (Jameson, 2002). Mass media tries to impose newer fashion tendencies and reduces the memory of important historical events. Fundamental historical experience of society should help as intensification of our value identity, yet the stylistic experimentation of clothes, furniture, buildings and other human activities demonstrate the prosperity of consumer culture. Postmodern capitalism spreads the infection that diminishes the ability to reflect time and history (Jameson, 2002).

XXI century’s American philosopher Frederic Jameson affirms that the pastiche is necessary for the spread of mass culture. We can understand pastiche as a parody and “the imitation of a peculiar or unique, idiosyncratic style, the wearing of a linguistic mask, speech in a dead language. But it is a neutral practice of such mimicry, without any of parody's ulterior motives, amputated of the satiric impulse, devoid of laughter” (Jameson, 2002). Through pastiche we can qualify not only the human activity, but also the personal identity. Postmodern world and consumer culture communicate with an individual via pastiche. Uncertain and unsteady internecine relations between consumption objects are based on this dose of pseudo‐irony. One is daily attacked with pastiche; especially through media and advertisement.

As the famous French philosopher and sociologist Jean Baudrillard (2010) puts it, they stimulate the consumption by putting and aligning the merchandises intentionally in a way that a consumer could be faster seduced. This phenomenon is clear at the big shopping malls. The impulse of buying is oriented to object nets. Clothes, devices, toilet things constitute object chains that inflame consumer’s inert tension: he wanders in a logic sequence from one object to the other, and is involved into object counting that is totally different from the consumption vertigo and the feeling of ownership (Baudrillard, 2010). The shopping malls embody the synthesis of consumer activities. According to Baudrillard (2010), the most important activity in the consumption processes is shopping. The term of shopping, in Baudrillard’s words, means a flirtation with things. Nowadays shopping requires a big and new shopping center where we not only domesticate the culture, but also the merchandises are portrayed as culture’s objects. This synthesis of a merchandise and culture is becoming mythological; we may even compare it with F. Jameson’s pastiche. The whole context of shopping is flavored with this ambiguity that leads to the causation of the feeling of necessity. A person is brought to the center of neo‐culture where the grocery stores are introduced as art galleries. The big shopping malls try to overtake the established functions of a city, of a community. In these “neo” cities “art and leisure activities merge with every‐day life” (Baudrillard, 2010). Winter sport, night club, bowling, SPA center, conditioned air, good music, plentitude of restaurants – all these activities invite you to feel as much pleasure as possible. This small pseudo‐world, with the help of pastiche, tries to create the feeling of here‐and‐now; while everything is done due to the shopping.

Consumption includes the whole life, while all spheres of activity are created according to the shopping center’s pursuit of satisfaction. Consumption, full of hedonism, can endure hours and hours, even forever. The environment itself creates an image of an absolute: everything is adjusted, equipped, packed, and, of course, culturized. “The sellers – to start with the grocery stores and finish with the fashion designers – follow two main requests: promotional dynamism and the sense of aesthetics” (Baudrillard, 2010). Hence we see that everything in the shopping centers has to be created following the happiness pursuit formula. Every element has to arouse the sense of pleasure pursuit which tends to repeat. Contemporary banking can even prolong this sense of pleasure with the offers to buy redeemably. Therefore one is stimulated to refuse the sense of measure. The sellers’ created aesthetics and synthetic culture do not lie off even at home: flyers, fashion journals and advertisements form our attitude. The centers of super‐shopping tries to drill into our heads: everything is fine and will be fine.

39

Consumption becomes one of the ways to reach happiness. According to Baudrillard (2010), the consumer society is ruled by the mentality of miracle pursuit which is designed with clusters of brands. The pleasure is designed as final triumph that can lead to manifold good and blessing. Likewise the miracle created by television thrusts to consumers’ conscience. This feature is created to stimulate consumption while in the consumer’s conscience the image of creation of social reality disappears. Baudrillard (2010) sharpens the situation by saying that a person that is watching TV lets himself voluntarily to the subjugation of the new myth of consumption. The goods for sale are presented as celestial gifts. Advertisement persuades that everything is given beforehand, that a buyer has the same power as the seller and producer and all goods belong to them pari‐passu. This mythical mechanism is adapted in one’s conscience without possible rejection. Consumer must think that the merchandises already belong to him and all he has to do is just one insignificant action – that is the paying, which is compared to something as simple as cleaning your teeth (Baudrillard, 2010). Consumption reaches its highest level of security and diminishes the possible social tensions. It is necessary for the consumer culture the declaration of external world’s violence and inhumanity trough the TV screens that one could increase his pleasure of security. So this phenomenon is presented as something relative to the human values. The instinct of self‐preservation is transformed into permanent and unceasing pleasure to buy. Therefore the world that is behind the consumer society should appear as dangerous and unknowable while an individual can free himself from this world full of violence just through shopping which proposes him its own conception of safety. This concept declares not only the consumption as something safe (they offer you ecologic merchandises, etc.) but also motivates one not to stop buying and not to lose the miracle of satisfaction. On the other hand, this post‐safety does not care for financial person’s independence. If a person does not afford some item right away, he can always buy it at deferred payment: that is how one becomes a consumer of money lending business. This eternal consumption circle gathers even some characteristics of totalitarianism: the persons that are disobedient, insolvent or unnecessary are separated from eternal pursuit of pleasure and happiness that are considered as main aims in postmodern world. If you want to reach the top of consumer culture, no alternative ways are left.

Mass consumer culture is also related to wasting money that is associated with usefulness of goods. The famous philosopher Jean Baudrillard (2010) says that waste is always qualified as madness, dementia or dysfunction of instincts which exploits all personal reserves and prejudices the living conditions with its irrational actions. So the question appears: why does the humanity waste its own reserves? The possible answer resides in the individual and society existence quality. If we want to ensure the standard of consumption and the consumer culture, we need to stimulate an individual to waste his money. In some occasions we can consider consumption and wasting as two equal activities. Full shelves in supermarkets are real elements of the mechanism of wasting (Baudrillard, 2010).

Examples of waster’s life and ostentation of one’s purchasing power frequently appear in first pages of press. These heroes of enormous wasting are the biggest promoters of contemporary life philosophy. Admiration of their lives stimulates to surrender against the magic of buying and to identify you with highest luxury standard reaching the pleasure. The example of mystified person easier intrudes into one’s unconsciousness because it is introduced as something relative, a friendly soul. Life of the highest class which is preached every day on the TV is showed as something very near and these pleasures of luxury life and satisfaction with unmeasured consumption drown one’s difficult every‐day work (Baudrillard, 2010).

On the other hand, we should highlight that the fundamental concept of happiness transforms to the conception of prosperity while this latter is measured according to comfort. Consumer culture is like an instrument to reach satisfaction and prosperity. Everyone here is equal facing the need of prosperity. Consumerism context identifies one individual with the object of consumption and its value. That is how we reach the equality (Baudrillard, 2010). By this action they try to demythologize the class which has the highest purchasing power and to stimulate those who consume less to buy more. The prosperity from its essence requires material maintenance that is based on status fundament. Some members inherit this grace when they are born, while the others have to work so they could buy and approximate to the latter. French philosopher Baudrillard (2010) thinks that the real addiction to consumption is more typical for the representatives of privileged class. They understand the value and meaning of various knick‐knacks, devices or fetishes. The inherited items and values for the rich persons are like signs of grace. This logic creates the conception of salvation through objects. The concept of salvation in the lower class is based on consumption that creates the prosperity and pseudo‐equality with the aristocratic part of the society.

Notwithstanding the status of a person, he is gifted with the phenomenon of demand which stimulates to buy items that could give pleasure. The process of shopping is sustained with the nature of human beings: every time one wants better and more. Consumption from its very essence ensures the order of brands and integration of subcultures; at the same time it functions as society’s morality. Contemporary person pays less and less attention to his work. In the foreground he sees the development of demand and prosperity strategy. A representative of consumer society is always ready to try innovations due to the fact that even trifles evoke satisfaction. This active consumption as a collective and compulsory process could be called a moral institution (Baudrillard, 2010).

Campbell (1994) claims that consumption could be divided into two types. Firstly, it could be understood as something natural that is related to home and services, every‐day routine; on the other hand, consumption is qualified as wasting, pursuit of pleasure and satisfaction. This point of view is an opposition to frugality which was

40

considered as a value before the contemporary cultural break. The cult of consumption in postmodern society has become more important as other activities (work, religion or politics). Therefore we can admit that the process of consumption is experimentation with your looks, various activity models and items. Today with consumption we can order our daily life which is oriented to pleasure, satisfaction. If a person can satisfy his lack of happiness, prosperity and other needs just in a way that consumer culture offers, we can conclude that here we confront the radical manifestations of hedonism (Vosyliūtė, 2003). Ancient Greeks had their own conception of ethics that declared the satisfaction of all human needs as a main objective. These radical tendencies of hedonism showed up after the First World War: new technical possibilities appeared and the items were started to produce en masse; also, the opportunity to combine work and leisure emerged. Permanent development could be parted as one of the main characteristics of consumer society: when one demand is satisfied, new needs are created.

The things that change oblige changes in a person (Lasch, 1985). Historical values are no longer interesting in the consumer culture because one searches new forms of living. The human values also change: here we deal with throwaway flashes of identity that are later recycled as unnecessary items. According to Bauman (1997), a postmodern individual is shaped as a consumer‐player that seeks for new information and untried experience while the search of novelty is growing all the time. We can notice that a human being is controlled from the exterior: it is a consequence of consumer culture. One’s identity is controlled by new fashion trends, abundance of information, new norms of behavior and various merchandises. A member of consumer culture must have trendy clothes, new‐designed furniture, etc. His status depends on his acquired items. Market forms an individual who has a special ability to consume that could not be dissociated from postmodern individuality. This ability transforms the consumer’s attitude so he leaves other social interests, i. e., belonging to religious communities, non‐government organizations, interests in culture life and politics. Item’s advertisement reaches the consumer everywhere. He sees colored images, music consonances, mystified brands that create new world. The differences of real and illusory world are extinguished. Sociologist Vosyliutė (2003) affirms that in some social groups the feeling of reality disappears because the new created world attracts with its values. Some persons from the consumer society are forced to buy with the constructs of aesthetics and art.

Consumers that have higher income and at the same time more possibilities to spend their money try to distance from the consumers of lower classes. Fashion and style are used to dissociate from persons that have less income. As Vosyliūtė (2003) puts it, we can divide person to classes as well as identify their tastes according to their consumption. Identity and inclusion in a social group show up through items, clothes colors, brands or choices in nutrition products. One also expresses his oneness through the potential use of his own body. If one takes care of his appearances too much, it can lead to narcissism which is also considered as a feature of consumer culture that forms a society controlled with looks (Vosyliūtė, 2003). Never‐ending care of oneself prevents individual’s socialization. A person always seeks for emotional satisfaction and admiration with oneself. The lower classes must accept the standards of higher class consumption culture while the purchasing power ensures better guarantees in safe socialization. Society conventionally exalts the group of prosperous people. Their consumption standards create their own lifestyle and the purchase of luxurious items evokes pride, happiness, often fortifies the dignity. On the other hand, the purchased thing can raise contradictory feelings: humiliation, pain, etc. Those persons who have less income frequently feel psychologically unsafe and disquiet due to the fact that they cannot participate in a full value life. The impossibility of your own satisfaction is related to the infraction of human dignity. Items are a type of communication that inform about prosperity or misery (Vosyliūtė, 2003).

Contemporary consumer society requires a plentitude of choices which unfolds through the offer of merchandises and stimulation to buy. This induced desire to have coveted items binds oneself to satisfy the wish or suppress it using your brain. Nevertheless, the new items that appear and environment enable to satisfy new needs all the time. Self‐possession and self‐control is a permanent condition of a contemporary person. The opposition between continual consumption and self‐control is a persistent daily attendant of today’s individual (Vosyliūtė, 2003).

The proportion between the demand of consumption and ascetic self‐control (which is also one of religious norms) highlights the choice of individual’s lifestyle. Consumer culture induces the constant purification of one’s identity. The lifestyle that is permanently mentioned in the journals, television, press and internet is one of the attributes of contemporary world. Stylish TV‐shows, articles and photos lift the attraction to acquire these items and to identify you with some social group. According to Giddens (2000), today the choosing of a lifestyle becomes very important when one wants to decode the identity of a person. An individual, by choosing a type of a lifestyle, ascribes himself to one of the groups of consumer society. The market investigators can easily diagnose the demands of a person and to find out how to advertise the merchandises. The promise in an advertisement has to precisely correspond to the requirements of one or other lifestyle (Černavičiūtė, 2006).

Purchasing as an addiction

Permanent purchasing activity transforms the value identity of a contemporary individual. Persistent pursuit of material things influences the psychological balance. Consumer culture’s standards and lifestyle require buying clothes of famous designers, deluxe cars, etc. Fast devaluation can inflict contradictory feelings. Continual wish not to lag

41

behind compared with the others can evoke disappointment and anger; while the advertisement stimulates to identify with the item and not to lose coherence with the consumption object. Advertisement’s promise operates the feeling of satisfaction that ties the consumer to the pastiche.

Excessive purchasing and money wasting are accompanied with bad mood, worry and other types of unpleasant feelings. These emotions can cause the purchasing mania which is called oniomania (Black, 2007). Compulsory addiction to buy is an illness of postmodern world. Persistent consumer culture attack against the identity of an individual, new consideration of values and always changing requests can influence one’s attitude, feelings or even evoke psychical discomfitures. Black (2007) notes that a woman intends the purchasing‐mania often than men. In the consumer culture the woman’s cult is dominating while the style journals, TV‐shows and shops orient to the aesthetics of femininity. According to Baudrillard (2010), the price of femininity in today’s fast world is high: women are ought to wear the best new‐fashioned clothes because in this way they express and at the same time create their oneness and identity. Femininity becomes a consumption object.

According to Black (2007), purchasing mania is a process of four stages: waiting, preparation, buying and money wasting. Credit cards, sales, openings of new collections or new shops – all these features contribute to the development of this addiction. The person addicted to buying feels excitement when he is at the shop and collects items. Shopping malls’ environment also enforces him to join actively the purchasing process: thus he can express his consumer identity and feel satisfaction. Persons with oniomania frequently say that they have bought something because they liked the item it was cheap or cheaper due to the selling off. These instruments of wasting created by market specialists determine the loss of self‐control (Black, 2007). Clothes, shoes, CDs, ornamentations or cosmetics that quickly date are the mostly used goods that are orientated to the middle class which is numerous.

Men, as well as women, that are addicted to the compulsory attraction to buy go to shop alone so that there would not appear the feeling of discomfort in front of their relatives. The relationship between these persons and their relatives are often poor because they are unhappy with their life, job and themselves. The loss of sociality is one of postmodern world objectives: everything is dedicated to oneness (Baudrillard, 2010). The process of buying is stimulated by the environment in the shopping centers which leads to the loss of self‐control. The catalogues and advertisement also subscribe the mentioned process. The feeling of security is created with the purchasing process so that the consumer could blend into the consumption object and buy as much as possible. The strokes of buying are usually more common before birthdays of relatives and friends, at the Christmas period and other feasts. The shelves in the stores react to the seasons: they propose you to prepare for Christmas, Easter, Halloween or Valentine’s Day sometimes few months before the feast. Even religious feasts are drowned by the consumer culture. The whole person’s life is resettled to the “hyper” shops: banks, beauty centers, restaurants, etc.

Real reasons that stimulate the compulsory purchasing addiction are not identified while the scientists make the hypothesis that it is influenced by neurobiological factors and the intensification of consumer culture and society (Black, 2007). This disorder is more common in countries with good economical development. A plentitude of goods, changes in fashion styles, active advertisement through all informative media, dense net of shopping centers, freedom of finance and enough time for leisure activities – all these attributes of consumer culture create the environment where the compulsory purchasing addiction appears. In prosperous countries people spend their free time at the shopping malls where the normal and habitual purchasing can easily become a compulsory addiction of buying; it is clearly seen when one is on vacation or when gets additional income.

Conclusion

Contemporary society understands itself as a consumer society where an individual has become an object of consumption. He creates his specific values through pastiche and adapts them to the standards of postmodern world. One’s self‐consciousness is always pressed with uncertainty, inconstancy, insincerity and materialism. Individual integrates into society according to his ability to acquire merchandises and services which are conditions to reach oneness and recognition. Daily life is based on consumption. Psychological balance becomes dependant on the possibility to waste one’s earned money and on the feelings that invade after the purchasing.

Modern psychotherapists claim that consumer culture that rose from postmodernism has influenced the appearance of new addiction called oniomania. The illness of compulsory purchasing can be divided into four stages: waiting, preparation, buying and money wasting. In all these stages we confront with a person who has one main objective: to satisfy his feelings of pleasure and euphoria. An individual falls into the mechanisms of consumer society where one’s behavior turns to be uncontrolled and addicted to purchasing due to the pursuit of pleasure. The main danger of monomania is a wish to continue and repeat this action which is not controlled with free will. Therefore the phenomenon of consumer society subscribes to the development of oniomania in all spheres of person’s activity.

References

1. Andrijauskas, A. (2010). Neklasikinės ir postmodernistinės filosofijos metamorfozės. Vilnius: Meno rinkos agentūra. 2. Arengt, H. (2005). Žmogaus būklė. Vilnius: Margi raštai. 3. Baudrillard, J. (2010). Vartotojų visuomenė: mitai ir struktūros. Kaunas: Kitos knygos. 4. Bauman, Z. (1988). Freedom. Open University Press.

42

5. Bauman, Z. (1997). Life in fragments: essays in postmodern morality. London: Blackwell Science. 6. Bauman, Z. (1998). Work, Consumerism and the New Poor. Buckingham, Philadelphia: Open University Press. 7. Bauman, Z. (2003). Liquid Love: On the Frailty of Human Bonds. Oxford UK; Malden USA: Polity Press. 8. Bauman, Z. (2004). Identity: Conversations with Benedetto Vecchi. Cambridge UK, Malden USA: Polity Press. 9. Bauman, Z. (2004). Individualized Society. Cambridge and Oxford UK, Malden USA: Polity Press. 10. Bauman, Z. (2004). Wasted Lives: Modernity and its Outcasts. Cambridge and Oxford UK, Malden USA: Polity Press. 11. Bell, D. (1990). Modernism, Postmodernism, and the Decline of Moral Order. Culture and Society: Contemporary Debates.

Cambridge, New York, Port Chester, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. 12. Black, D. W. (2007). A review of compulsive buying disorder. World Psychiatry, 1, 14‐18. 13. Campbell, C. (1994). Consuming goods and the good of consuming. Critical review, 8, 503‐520. 14. Černevičiūtė, J. (2006). Vartojimas, identitetas ir gyvenimo stilius. Filosofija. Sociologija, 3, 20‐24. 15. Černevičiūtė, J. (2008). Gyvenimo stiliaus stratifikacija, naratyvai ir sukonstruoti tapatumai. Filosofija. Sociologija, 1, 26‐34. 16. Česnavičius, A (2009). Televizija kintančiame žiniasklaidos pasaulyje. Filosofija. Sociologija, 2, 122‐129. 17. Fromm, E. (2005). Turėti ar būti? Kaunas: Verba vera. 18. Giddens, A. (2000). Modernybė ir asmens tapatumas: asmuo ir visuomenė vėlyvosios modernybės amžiuje. Vilnius: Pradai. 19. Girnius, J. (1998). Žmogus technikos amžiuje. Vilnius: Aidai. 20. Habermas, J. (1990). Modernity versus Postmodernity. Culture and Society: Contemporary Debates. Cambridge & New York,

Port Chester, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. 21. Jameson, F. (2002). Kultūros posūkis, rinktiniai darbai apie postmodernizmą (1983‐1998). Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos

leidykla. 22. Kurnitzky, H. (2004). Necivilizuota civilizacija: kaip visuomenė pralaimi savo ateitį. Vilnius: Dialogo kultūros institutas. 23. Lasch, Ch. (1985). The Minimal Self: Psychic Survival in Troubled Times. London: Pan books. 24. Levinas, E. (1994). Etika ir begalybė: Pokalbiai su Philippu Nemo. Vilnius: Baltos lankos. 25. Pruskus, V. (2008). Kūnas, vartojimas ir sėkmė: tarp būtinumo ir regimybės. Filosofija. Sociologija, 1, 44‐51. 26. Rorty, R. (1989). Contingency, Irony, Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 27. Vosyliūtė, A. (2003). Vartojimas kaip socialinė problema. Filosofija. Sociologija, 3, 41‐49.

Santrauka

ONIOMANIJA – VARTOJIMO KULTŪROS PASEKMĖ

TOMAS VIRBALIS

Reikšminiai žodžiai: oniomanija, pastišas, postmodernizmas, priklausomybė, vartotojiška visuomenė, vartotojų kultūra.

Tyrimo problemą apibūdina klausimas: kaip vartotojiškos visuomenės standartai bei siekiniai gali sukelti priklausomybę pirkimo manijai?

Tyrimo objektas – oniomanija kaip vartojimo kultūros pasekmė. Tyrimo tikslas – atskleisti oniomaniją kaip vartojimo kultūros pasekmę. Tyrimo metodas – mokslinės literatūros analizė. Rezultatai. Atlikus mokslinės literatūros analizę išryškėjo, jog šiandieninė visuomenė save suvokia kaip

vartojimo visuomenę. Asmuo, tapęs vartojimo objektu, pastišo pagalba kuria savitas vertybes, kurios yra adaptuojamos prie postmodernaus pasaulio standartų. Žmogaus savimonė yra spaudžiama netikrumo, nepastovumo, nenuoširdumo bei materializmo. Individas yra integruojamas į bendriją atsižvelgiant į tai, kiek jis sugeba įsigyti prekių ar paslaugų, o tai yra sąlyga pasiekti išskirtinumą bei pripažinimą. Kasdieninis žmogaus gyvenimas yra grindžiamas vartojimu. Individo psichologinė pusiausvyra tampa priklausoma nuo to, kiek asmuo įstengia iššvaistyti savo uždirbtus pinigų bei kokie jausmai jį užplūsta įsigijus daiktą.

Šiuolaikiniai psichoterapeutai tikina, kad iš postmodernizmo kilusi vartotojiška kultūra lėmė naujos priklausomybės atsiradimą – oniomaniją. Kompulsyvaus potraukio pirkti liga struktūruojama į keturis etapus: laukimas, pasiruošimas, pirkimas ir pinigų išleidimas. Visuose šiuose etapuose dalyvauja asmuo, kurio pagrindinis tikslas patirti pasitenkinimo, euforijos jausmus. Žmogus papuola į vartojančios visuomenės mechanizmą, kur dėl malonumo asmens elgesys tampa nevaldomas ir priklausomas nuo pirkimo. Pagrindinis oniomanijos pavojus – noras tęsti ir kartoti ši veiksmą, nes jis nėra reguliuojamas valios pastangomis. Todėl prie oniomanijos ligos plėtotės sėkmingai prisideda vartotojiškos visuomenės reiškinys visose individo veiklos sferose.

Accepted for publication: 14 January 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 sausio 14

43



LAW

DISCOURSE OF COMPETENCIES ACQUIRED IN LEGAL EDUCATION

ŽANETA NAVICKIENĖ

Lithuanian Police School, Lithuania

Abstract

In a democratic constitutional state the profession of a jurist requires diverse knowledge and skills. For that reason enhancing competencies acquired in legal studies is one of the essential elements which ensure appropriate education of a future jurist.

Modern legal education system is not precisely defined: there are different legal education models which have various programs of diverse length. However, diversification of legal education that has emerged recently should be focused on the standards of the jurist’s profession, irrespective of the new legal education models.

Discourse on competences acquired in the process of legal education is a topic which has not been deeply analyzed, thus it deserves a thorough research. Therefore, the author seeks to examine different legal education systems and to ascertain whether existing legal education models are efficient, if they provide the opportunity to acquire the necessary common and specific competencies, ensure appropriate quality standards of the higher legal education. The present article analyzes diverse legal education models, discloses Lithuanian and foreign researchers’ attitude towards enhancing acquired competencies through the optimization of legal education programs, the change of subjects and the use of appropriate methodology.

Keywords: legal education, competencies acquired in legal education, legal education models.

Introduction

According to the Law on higher education and research of the Republic of Lithuania (2009), state institutions that form higher education policy are obliged to ensure the quality of education. Although higher education institutions set educational programs themselves, the state must guarantee that the level of the higher education provided there according to various programs does satisfy appropriate equal standards of quality. The current legal education system in Lithuania is very diverse and it raises a discussion about equalizing legal studies.

In the Western tradition of legal education acquisition of the highest professional qualification of a jurist is inseparable from the higher university legal education. In Lithuania this system of legal education is maintained by a number of legal education models. Nowadays several different models prevail in this country. So, is it reasoned to provide diverse legal education models in Lithuania? Irrespective of the form of the studies, the volume of the program designed to confer the jurist degree should not be lesser than the set standard, which has to be oriented to the generally accepted curriculum of the legal studies including all the basic subjects, and not be restricted to a specific sphere of the law. On the other hand, not only subjects of the law have to be studied by a future jurist, but also other subjects which would help him or her to acquire not only specific, but common competencies such as social, communicational, cognitive, affective and behavioral skills.

The Constitutional court of the Republic of Lithuania has accepted a resolution “On the qualification requirements of higher education in law for the persons who wish to hold, under procedure established by laws, the position of a judge” (2008) in which it has been stated that in a democratic constitutional state the profession of a jurist meets high requirements, for it is only possible to ensure such fundamental legal values as predominance of law, justice, personal rights and freedoms, legal security and legal authenticity, the right to a fair trial, legal help etc., in such a legal system where jurists have necessary professional skills. Thus, the spheres of a jurist’s activities require versatile skills and knowledge. All jurists should acquire common competencies; however, as they have different specializations, they have to be qualified at particular spheres, and should have the latest knowledge on professional aspects which validate original thinking, critical understanding of diverse knowledge spheres, ability to work in an innovative and self‐dependent way, perception of the processes related to legal activities.

Research relevance. The profession of a jurist is a practical legal profession in the sphere of law which is regulated by the state. There are three classic legal professions: a judge, a lawyer and a prosecutor. However, the category of the jurist includes more professions which require legal education: a notary, a bailiff, a pretrial investigation officer, a lecturer of law subjects, an auditor, an institution (company) jurist, state agency specialists on law matters, and many other specialists that need legal skills. Multiplicity of a jurist’s profession provokes an assumption whether all people who have acquired legal education according to the same model have gained qualified skills.

44

Competencies acquired in the process of education guarantee professional qualification and skills. Thus, it is important if a person studying in a particular sphere acquires the necessary skills and if they enable him or her to perform specific tasks in a qualified way. In the last decade a number of researches in the sphere of the competence have been conducted by Lithuanian (Tijūneliene, 1998; Lepaite, 2001; Jotautiene, Tidikis, 2001; Lipinskiene, 2002; Stanikuniene, Juceviciene, 2001; Juceviciene, 2007 et al) as well as foreign (Biggs, 1999; Simpson, 2000; Peeters, 2009, Jean‐Luc Patry, 2010 et al) researchers. It is clear that researches on particular professions (spheres) become more relevant. Scientific literature analyzes competencies and skills necessary for the civil servants (Juraleviciene, 2003), teachers (Acar, 2008, Malinauskiene, 2010), physical therapists (Zukauskiene, 2010), healthcare workers (Sveikauskas, 2006), engineers (Bonnet, 2009) and other specialists. However, legal education issues as well as competencies acquired in legal studies have not been deeply analyzed in terms of education and law. Lehoczky (2004), Gevurtz et al. (2005), and Whalen‐Bridge (2008) offer the approach to the legal subjects; Edelman (2010) introduces innovative educational programs.

Novelty of research. Up to the last decade of the twentieth century a classic model of legal education has prevailed in Lithuania, which has been based on integrated curriculum. In the last ten years a transformation has occurred, which supposes a new attitude towards the classic legal education model. If jurists are well educated, if their qualification is high enough, they not only provide effective legal practice but also ensure legal values, guarantee public confidence, and the basis of a democratic constitutional state. Thus, diversification of jurists’ education has to be oriented to the standards of this profession irrespective of the number and the essence of the new legal education models. It determines a new approach to the legal education system as a whole.

The discourse on competences acquired in legal education is a topic which has not been analyzed yet, thus it deserves a new research. Consequently, a new conception of the research, in terms of legal education system and competencies acquired in legal studies is oriented to the analysis of the current legal education system. Moreover, the aim is to find out whether the present acting educational models are effective and provide the possibility to acquire common and special competencies, and ensure particular equal standards of the higher legal education.

Issue of research. The aim of the legal education system is to educate a professional and qualified employee in the sphere of law. The present legal education system is not precisely defined: different educational models prevail; they are diverse in terms of programmes and their length. Thus a question arises: what do different legal education models which provide common and specific skills presume in terms of higher education?

Subject of research is skills acquired in the process of legal education. Aim is to analyze different competencies acquired in legal studies by disclosing various educational models.


The research has been conducted using the analytical method, analyzing legal and scientific literature resources. The study aims to examine various models of legal education as well as the skills acquired in legal studies; it also aims to reveal legal education systems of other countries.

In the first stage of the research a criterion for choosing resources according to the key words has been selected: legal education, legal education programmes, legal education subjects, qualifications framework, competencies acquired. According to this selection criterion a search for diverse legal acts, documents, scientific resources, and publications has been conducted in the data bases of legal acts and scientific articles. In the process of the analysis of scientific resources the author has searched for sources that examine subjects taught in legal studies and skills acquired in legal education.

52 sources have been chosen, while 2 legal acts and 1 scientific article have been regarded as inappropriate. The remaining 49 sources were 36 documents1 and 13 scientific papers:

- 5 valid legal acts of the Republic of Lithuania and their edits (1999 – 2010), that regulate the processes of education and legal studies (resolutions of the Republic of Lithuania, orders of the minister of education and science of the Republic of Lithuania);

- 31 legal education programmes of various Lithuanian higher education institutions, according to which future jurists are taught;

- 4 Lithuanian scientific papers that analyze subjects and skills of legal education; - 9 scientific articles of other countries that examine the legal education system. In the second stage of the research an analytical method – descriptive content analysis has been used. The

essence of this method is to set conceptual units significant in terms of research, i. e. existence of particular words and notions in the text. The words and notions distinguished in this research are legal education, legal education programmes, legal education subjects, qualifications framework, and acquired competencies.

The analysis of scientific literature grounds the relevance of research, reveals legal education models existing in other countries of the world, and skills acquired in legal education. Descriptive content analysis of the documents

1 Introduced in a separate list “Documents”

45

helps to examine peculiarities of legal education in the country, the content of the legal acts regulating legal education of the Republic of Lithuania.

Legal education system in Lithuania and abroad

Nowadays it can be noticed that acquisition of professional skills in terms of higher education becomes especially relevant, just as acquisition of conceptual knowledge. It is sought that the quality of education would correspond to the present economic situation and public expectations. Educational programmes, the content of the studies, and their organization have to meet the reality and the present challenges imposed by the present day life; they also have to presume acquisition of common and specific skills, prepare a professional employee. It can be said about all studies, including legal education. Thus, an effective system of legal education is needed. Vaisvila (2009) states that it is possible to ensure formation of the creative, rational legal conscious only in that higher education institution which motivates and guarantees independent and open thinking. It is obvious that acquired legal education does not guarantee successful practice: changing norms of the laws and court procedures show that a jurist has to be dynamic and flexible; however, in the process of education he or she has to gain such skills that would correspond to the particular equal standards of higher legal education and which would ensure successful outcome of performing especially difficult and responsible tasks. Thus, legal education is multidisciplinary education and one of its main goals is to strengthen the legal system and create a democratic constitutional state.

The analysis of legal education models in different countries has proved that they are influenced by various political, cultural, and social factors, legal reforms, and legal traditions. Consequently, different states have diverse models of legal education.

Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania “On approval of the list of legal positions” (2002) contains a list of legal positions. All positions presented in the mentioned document are treated as legal activities. A wide range of positions presupposes that a jurist is required to have fundamental legal knowledge as well as specific knowledge typical of a particular legal sphere. There is no clearly defined equal legal education model in Lithuania. There are 13 separate educational institutions which provide legal education in Lithuania: seven higher education institutions and six colleges which provide vocational Bachelor of Law. It is obvious that some educational institutions of Lithuania offer legal studies oriented to versatile legal education (integrated legal studies), while other educational institutions which provide two‐stage model of legal studies only have bachelor studies oriented to versatile legal education, but their master studies are much narrower in terms of the legal sphere. The analysis of expediency and rationality of legal education in Lithuania has proved that four different models prevail here:

- non‐university studies; - university undergraduate studies and master studies; - master studies (when graduates of any social sciences are accepted); - integrated studies. The standard of legal education (2004) is oriented to V level of vocational education and it lets to create non‐

university higher legal education programme. However, a new framework of common requirements for the master degree studies (2010) is quite controversial, as it has provided master degree studies with great diversity. These new requirements let the universities decide what kind of programmes they will apply – either targeted at practical applied science or preparation for the doctoral; so, they enable the students to develop their specific in a competitive environment.

Modern legal education system is quite miscellaneous, thus educational institutions choose various length of studies. The comparison of legal education models of different countries illustrates that in Lithuania as well as abroad legal studies provide a great variety of programmes that in turn create an opportunity to choose a narrower legal specialization and form competencies in this narrow legal sphere.

Different legal education models create various opportunities to strive for legal education acquiring common and special skills. However, it has to be mentioned that taking into account peculiarities of the legal work, legal studies do not always ensure acquisition of proper legal education. For instance, completing master degree by graduates of any social science does not ensure proper legal education. It has been also stated in the resolution of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania “On the qualification requirements of higher education in law for the persons who wish to hold, under procedure established by laws, the position of a judge” (2008). The Court has emphasized that the transformation of the higher legal education system in Lithuania is not the reason to reject versatile higher legal education system acknowledged by the Western tradition of legal education and its essence: two‐stage model of legal education which provide the main legal subjects. It means that such professions as that of a judge or a prosecutor require more than only master degree in the sphere of law after completing bachelor degree studies of any other social science.

It has to be mentioned that legal education system is diverse in different foreign countries and every foreign state chooses its own legal education model. Usually one or two legal education models prevail in the majority of the countries.

46

Table 1 Legal education models in Lithuania and other foreign countries

Education content

Country

Education length

2

Practice / internship length

Final evaluation Results of the studies (acquired competences)

LLB ‐ 3 / 3,5 y. From 2,5 to 4 months during studies

LLB – final examination LLB – knowledge on common education subjects and legal subjects.

LLM ‐ 1,5 / 2 y. No LLM – master thesis

Lithuania

IS ‐ 5 y. From 3 weeks to 2 months during studies

IS – master thesis and final examination

LLM ir IS – knowledge on a particular legal sphere (specialization), Knowledge on the legal processes, analysis, usage, evaluation of legal acts, solution of problems of the law.

LLB ‐ 3 y. LLB – final examination

LLB – knowledge on common education and legal subjects. Knowledge on some special legal subjects.

England

LLM ‐ 1 y.

1 y. after studies

LLM ‐ master thesis and final examination

LLM ‐ knowledge on a particular legal sphere (specialization), analysis usage, evaluation of legal acts.

Germany IS ‐ 4 y. 2 y. after studies

IS – final examination Proficiency in a foreign language, knowledge on compulsory legal subjects, work experience in different law enforcement institutions: courts, prosecution service, etc. Tests and examination (oral as well as written).

LLB ‐ 4 y. 6 months after studies

LLB – final examination LLB – proficiency in English, knowledge on common legal subjects, knowledge on social sciences, knowledge on some special legal subjects.

Bangladesh

LLM ‐ 1 / 2 y. No LLM ‐ final examination LLM – knowledge on particular legal sphere. Knowledge on legal acts, application of legal provisions.

LLB ‐ 3 y. No LLB‐ final examination LLB – knowledge on common legal subjects and social sciences.

India

LLM ‐ 2 / 3 y.

No LLM ‐ final examination LLM ‐ knowledge on a particular legal sphere. Analysis, usage, evaluation of legal acts.

LLB ‐ 3 / 4 y. Several months during studies

3

LLB ‐ final examination and thesis

LLB – knowledge on the American law; knowledge on compulsory legal subjects, knowledge on some special legal subjects. Acquisition of practical skills. (Organization of an instructional trial).

USA

LLM ‐ 1 y. No LLM ‐ final examination and / or thesis

LLM ‐ knowledge on a particular legal sphere. Analysis, usage, evaluation of legal acts, application of legal provisions. Solving practical problems.

Thomas (2010) has introduced the legal education system applied in Great Britain, which operates according to the following legal education model: undergraduate studies providing a degree and internship providing the qualification of a jurist. In this country undergraduate legal academic education is acquired in three years. However, this academic qualification does not give an opportunity to engage in legal practice: further vocational education is required, which provides appropriate license allowing engaging in legal practice. In Great Britain barristers and solicitors have to complete one‐year course and achieve the qualification of a jurist. Consequently, a future jurist’s education comprises undergraduate academic studies and their continuation, the so‐called internship, after which a person becomes a practitioner.

Thomas (2010) states that the similar legal education system exists in Israel, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Australia, and New Zeeland too. However, when legal education systems are closely examined it becomes obvious that every country has its own particular elements. For example, in India three‐year undergraduate legal education model prevails, too, though master degree studies have some special features. Mukherjee (2010) has analyzed legal education in India and has come to a conclusion that the state has the standard three‐year undergraduate legal

2 LLB‐ Bachelor of Laws; LLM – Master of Laws; IS – integrated studies. 3 The length of the practice depends on a particular educational institution and legal acts of the state.

47

studies model and two‐year master degree studies, which in turn include one‐year course on different legal subjects (specializations). Patil (2010) has analyzed master degree studies in India and he has emphasized that they are too theoretical despite of their length. It has to be mentioned that in the majority of the states, as well as in Lithuania, the master degree studies can also be defined as theoretical ones: the master degree programs do not presume practice.

Levy (2010) emphasizes that the three‐year legal education model is very successful in the USA, when a student who completes this education achieves the undergraduate legal education degree. Later one or three‐year education model is available (if a student has the bachelor degree of any other social science), after which a person gets the master degree of law, LLM (LLM ‐ Legum Litterarum Magister). It is worth mentioning that legal education system in the USA has a distinct feature, i.e. the majority of future jurists are able to get prepared for their legal bachelor studies during four years when they study at the law colleges. So, their education can take up to seven years. Moreover, in the USA the same educational model as in Lithuania is applied, when the students who acquire diverse bachelor specialties are accepted for the same master degree studies of law.

In some other countries, for instance, in Germany, a very distinctive legal education model dominates. Korioth (2006) states that this country has very deep traditions of legal education, it started to provide legal education in XIV century. In Germany the legal system is regulated by both federal and state legal acts, for this reason there have not been many changes in the discourse of legal education. Only in 2002, when the legal reform occurred in Germany, it influenced legal education and the legal studies were divided into particular types or specializations.

Legal education system of this country contains two main stages: the first stage includes not less than four years of studies; the second one presumes taking exams after the theoretical courses and completing practice for at least two years. After these two stages a future jurist has to take an integrated examination again, when his or her practical skills are evaluated, too; and only after that a person acquires the complete competence of a jurist. Consequently, in Germany great attention is being paid to the compulsory practice, as it creates the opportunity for a person to get acquainted with the activities of the law enforcement institutions of the country and gain practical skills. A young jurist, an assessor, achieves the necessary qualification to practice the law. Korioth (2006) states, that in this way, in several years (not less than six years, while usually it can take seven or even eight years) a versatile qualified jurist is educated, who has plenty of theoretical knowledge and practical skills, and who can work as a jurist, including a judge. So, a person can become a jurist only after he or she has taken the second state examination successfully. This double examination applied in Germany (after studies and after internship) creates the opportunity to educate a versatile jurist without checking a person’s ability to practice law one more time.

Meanwhile in Lithuania or the USA the universities provide qualification degree, however, a person not always can start practicing particular legal profession, as some positions require examination. For instance, in Lithuania, a person who has completed legal education cannot work as a judge or a lawyer. The 51 article of the Law on courts of the Republic of Lithuania (1994) states that a person can become a judge if he or she has had at least five years of work practice in the court and has taken a special examination successfully. The 7 article of the Law on the bar of the Republic of Lithuania (2004) states the requirements for a lawyer: a person seeking this position has to have at least five years of work practice in the court or to work as a lawyer assistant for at least two years. Only completing the above mentioned requirements a person can take a lawyer’s qualification examination. There is a similar system in the USA: the Bar examination board examines a person if he or she is qualified enough to practice the law.

Not only Germany has four‐year legal bachelor studies. Menon (2006) states that in Bangladesh this type of legal education model prevails as well, when a student completes four years at the university and acquires the legal bachelor diploma. In this country master degree studies last for one year. The students who study law at the colleges (for two years) can later continue their studies at the universities and achieve the bachelor degree. Menon (2006) emphasizes that the students who have already completed university education can study for the legal bachelor degree and gain it in two years.

The majority of scientists who analyze legal education systems notice that legal education models often undergo transformation in order to become more efficient. Patil (2010) proposes that theoretical and practical skills gained in legal education have to meet the developing legal practice requirements; meanwhile Menon (2006) considers that the law, being the tool of the social control, has to be studied in terms of the social context. Krishnamurthy (2008) has analyzed legal education model in India, and he has stated that not only legal studies themselves have to be oriented to the formation of practical skills, but also the lecturers’ practical experience is very important, and the students have to study as many common legal subjects as possible. He mentions that in terms of legal education clinical legal education is crucial, as the close link between the legal science and practice. It is worth mentioning that in educational institutions of Lithuania there are legal clinics, and the students studying the law have a real possibility to apply their theoretical knowledge in practice. For example, the main target of the legal clinic at the Faculty of Law of Vilnius University is to provide people with legal help for free, to consult them on different legal issues and motivate the legal education of the public. Searching for innovative legal education models Menon (2006) offers a new two‐year legal master degree programme for jurists who plan to work as lecturers of legal subjects or scientists in the legal sphere. He supposes that one‐year legal master studies that are typical nowadays are not sufficient enough, especially for those jurists who seek to work as lecturers or scientists in the sphere of law, as they

48

do not ensure acquiring pedagogical competencies. Irrespective of the variety of legal education systems, every single legal education model has to ensure particular equal standards of higher legal education and to guarantee providing a future jurist with common and special skills.

Differences of the competencies acquired in legal education

The analysis of the Lithuanian legal education system as well as the system of some different foreign countries has showed that legal education models are quite miscellaneous. In order to find out what competencies and skills are acquired according to diverse legal education models, it is necessary to analyze the content of the educational programmes and subjects; and to study the insights proposed by different scientists who have examined legal studies. These insights are related to the improvement of the educational programmes, the implication of new subjects into legal education, the implementation of efficient teaching methods in legal studies. For that reason amplification of acquired competencies will be analyzed in terms of the change of legal educational programmes and the change of educational subjects, as well as the methods of teaching (see Table 2).

Table 2

Scientists’ insights related to amplification of the competencies acquired in legal education

Amplification of the competencies acquired in legal education Researchers (country)

Change of educational programmes (update, optimization)

Change of educational subjects (update, optimization)

Methods of teaching

W. M. Sulivan (USA)

Integrating the values of a jurist’s profession into the subjects of the educational programme

Educational subjects related to the values of a jurist’s profession are included into the educational programme

Integral methods for the theoretical knowledge, practical skills and teaching about the profession of a jurist

P. D. Edelman (USA)

Constant update of the educational programme, including new educational subjects

Particular subjects, such as legal language and legal writing are integrated into the educational programme

Not analyzed

J. S. Patil (India)

Development of the balance of compulsory and optional, as well as theoretical and practical studies

Particular educational subjects (negotiations, analysis of legal decisions, scientific researches) are transferred from the list of common subjects into the list of compulsory subjects

Methods helping to form practical skills

S. Korioth (Germany)

Constant assessment and development of the balance of compulsory and optional subjects

Particular educational subjects (conflict management, rhetoric, meditation) are transferred from the list of common subjects into the list of compulsory subjects

Group work helping to form practical skills

R. van Swaaningen (Holland)

Systematic review of the educational programme, assessing the quality of particular educational subjects

Interdisciplinary criminology is emphasized in the educational programme

Not analyzed

R. Dunn, R. A. Boyle (USA)

Change of teaching methods according to the aim and results of the programme

Not analyzed Individual studying

E. Bieliūnas (Lithuania)

Systematic review of the educational programme, assessing the content of particular educational subjects and the balance of diverse subjects of the programme

Constant review of the content of subjects related to the classification of the criminal acts and criminal law doctrine

Methods (solving tasks, analyzing practical situations) helping to form practical skills

E. Latauskienė, S. Matulienė, R. Raudys (Lithuania)

Review of the content and the volume of particular subjects in the educational programme

Applied character and integrity of the criminal law is emphasized in the educational programme

Methods helping to form practical skills

A. Gavėnaitė (Lithuania)

Review of the content of particular subjects in the educational programme

Interdisciplinary criminology is emphasized in the educational programme

Not analyzed

Scientific literature states that legal education has to provide theoretical knowledge as well as practical skills,

despite the fact that in the majority of countries there can be an individual segmentation including some different components. For instance, in Lithuania competencies are acquired by four segments of skills. Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania “On approval of qualifications framework in Lithuania” (2010) states that rendering acquired competencies is specified through four groups of skills: knowledge, cognitive, practical and transferable skills which ensure acquired competencies as a whole: the graduate has to accumulate enough of knowledge, he or she has to be able to solve the problems related to the legal sphere, apply the legal norms in practice and be able to work in the fields indirectly related to the law. Scientists from the foreign countries offer slightly different segmentation of the skills through which competencies are acquired. Sulivan (2005) has analyzed the legal studies in the USA and he has proposed that all the studies have to involve three segments: intellectual, practical

49

and teaching values and ideals of the profession. He states that education is purposeful and it can ensure acquisition of the competencies only when these three basic segments are incorporated into educational programmes.

Assessing the process of the present legal education practical skills are especially emphasized, as it is crucial to form practical skills of the future jurists (Korioth, 2006, Patil, 2010). This sphere is also relevant in the legal education in Lithuania. The framework of legal education (2010) states that the main aims of legal education are to develop broad erudition, creative and critical thinking, implement diverse ways of interpretation of the law, and practical and legal reasoning skills. On the other hand, it can be noticed that the scientists emphasize another group of skills as well, i.e. the importance of theoretical knowledge. They treat the theory of the legal education as the starting point which later helps the teacher and the student of the law to develop the teaching and learning strategy (Thomas, 2000).

Nowadays scientific literature of different foreign countries analyzes the formation of a jurist’s competencies or enhancement of the available skills in the process of studying new subjects incorporated in the legal education programmes. In Lithuania as well as abroad legal education is characterized by a wide variety of legal programmes. Ministry of education and science of the Republic of Lithuania provides the system of open information, counseling and guidance system (AIKOS), which finds about 60 university programmes and 11 non‐university programmes of legal education in Lithuania. AIKOS has registered slightly more than 10 university programmes on diverse legal spheres, which require secondary education (law, international law, law and customs activities, law and management etc.), and more than 30 specialized university programmes on different legal spheres, which require the minimum university education (administrative law, law, psychology of law, biolaw, law and management, law and penitentiary activities, etc.). The content of these programmes makes it evident that acquired competencies are formed through the narrow‐profile studies of different legal spheres. It is worth mentioning that in some foreign countries legal education is very similar in terms of this aspect, as it is offered to choose various specialized legal education programmes, especially in master degree studies (India, USA). For example, Patil (2010) indicates that there are 16 higher education institutions in India, which provide several (usually 10 and more) different specialized educational programmes (especially for the master degree).

There are some main groups of subjects which do not cause any discussions in terms of acquiring particular competencies. In legal education there are three basic groups of subjects which help to acquire necessary skills: 1) the subjects which provide the fundamental knowledge (theory of law, history of legal theories, etc.); 2) the subjects which provide knowledge on the law (administrative law, criminal law, criminal procedure, civil law, international law, constitutional law, etc.); 3) the subjects which provide knowledge on other social sciences (professional ethics, philosophy of law, sociology of law, common psychology and psychology of law, etc.).

There are not many scientific articles analyzing the subjects of the legal studies and competencies necessary for the jurists in Lithuania. There are several scientific papers oriented to the content of the legal disciplines. Latauskiene et al (2005) analyze criminalities as an integral science. Bieliunas (2008) studies the guides for qualification of criminal acts, Gavenaite‐Pociene (2007) and Sakalauskas (2008) analyze the essence of criminology as a discipline and its tendencies. Experts of the Lithuanian law emphasize the importance of the subjects from the second group, i.e. the subjects that provide knowledge on the law, as they help to form the competencies directly related to the legal practice. Law scientists in Lithuania and abroad support the idea of interdisciplinary in legal education. For instance, Swaaningen (2008) states that interdisciplinary helps to form such competencies that are characterized by providence and common understanding, the ability to think clearly, to dissociate oneself from the materials in question, to find the correlation, to have methodological and social knowledge as well as the jurist’s skills.

Scientists from the foreign countries also pay attention to the content analysis of the legal subjects (Edelman, 2010, USA; Patil, 2010, India; Korioth, 2006, Germany; Sulivan, 2005, USA). They offer various ideas related to the improvement of the legal education: it is important for a future jurist to study the legal language and the legal writing as they enhance the necessary skills of a person working in the legal sphere (the art of negotiations, legal analysis, the art of persuasion, etc.) (Patil, 2010, India; Edelman, 2010, USA); the content of the legal studies must be complemented with the questions related to the history of the profession, its aims, structure, values, effective communication, the necessary skills, etc. (Sulivan, 2005). Integral and harmonized legal education in which legal subjects are combined with common subjects can help to develop the analytical skills of the future jurists, and these skills help to perform the legal analysis of the texts and to assess their legal character. Such a kind of legal education can also help to enhance structuring skills, which are necessary to combine ideas of the law and the ability to ground one’s decisions related to the settlement of legal conflicts. One more type of skills being improved is the group of logical skills and those of critical thinking, which help to interpret the important data in a meaningful way, with the help of various law doctrines; to state the conclusions, to perceive the legal sources in a systematic way, and to apply the principals of the systematization of the legal acts.

The content of legal education programs is not the same in Lithuania and abroad, however, it is made up of different combinations of compulsory and optional subjects. Scientific literature pays great attention to the balance of particular compulsory and optional subjects. Conflict management, rhetoric, meditation, analysis of legal decisions are very important for a jurist, as they help to form the skills necessary in everyday work activities, related to the

50

sphere of the social communication between a jurist and a client (Edelman, 2010; Patil, 2010). In Lithuania meditation, legal argument and legal decision, psychology of law and rhetoric are included into the list of optional subjects.

In the process of studying, other factors are also important in terms of acquisition of necessary competencies: teaching methods, cooperation of a teacher and a student in the process of education. Consequently, in order to ensure these skills, it is important not only to analyze the content of the programmes, but also to examine the optimal teaching and learning methods. The scientists emphasize the advantages of the group work, and they indicate that common lectures are absolutely inefficient in teaching civil, criminal or public law (Korioth, 2006). It is also recommended to assess the students’ expectations and to form the teacher‐student communication with their help. Glesner, Fines (2002) states the position of a teacher during legal education: he or she has to begin with forming firm fundamental erudition and to define the aims and means of teaching a particular subject as clearly as possible. According to him, stimulation of communication and reflection, assessment of flexibility and beliefs will help a student to find a way towards studying on his or her own; will involve a student into planning the studies; will combine his or her interest and enthusiasm.

Nowadays it can be noticed that the majority of scientists analyzing legal education emphasize an individual learning style being the most efficient (Dunn, Boyle, 1998). They offer to help students become self‐learners, as it is especially important in terms of legal education. The shift from the teaching to learning encourages the student studying the law to be curious, to think critically, to analyze and assess the content of the legal acts individually. Lithuanian jurists maintain this position, too, and they state that not everything can be regulated by the law, for that reason it is crucial to encourage a student to think in a critical way. As it is obvious that not everything can be regulated by the law and not everything can be sustained in the learned norms and procedures, a jurist has often to solve a case with reference to the common conception of the law, as well as principals of the law derived from it (Vaisvila, 2009). It means that competencies acquired in legal education have to be formed in the educational programmes of the new generations, and these skills have to help a future jurist analyze the situation and the problems in a creative way, despite of the fact that these problems may not have a legal act regulating their solutions.

Discussion

The analysis of the current system of the legal education distinguishes two major interrelated elements: models of legal education and competencies acquired in legal education. Discussions about the content of these elements form reasonable expectations to train a professional jurist.

Recently diversification of the legal education system has showed up in Lithuania and abroad: new legal education models are needed, the number of the educational programmes increases rapidly. It is paradoxical that despite of the fact that the modern legal education system is not clearly defined, the trend to implement various legal education models still exists, the programs are very diverse, the studies have different length, sometimes there are not even bachelor studies, and the jurists complete their master degree studies according to very narrow specialized programmes. However, these tendencies can create preconditions for receding from a classic model of the legal education and for deviation from the standards of the jurist’s profession. On the other hand, a lot of questions and doubts are raised by the volume of legal education.

The author believes that there are several questions which are quite doubtful in terms of the modern legal education system – are various legal education models efficient enough and do they ensure acquisition of common and specific competencies? Do the second stage studies guarantee the highest professional qualification of a jurist? Is it possible to declare that a person is a qualified jurist if he or she has not studied the main legal curriculum which is usually included into the legal undergraduate studies? Finally, would it be possible for such a future jurist to seek the doctoral studies? The variety of educational programmes creates preconditions for the future jurists to acquire unequal competencies oriented to a particular narrow legal specialization.

Though the majority of scientists acknowledge the necessity to enhance the quality of legal education and improve the acquired competencies, the sharp diversification of the legal studies does not let us to define the content of the common and special skills clearly enough. This great variety of legal education programmes forms a distinctive and too discrepant content of the competencies acquired in the legal studies. On the other hand, the scientists unanimously state that in the process of forming a jurist’s skills it is crucially important not only to acquire the knowledge of the law, but also to achieve skills on common subjects such as social and communicative subjects.

Thus, the author states that the modern legal education system is still in the process of its development. Nowadays, the legal studies lack some certainty and reasonable viewpoint which would form the classic, mature and even legal education model, would ensure acquisition of equal and clearly defined common and specific skills, and would maintain the balance of the legal subjects and the subjects of other disciplines oriented to the standards of the legal profession. These discussions as well as similar ones create new prospects for the further researches.

51

Conclusions

The current legal education system is dominated by the educational models which vary in terms of their length and educational programmes. Applying diverse models of studies brings up a tendency to make the process of the legal education more efficient and harmonized, considering the requirements of the expanding global legal practice. However, constant diversification of the legal education models cannot deviate from the standards of the jurist’s profession and must ensure that a future jurist will acquire common and special competencies.

As far as the discourse of the competencies acquired in legal education is concerned, it is clear that there is a tendency to enhance the skills acquired in the process of studying by the update and optimization of the educational programmes, the teaching methods that form practical skills, and the methodology that helps a future jurist to form and implement intellectual, analytical, and practical skills. In terms of social communication of a jurist and a client, communicative, social, and cognitive competencies are very important. Thus, in the process of legal education more attention should be paid to the development of communicative and social subjects. Moreover, competencies acquired in legal studies can be enhanced by hermeneutical methodology, which improves a future jurist’s skills to analyze, explain and interpret the legal text data and to formulate reasoned conclusions.

References

1. Acar, F. E. (2008). An Assessment of Social Studies Competency of Turkish Classroom Teachers. International Journal of Instruction. 1 (2). Available at: http://www.e‐iji.net/dosyalar/iji_2008_2_5.pdf

2. Bieliunas, E. (2008). Guidelines on qualifying studies of criminal acts. Law. 66 (1), 19‐33. 3. Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality learning at University. Suffolk: St Edmundsbury Press. 4. Bonnet, P. (2009). Development of a competency‐based work‐integrated learning program to facilitate science, engineering

and technology retention in South Africa as a developing country. Available at: http://apjce.org/volume_10/apjce_10_2_65_74.pdf

5. Boyle, R., Dunn, R. (1998). Teaching Law Students trough Individual Learning Styles. Albany Law Review. 5, 213‐247. 6. Edelman, D. P. (2010). Making a Case for Legal Writing Instruction Worldwide. Jurisprudence. 1 (119), 111‐123. 7. Gavenaite, A. (2007). Critical criminology in the continental Europe: origins and main ideas. Legal Issues. 3 (57), 43‐61. 8. Gevurtz, F. A, Carter, L. E., Davies, J. A., Landsberg, B. K., Main, T. O., Malloy, M. P., Sprankling, J. G. (2005). Report

Regarding the Pacific McGeorge Workshop on Globalizing the Law School Curriculum. Global Business & Development Law Journal. 19, 1‐64. Available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=870088

9. Glesner, A, Fines, B. (2002). The Impact of Expectations on Teaching and Learning. Gonzaga Law Review: Teaching and Learning. p. 89‐128.

10. Jotautiene, M. Tidikis, R. (2001). The change of the system of vocational training: analysis of some controversial aspects. Social Sciences. 3 (29), 53–62.

11. Juceviciene, P. (2007). Learning City. Kaunas: Technologija. 12. Juraleviciene, J. (2003). Theoretical and practical aspects of the civil servants’ professional competencies. Public Policy and

Administration. 5, 84‐90. 13. Korioth, S. (2006). Legal Education in Germany Today. Wisconsin International Law Journal. 1, 85‐107. 14. Krishnamurthy, Ch. (2008). Legal Education and Legal Profession in India. International Journal of Legal Information. 2, 245‐

264. 15. Latauskiene, E., Matuliene, S., Raudys, R. (2003). Forensic science as integral science: substantiation and practice.

Jurisprudence. 43(35), 99‐109. 16. Lehoczky, C. K. (2004). European Enlargement: A Comparative View of Hungarian Labor Law. G. A. Berman and K. Pistor

(Ed.s): Law and Governance in an Enlarged European Union. Hart Publishing. p. 209‐238. 17. Lepaite, D. (2001). Competence as the aim of education: methodological justification of the main differences between

secondary vocational and higher education levels. Social Sciences. 2 (28), 28–38. 18. Levy, D. A. (2010). A Guide to L.L.M. and Graduate Law Study in the United States. Available at:

http://www.ili.org/orientation/llm_guide.html 19. Lipinskiene, D. (2002). Educational environment enabling a student to study. Doctoral thesis. Kaunas University of

technology. 20. Malinauskiene, D. (2010). Early childhood teachers‘ professional competencies: diagnostic aspect. Vocational Education:

Research and Reality. 19, 102‐114. 21. Menon, N. R. (2006). Legal Education and Training in Bangladesh. Strengthening the Criminal Justice System, 8, 75‐87. 22. Mukherjee, D. (2010). Law Schools and Legal Education in India. Available at:

http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=dyutimoy_mukherjee 23. Patil, J. S. (2010). Higher Legal Education in India: A Need for Change. Available at:

http://advocatesivasubramanian.lawyersclubindia.com/mobile/articles/display_article_list_mobile.asp?article_id=3151 24. Patry, J. L. (2010). Happenstance and the Cognitive‐Affective Personality System: Optimizing Change in Vocational

Education. Vocational Education: Research and Reality. 19, 168‐181. 25. Peeters, H. (2009). 10 ways to blend academic learning within professional police training. Report materials. CEPOL Seminar

“European Police Education Systems”. Greece, Thessaloniki, 30th of November – 2nd of December. 26. Sakalauskas, G. (2008). Interdisciplinary criminology: experience and perspectives. Legal Issues. 1 (59), 77‐102. 27. Simpson, O. (2000). Supporting Students in Open and Distance Learning. London: Kogan Page Limited.

52

28. Sulivan, W. M. (2005). Work and Integrity: The Crisis and Promise of Professionalism in America. San Francisco, Caliphornia: Jossey‐Bass.

29. Stanikuniene, B., Juceviciene, P. (2001). The conception of the teachers’ studying environment at university. Systems and didactics of the higher education: conference and report materials. p. 322‐329.

30. Swaaningen, R. (2008). The challenge of interdisciplinarity in criminology. Legal Issues. 3 (61), 19‐29. 31. Sveikauskas, V. (2006). Tendencies on ability related to competence education when realizing undergraduate public health

study system. Medicina. 42(3), 242–252. 32. Tijuneliene, O. (1998). The teacher at a higher education institution: scientist‐educator‐psychologist. Systems and didactics

of the higher education: conference and report materials. p. 40‐45. 33. Thomas, A. M. (2000). Laying the Foundation for Better Student Learning in the Twenty‐First Century: Incorporating an

Integrated Theory of Legal Education into Doctrinal Pedagogy. Widener Law Symposium Journal, 10, 49‐137. 34. Thomas P. (2010). Why Study Law in Britain. Available at: http://www.intstudy.com/articles/ec184a08.htm 35. Vaisvila, A. (2009). The Theory of Law. Vilnius: Justitia. 36. Whalen‐Bridge, H. (2008). The Lost Narrative: The Connection between Legal Narrative and Legal Ethics. Journal of the

Association of Legal Writing Directors. 7, 229‐246. Available at: http://www.alwd.org/JALWD/CurrentIssues/ 2010/pdfs/whalenbridge.pdf

37. Zukauskiene, M. (2010). Education of Physiotherapists for vocational activity. Vocational Education: Research and Reality. 19, 224‐239.

Documents

1. Law on Courts of the Republic of Lithuania, May 31 d. 1994. Nr. I‐480. State news. 1994, No. 46‐851. 2. Law on the Bar of the Republic of Lithuania, March 18 d. 2004. Nr.IX‐2066. State news. 2004, No. 50‐1632. 3. Law on higher education and research of the Republic of Lithuania, April 30 d., 2009. Nr. XI‐242. State news. 2009, No. 54‐

2140. 4. Resolution On the qualification requirements of higher education in law for the persons who wish to hold, under procedure

established by laws, the position of a judge of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania, February 20, 2008. State news, 2008, No. 23‐852.

5. Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania On approval of the list of legal positions No. 1285, August 13 d. 2002.

6. Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania On approval of qualifications framework in Lithuania No. 535, May 4 d. 2010.

7. Order of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania On approval of the framework of common requirements for Master degree studies No. V‐826, June 3 d. 2010.

8. Order of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania On approval of the framework of legal education No. V‐1385, August 19 d. 2010.

9. Order of the Ministers of Education and Science and Social Security and Labour of the Republic of Lithuania On approval of the standard of legal education No. ISAK‐2093/11‐301, December 31, 2004.

10. Bachelor degree programme “Law and Customs Activities” (Lithuania, 2008). 11. Bachelor degree programme “Law and Penitentiary Activities” (Lithuania, 2008). 12. Bachelor degree programme “Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 13. Bachelor degree programme “Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 14. Bachelor degree programme “Law and Management” (Lithuania, 2008). 15. Bachelor degree programme “Law and Police Activities” (Lithuania, 2008). 16. Bachelor degree programme “Law and State Border Guard” (Lithuania, 2008). 17. Master degree programme “Law and Customs and Tax Institution Activities” (Lithuania, 2008). 18. Master degree programme “Law and Penitentiary Activities” (Lithuania, 2007). 19. Master degree programme “Informatics Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 20. Master degree programme “Commercial Law” (Lithuania, 2006). 21. Master degree programme “Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 22. Master degree programme “Law and Management” (Lithuania, 2008). 23. Master degree programme “Administrative Law” (Lithuania, 2007). 24. Master degree programme “European Union Law” (Lithuania, 2007). 25. Master degree programme “Labour and Social Security Law” (Lithuania, 2007). 26. Master degree programme “International Protection of Human Rights” (Lithuania, 2008). 27. Master degree programme “International Maritime Law” (Lithuania, 2007). 28. Master degree programme “Biolaw” (Lithuania, 2008). 29. Master degree programme “International Law” (Lithuania, 2006). 30. Master degree programme “Financial Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 31. Master degree programme “Intellectual property Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 32. Master degree programme “Parliament Law and State Institutions” (Lithuania, 2008). 33. Master degree programme “Transport Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 34. Master degree programme Business Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 35. Master degree programme “Law and Police Activities” (Lithuania, 2007). 36. Master degree programme “Forensic Examination” (Lithuania, 2008). 37. Master degree programme “Law” (Lithuania, 2008).

53

38. Master degree programme “Law” (Lithuania, 2008). 39. Master degree programme “International Law” (Lithuania, 2006). 40. Master degree programme “Law” (Lithuania, 2008).

Santrauka

KOMPETENCIJŲ, ĮGYTŲ TEISĖS STUDIJOSE, DISKURSAS

ŽANETA NAVICKIENĖ

Reikšminiai žodžiai: teisės studijos, , teisės studijose įgytos kompetencijos, teisės studijų modeliai.

Demokratinėje teisinėje valstybėje teisininko profesijai keliami dideli reikalavimai. Vakarų teisės tradicijoje aukščiausios teisininko profesinės kvalifikacijos įgijimas neatsiejamas nuo aukštojo universitetinio teisinio išsilavinimo. Tinkamai parengtų, aukštos profesinės kvalifikacijos teisininkų veikla lemia ne tik efektyvią teisinę praktiką, užtikrina teisines vertybes, bet ir garantuoja visuomenės pasitikėjimą. Todėl viena iš esminių grandžių, užtikrinančių būsimo teisininko parengimą, yra įgyjamų kompetencijų stiprinimas teisės studijose.

Teisininkų įgyjamų kompetencijų diskursas – iki šiol mažai analizuota tema, naujo požiūrio reikalaujantis tyrimas. Todėl autorė, nagrinėdama skirtingas teisės studijų sistemas, siekia išsiaiškinti, ar veikiantys teisės studijų modeliai yra efektyvūs ir sukuria galimybę įgyti reikalingas bendrąsias ir specialiąsias kompetencijas, užtikrinti tam tikrus vienodus aukštojo teisinio išsilavinimo kokybės standartus.

Šio straipsnio tikslas – analizuoti teisininkų rengimo modelius, atskleisti teisės studijose įgyjamas skirtingas kompetencijas. Todėl šiame straipsnyje analizuojama teisininkų rengimo sistema ir galimybės efektyvinti teisės studijas stiprinant įgyjamas kompetencijas. Iš principo pripažįstama, jog dabartinė teisininkų rengimo sistema nėra tiksliai apibrėžta: Lietuvoje ir daugelyje užsienio valstybių vyrauja skirtingi teisininkų rengimo modeliai, pasižymintys didele studijų programų įvairove, skirtinga teisės studijų programų trukme. Tačiau kad ir kokios būtų studijų formos, teisininko kvalifikaciniam laipsniui įgyti skirtų teisės studijų programos apimtis turi būti ne mažesnė už nustatytą standartą, kuris turi būti orientuotas į visuotinai pripažįstamą teisės studijų branduolį ir privalo apimti visus pagrindinius studijų dalykus, ir neapsiriboti kuria nors viena teisės sritimi. Kita vertus, turi būti studijuojamos ne tik teisinės disciplinos, bet ir tam tikri ne teisės krypties dalykai, padedantys būsimam teisininkui įgyti ne tik specialiųjų, bet ir bendrųjų kompetencijų, pavyzdžiui, socialinių, komunikacinių, kognityvinių, efektyvių ir elgsenos.

Straipsnyje pateikiami mokslininkų, nagrinėjančių teisės studijų sistemas, požiūriai į teisės studijų modelių transformaciją ir naujų kelių ieškojimą efektyvinant teisės studijų kokybę. Iš principo pripažįstama, jog pastaruoju metu išryškėjęs teisininkų rengimo diversifikavimas vis dėlto turėtų būti orientuotas į teisininko profesijos standartus nepriklausomai nuo to, kiek ir kokie vyrautų nauji teisininkų rengimo modeliai. Bet kuris pasirinktas teisės studijų modelis turi užtikrinti tam tikrus vienodus aukštojo teisinio išsilavinimo kokybės standartus ir garantuoti būsimam teisininkui bendrųjų ir specialiųjų kompetencijų suteikimą.

Autorė, nagrinėdama teisės studijų efektyvinimo galimybes, analizuoja įgyjamų kompetencijų stiprinimą per teisės studijų programos, atskirų mokymo dalykų kaitą ir taikytinų mokymo metodų prizmę, pateikia Lietuvos ir užsienio šalių mokslininkų, nagrinėjančių teisės studijas, įžvalgas dėl teisės studijų programų turinio tobulinimo, naujų disciplinų (teisinė kalba, teisinis rašymas, derybų ar įtikinimo menas) implikavimo į teisės studijas, efektyvių mokymo (si) metodų, formuojančių praktinius būsimo teisininko įgūdžius, panaudojimo šiose studijose. Teisininko socialinio bendravimo su klientais plotmėje svarbios ir komunikacinės, socialinės, kognityvinės kompetencijos. Todėl autorės nuomone, teisininkų rengimo procese vis tik turėtų būti skiriama daugiau dėmesio komunikavimo ir socialinių dalykų plėtotei, o įgyjamos kompetencijos galėtų būti labiau stiprinamos per hermeneutinę metodologiją, ugdančią būsimo teisininko gebėjimus analizuoti, aiškinti ir interpretuoti teisinio teksto duomenis ir formuluoti argumentuotas išvadas.

Accepted for publication: 18 March 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 kovo 18

54



PUBLIC HEALTH

ROLE OF ORAL HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS IN EARLY RECOGNITION OF BREATHING DISTURBANCES DURING SLEEP

JURGITA ANDRUŠKIENĖ


GIEDRIUS VARONECKAS, ARVYDAS MARTINKĖNAS

Institute of Psychophysiology and Rehabilitation c/o Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Lithuania

Abstract

Objectives of the study were (1) to demonstrate a link between oral health and breathing disturbances during sleep; (2) to establish the prevalence of snoring and breathing pauses during sleep in the general population of Palanga and evaluate the role of oral health care specialists in early recognition and management of sleep disordered breathing.

Methods. Frequency of snoring and breathing pauses during sleep was estimated by questioning randomly selected 35–74 years old citizens of Palanga. Subjective data about self‐evaluated sleep quality was obtained from 1602 persons, 600 (37.5 %) males and 1002 (62.5 %) females. Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire was used for the identification of frequency of snoring and breathing pauses during sleep. The role of oral care in early diagnosis and management of sleep disordered breathing was described using the method of scientific literature analysis.

Results. Males more often, as compared with females, snore habitually, respectively 25.5 % vs. 19.6 %, p<0.05. Habitual snoring is significantly more prevalent in the age of 65‐74 years, as compared with the age group 35‐44 years, respectively 25.3 % vs. 12.0 %, p<0.001. Persons, living in families, snore more often, as compared with single, divorced or widowed persons, respectively 84.8 % vs. 1.0 %, 9.10 % and 5.0 %, p<0.001. Persons with the university or higher education more often snore habitually, as compared with primary education, respectively 21.5 % and 53.9 % vs. 6.9 %, p<0.001. Symptoms of sleep apnea are more common among males, as compared with females, respectively 5.1 % vs. 1.4 %, p<0.001. Complaints about habitual breathing pauses during sleep are more common in the age group of 55‐64 years, as compared with 35‐44 age group, respectively 5.9 % vs. 0.5 %, p<0.05.

The oral health care specialists sometimes are the first professionals to suspect the signs of sleep disordered breathing – sleep apnea syndrome. Early diagnosis of sleep disordered breathing permits the choice of treatment, which prevents future complications.

Conclusions. A dentist may be the first health care provider to identify a person with sleep apnea syndrome because the following signs and symptoms often are recognizable in the dental clinic: male gender, obesity, increased neck circumference, a thick neck; excessive fat deposition in the palate, tongue (macroglossia) and pharynx; a long soft palate; a retrognathic mandible; and calcified carotid artery atheromas on panoramic and lateral cephalometric radiographs. The most common complaints among patients, which experience sleep disordered breathing, are habitual snoring and xerostomia, especially at morning time after awakening. Almost one quarter (21.8 %) of the Palanga adult citizens suffers from habitual snoring. Breathing pauses during sleep regularly experience 1.6 % of the investigated population. Males in Palanga more often, as compared with females, snore habitually, respectively 25.5 % vs. 19.6 %, p<0.05. Symptoms of sleep apnea are more common among males, as compared with females, respectively 5.1 % vs. 1.4 %, p<0.001. The dental professionals should assist patients, starting with the recognition of sleep‐related disorders, referring them to a physician for evaluation and assisting in the management of sleep disorders. It is essential that oral health care specialist work as a part of the treatment team with physician or sleep specialist in treating sleep apnea with intra oral devices.

Keywords: breathing pauses during sleep, oral health care, snoring, sleep disordered breathing.

Introduction

Obstructive sleep apnea is a common disorder with major neurocognitive and cardiovascular consequences (Butt et al, 2010; Harada et al, 2011). It is estimated that more than one quarter of the population is at risk for obstructive sleep apnea, with increased prevalence noted in populations with hypertension, coronary artery disease, stroke, and atrial fibrillation (Kohli et al, 2011). Repetitive apneic events disrupt the normal physiologic interactions between sleep and the cardiovascular system. Such sleep fragmentation, as well as abnormalities evident in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (increased sympathetic activation, vascular endothelial dysfunction, increased oxidative

55

stress, inflammation, increased platelet aggregability, metabolic dysregulation), may be implicated in the initiation and progression of cardiac and vascular disease (Shamsuzzaman et al, 2003). Consequences of obstructive sleep apnea include disruption of the sleep cycle, fragmentation of the sleep cycle, sleepiness, fatigue, headaches, cognitive impairments, irritability and mood disturbance, the higher risk of accidents at work and car accidents, the decrease of the quality of life and various psychiatric and psychological complications (Gałecki et al, 2011).

Clinical prediction rules that incorporate features such as snoring, witnessed apnea or self reported gasping, hypertension, increased body mass index or neck circumference, and male gender have moderate to high sensitivity and specificity in identifying individuals at risk for moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea. Findings frequently noted on examination of the upper airway and oral cavity include posterior lateral wall narrowing, enlarged tonsils, tongue, and/or uvula, low‐lying soft palate and retrognathia (Kapur, 2010). Oral health care specialists could play a very important role in early detection of obstructive sleep apnea, so it is essential for dental hygienists and dentists to be aware of the most prevalent sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea.

Research questions of the study are: do the patients with sleep apnea need the consultation of the oral health care specialists? What is the prevalence of sleep disordered breathing in the general population?

The focus of the research: the relationship between the sleep disordered breathing and oral health problems. The aims of the study were (1) to demonstrate a link between oral health and breathing disturbances during

sleep; (2) to establish the prevalence of snoring and breathing pauses during sleep in the general population of Palanga and evaluate the role of oral health care specialists in early recognition and management of sleep disordered breathing.

Health consequences of snoring and sleep apnea

Sleep apnea is probably the most prevalent of all sleep disorders and is classified as central, obstructive, or mixed. According to the severity it can be defined as mild, moderate, or severe. The prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome is approximately 4% for men and 2% for women in the age‐group of 30‐60 years (Kapur, 2010). In central sleep apnea there is a diminution of oxygen entry into the lungs due to the respiratory (chest) muscles failing to act as a result of a central nervous system disorder. Obstructive sleep apnea is characterized by repeated increases in resistance to airflow within the upper airway, causing obstruction. As a result there is blood oxygen (oxyhemoglobin) desaturation and carbon dioxide accumulation and, in long standing cases of the syndrome, it results headache, systemic hypertension, dysrhythmias, depression, stroke and angina (Baran, Richert, 2003).

Patients with obstructive sleep apnea may have memory problems, difficulty in concentrating, night drooling of saliva, depression, irritability, xerostomia and gasping for breath at night. Snoring has also been identified as a possible risk factor for arterial hypertension, coronary artery disease, and stroke. Poor work performance, occupational accidents, reduction in social interactions and other negatively affected aspects of quality of life (Goncalves et al, 2004) appear to be associated with untreated obstructive sleep apnea. There have been reports of exacerbations of epilepsy or asthma in patients with untreated or undiagnosed sleep apnea (Bohadana et al, 2002). Patients with moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea have an up to fifteen‐fold risk increase of motor vehicle accidents that constitutes a serious and often underestimated hazard on the roads (Horstmann et al, 2000).

Habitual snoring, independently of diagnosed obstructive sleep apnea, is related to several daytime symptoms: excessive daytime sleepiness, falling asleep involuntarily during the daytime, waking up unrefreshed, daytime fatigue, and a dry mouth on awakening (Svensson et al, 2008). Dry mouth on awakening is a known symptom of sleep apnea and is probably due to increased breathing through an open mouth. Patients spent significantly more time with the mouth open during sleep, and that the opening of the mouth increased progressively during apneic episodes. Opening of the mouth has been found to be associated with an inferior‐posterior movement of the mandible, a movement that decreases the diameter of the pharynx and increases upper airway collapsibility and respiratory resistance in healthy volunteers (Oksenberg et al, 2006).

Anatomic features observed radiographically in patients with obstructive sleep apnea include narrow mandible arch, maxillary and mandible retrognathism, increased lower facial height, lower and more anterior position of the hyoid bone, reduced pharyngeal area, increased cranio‐cervical angle, decreased distance between the base of the tongue and the posterior pharyngeal wall, hypertrophied tonsils and adenoids, over‐erupted maxillary and mandibular dentition and enlarged tongue (Wong et al, 2005).

Role of oral health care providers in recognition and treatment of snoring and sleep apnea

The role of dentistry in sleep disorders is becoming more significant, especially in co‐managing patients with simple snoring and mild to moderate obstructive sleep apnea. The practicing dental professional has an opportunity to assist patients, starting with the recognition of sleep‐related disorders, referring them to a physician for evaluation, and assisting in the management of sleep disorders. Each specialization in dentistry needs to be aware of sleep disorders and their potential impact on health (Padma et al, 2007). The recognition and treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea are two medical areas where dentistry can play a valuable role. A dentist may be the first health care provider to identify a person with sleep apnea syndrome because its salient signs and symptoms often are

56

recognizable in the dental clinic. The classic signs and symptoms of sleep apnea syndrome may be recognizable by dental practitioners. Common findings in the medical history include daytime sleepiness, snoring, hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clinical findings include male gender, obesity, increased neck circumference, a thick neck; excessive fat deposition in the palate, tongue (macroglossia) and pharynx; a long soft palate; a retrognathic mandible; and calcified carotid artery atheromas on panoramic and lateral cephalometric radiographs.

Examination of oral cavity can be a valuable measure to identify some pathology related to disturbed breathing during sleep. Because obstructive sleep apnea and periodontitis are associated with systemic inflammation and cardiovascular morbidity some of authors have found an association between these two disorders. After a standard periodontal examination in a group of 66 (54 men and 12 women) treatment‐naive patients diagnosed with sleep apnea syndrome, the prevalence of periodontitis was 77‐79%. When sleep‐related variables were compared against periodontal variables, significant correlations were found between periodontal clinical attachment level and total sleep time. (Gunaratnam et al, 2009).

Obstructive sleep apnea treatment goal is to restore normal breathing during sleep, and decrease excessive daytime sleepiness, neuropsychological and cardiovascular alterations, at the same time it should offer the patient good quality of life, without side effects or risks (Fritsch et al, 2001).

The recognition and treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea are two areas where dentistry can play a valuable role. Oral appliance therapy has been accepted by the American Sleep Disorders Association as an appropriate treatment modality for mild to moderate obstructive sleep apnea. It is essential, however, that dentists work as a part of the treatment team and not assume responsibility for diagnosis and treatment without the involvement of a physician or sleep specialist (Barsh, 1996).

After confirmation of the diagnosis by a physician, dentists can participate in management of the disorder by fabricating mandibular advancement appliances and performing surgical procedures that prevent recurrent airway obstruction.

The main clinical symptoms reported by patients are dental, joint and muscular discomfort, hyper salivation and xerostomia, reduction in headache frequency and improvement of snoring in aspects of frequency and intensity (de Almeida et al, 2005).

Treatment options for obstructive sleep apnea include sleep hygiene, avoidance of alcohol and other stimulants, adequate body position and weight loss, surgical procedures, such as partial glossectomy, uvulopalatopharyngoplasty, maxillary and mandibular advancement procedures, and clinical treatments, such as continuous positive air pressure procedure (CPAP) and using of intra oral devices (Randerath et al, 2002).

Dental assessment before treatment includes dental history and an oral examination focusing on occlusion, periodontal status, tooth mobility, parafunctional habits, wear facets (generalized / isolated), dental decay intensity index, charting, recording the sensitivity of teeth, tori, and the amount of overbite and over jet present. The dental, skeletal midlines and temporomandibular joint status have to be recorded prior to treatment planning (Padma et al, 2007).

Oral appliances are worn only during sleep and work to enlarge the airway by moving the tongue (anteriorly) or the mandible to enlarge the airway. Whether they change the airway shape or increase the cross‐sectional area of the upper airway is not clear. It is hypothesized that these appliances may also affect upper airway muscle tone and thus decreases their collapsibility. Movement of the tongue or mandible anteriorly can increase the cross‐sectional size of the airway and hence oral appliances help in increasing the airway size. Activation of the upper airway dilator muscles by the appliance could cause a decrease in airway collapsibility and this may contribute to preservation of airway patency during sleep, although the increase in airway size may be the most important factor preventing airway occlusion. A tongue‐retaining device is a custom‐made soft acrylic appliance that covers the upper and lower teeth and has an anterior plastic bulb. It uses negative suction pressure to hold the tongue in a forward position inside the bulb. By holding the tongue in a forward direction through its attachment to the genial tubercle, it stabilizes the mandible and hyoid bone, thus preventing retro lapse of the tongue. These devices reverse pharyngeal obstruction both at the level of the oropharynx and the hypo pharynx, thereby enlarging the airway and reducing snoring and the related apnea. Factors which predict the response of the sleep disorder to oral appliances include the age of the patient, marital situation, abstinence from stimulants such as caffeine and alcohol, change in weight over 12 months or weight loss, lowering of body mass index (Cartwright, 2001). The most frequent side effects of oral – appliances are dental malocclusion (21%), temporomandibular joint pain (15 %) and dislocation. Tongue abrasion, oral mucosal dryness, excessive salivation, and gagging are some of the reactions to tongue advancement technique (Padma et al., 2007). Complications with oral appliances include limited degree of lateral freedom during jaw movements. Recalls are necessary at a minimum at 2 weeks, 1 month, and thereafter every 6 months (Ivanhoe, 2000). Almost all (95 %) of patients are satisfied with the treatment using oral appliances. The most frequent reasons why patients discontinued wearing appliances are sense of discomfort (44.4 %), little or no effect (33.6 %) or switch to nasal continuous positive airway pressure (23.3 %). Snoring is satisfactorily controlled in 75.6 % of users and in 43.2 % of nonusers. Side effects, such as dry mouth and tooth and/or jaw discomfort, are more frequent and more severe in the nonusers (de Almeida et al, 2005).

57


Sample

Random stratified selection among 35–74 years old citizens of Palanga was performed by the Residents’ Register Service. In total 2500 persons were selected. The study was approved by Bioethics Committee of Lithuania. Questionnaires were sent by post. Subjective data about self‐evaluated sleep quality was obtained from 1602 persons, 600 (37.5 %) males and 1002 (62.5 %) females, aged 35‐74 years. According to the age respondents were divided into 4 groups: 35–44 years (N=402), 45–54 years (N=390), 55–64 years (N=438) and 65–74 years (N=372).

Methods

Statistical analysis of the data was performed by using the SPSS 12.0 software package. The chi‐square test with a Yates correction or Fisher exact test was used to evaluate the significance of the association between the categorical variables and categorical values. The comparison of proportions between groups was performed using z test. Proportions results were presented as percentages with 95% confidence intervals (CI). P‐values less than 0.05 were interpreted as statistically significant.

Research tool

Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire (Partinen, Gislason, 1995) was used for the identification of frequency of snoring and breathing pauses during sleep. Questionnaire General Data was used to collect the information about family status, education and other sociodemographic characteristics of respondents.

Results

Males more often, as compared with females, snore habitually, respectively 25.5 % (95 % CI 22.0 ‐ 29.0) vs. 19.6% (95 % CI 17.1 ‐ 22.0), p<0.05. Habitual snoring is significantly more prevalent in the age group of 64‐74 years, as compared with the youngest respondents (35‐44 years), respectively 25.3 % (95 % CI 20.3 ‐ 30.5) vs. 12.0 % (95 % CI 9.2 ‐ 15.4), p<0.001.

Occurrence of habitual snoring is related with the family status: persons, living in families, snore more often, as compared with single, divorced or widowed persons, respectively 84.8 % (95 % CI 77.7 ‐ 92.0) vs. 1.0 % (95 % CI 0.9 ‐ 1.5), 9.10 % (95 % CI 3.4 ‐ 14.8), 5.0 % (95 % CI 3.1 ‐ 9.2), p<0.001.

Persons with the university or higher education more often snore habitually, as compared with primary education, respectively 21.5 % (95 % CI 17.1 ‐ 25.8) and 53.9 % (95 % CI 48.6 ‐ 59.1) vs. 6.9 % (95 % CI 4.2 ‐ 9.5), p<0.001.

The major part of respondents the snoring characterize as regular and silent (40.1 %) or regular and a little noisy (46.8 %), 7.0 % ‐ regular and quite noisy, 6.1 % ‐ very noisy with breathing pauses (χ2=20.9; df=12; p=0.05). Very noisy snoring with breathing pauses is more prevalent among males (10.2 %), as compared with females (3.2 %), p<0.001 (Figure 1).

Breathing pauses during sleep regularly experience 1.6 % of the general population of Palanga. Symptoms of sleep apnea are more common among males, as compared with females, respectively 5.1 % (95 % CI 2.8 ‐ 7.4) vs. 1.4 % (95 % CI 0.4 ‐ 2.4), p<0.001 (Figure 2).

* ‐ p<0.001, as compared with females Figure 1. Characteristics of snoring among females and males

58

* ‐ p<0.001, as compared with females Figure 2. Frequency of breathing pauses during sleep among females and males

Discussion

Almost one quarter (21.8 %) of the Palanga adult citizens suffers from habitual snoring, 55.8 % in the general population are occasional snorers. As compared with other populations, simple snoring is a common complaint affecting 45 % of adults in Germany occasionally and 25 % of adults habitually and is a sign of upper airway obstruction. It has been reported that 10 % of males and 5 % of females in Germany aged 30‐40 years are habitual snorers, prevalence of snoring increases with age, reaching at least 20 % among males and 15 % among females in the 50‐60 years age‐group (Stuck et al, 2010).

Symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in Poland affect 2 – 4 % of the middle‐aged population and their prevalence increases with age (over 50% among persons older than 65 years) (Gałecki et al, 2011). In the population of Palanga complaints about habitual breathing pauses during sleep were more common in the age group of 55‐64 years, as compared with 35‐44 age group, respectively 5.9 % (95 % CI 3.0 ‐ 8.7) vs. 0.5 % (95% CI 0.4 ‐ 1.4), p<0.05.

Studies on prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea, diagnosed by polysomnographic method, across the world indicate, that sleep apnea is more common among males, as compared with females, respectively 4.0 % vs. 2.0 % in the population of United States of America, 7.5 % vs. 4.5 % in India and 4.5 % vs. 2.3 % in Korea (Punjabi, 2008). In fact, the factors, which mostly influence the risk of moderate or severe obstructive sleep apnea, according to the results of Sleep Heart Health Study (Young et al, 2002) are habitual snoring (OR=1.75), extremely loud snoring (OR=2.21) and often occurring breathing pauses during sleep (OR=2.47).

Conclusions

A dentist may be the first health care provider to identify a person with sleep apnea syndrome because the following signs and symptoms often are recognizable in the dental clinic: male gender, obesity, increased neck circumference, a thick neck; excessive fat deposition in the palate, tongue (macroglossia) and pharynx; a long soft palate; a retrognathic mandible; and calcified carotid artery atheromas on panoramic and lateral cephalometric radiographs. The most common complaints among patients, which experience sleep disordered breathing, are habitual snoring and xerostomia, especially at morning time after awakening.

Almost one quarter (21.8 %) of the Palanga adult citizens suffers from habitual snoring. Breathing pauses during sleep regularly experience 1.6 % of the investigated population. Males in Palanga more often, as compared with females, snore habitually, respectively 25.5 % vs. 19.6 %, p<0.05. Symptoms of sleep apnea are more common among males, as compared with females, respectively 5.1 % vs. 1.4 %, p<0.001.

The practicing dental professional should assist patients, starting with the recognition of sleep‐related disorders, referring them to a physician for evaluation and assisting in the management of sleep disorders. It is essential that oral health care specialist work as a part of the treatment team with physician or sleep specialist in treating sleep apnea with intra oral devices.

References

1. Butt, M., Dwivedi, G., Khair, O., Lip, GY. (2010). Obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease. International Journal of Cardiology. 139(1), 7 ‐ 16.

2. Harada, Y., Oga, T., Chin, K. (2011). Effects of the presence of hypertension on the relationship between obstructive sleep apnea and sleepiness. Journal of Sleep Research. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21303422

59

3. Kohli, P., Balachandran, J.S., Malhotra A. (2011). Obstructive sleep apnea and the risk for cardiovascular disease. Current Atherosclerosis Reports. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Kohli%2C% 20Balachandran%2C%20Malhotra%20

4. Shamsuzzaman, AS., Gersh, BJ., Somers, VK. (2003). Obstructive sleep apnea: implications for cardiac and vascular disease. JAMA. 290(14), 1906 ‐ 1914.

5. Gałecki, P., Florkowski, A., Zboralski, K., Pietras, T., Szemraj, J., Talarowska, M. (2011). Psychiatric and psychological complications in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pneumonologia Alergologia Polska. 79(1), 26 ‐ 31.

6. Kapur, VC. Obstructive Sleep Apnea: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, and Economics. (2011). Respiratory Care. 55(9), 1155 – 1164. 7. Baran, AS., Richert, AC. OSA and depression. (2003). CNS Spectrum, 8, 128 ‐ 134. 8. Goncalves, MA, Paiva, T., Ramos, E., Guileminault, C. (2004). Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, sleepiness and quality of

life. Chest. 125, 2091‐2096. 9. Bohadana, AB., Hannhart, B., Teculescu, DB. (2002). Nocturnal worsening of asthma and sleep‐disordered breathing.

Journal of Asthma. 39, 85‐100. 10. Horstmann, S., Hess, CW., Bassetti, C., Gugger, M., Mathis, J. (2000). Sleepiness‐related accidents in sleep apnea patients.

Sleep. 23(3), 383 ‐ 389. 11. Svensson, M., Franklin, KA., Theorell‐Haglow, J. et al (2008). Sleepiness relates to snoring independent of the apnea‐

hypopnea index in women from the general population. Chest. 134, 919‐924. 12. Oksenberg, A., Froom, P., Melamed, S. (2006). Dry mouth upon awakening in obstructive sleep apnea. Journal of Sleep

Research, 15, 317 ‐ 320. 13. Wong, M.L., Sandham, A., Ang, P.K., Wong, D.C., Tan, W.C., Huggare, J. (2005). Craniofacial morphology, head posture, and

nasal respiratory resistance in obstructive sleep apnea: an inter‐ethnic comparison. European Journal of Orthodontics. 27(1), 91‐97.

14. Padma, A., Ramakrishnan, N., Narayaman, V. (2007). Management of obstructive sleep apnea: A dental perspective. Indian Journal of Dental Research. 18, 201‐209.

15. Gunaratnam, K., Taylor, B., Curtis, B., Cistulli, P. (2009). Obstructive sleep apnea and periodontitis: a novel association? Sleep and Breathing. 13(3), 233‐239.

16. Fritsch, K.M., Iseli, A., Russi, E.W., Bloch, K.E. (2001) Side effects of mandibular advancement devices for sleep apnea treatment. American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine. 164, 813‐818.

17. Barsh, LI. (1996). Responsibilities of the dental profession in recognizing and treating sleep breathing disorders. Compendium Continuum Education in Dentistry. 17(5), 490‐494.

18. de Almeida, FR., Lowe, AA., Tsuiki, S., Otsuka, R., Wong, M., Fastlicht, S. et al (2005). Long‐term compliance and side effects of oral appliances used for the treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine. 1(2), 143‐152.

19. Randerath, W.J., Heise, M., Hinz, R., Ruehle, K.H. (2002). An individually adjustable oral appliance vs. continuous positive airway pressure in mild to moderate obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest. 122(2), 569‐575.

20. Cartwright, R. (2001). What's new in oral appliances for snoring and sleep apnea. Sleep Medicine Review. 5, 25‐32. 21. Ivanhoe, JR. (2000). Treatment of upper airway sleep disorder patients with dental devices. Clinical Maxillofacial Prosthetics.

Quintessence. 10, 215 ‐ 231. 22. Partinen, M., Gislason, T. (1995). Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire: A quantitated measure of subjective sleep complaints.

Journal of Sleep Research. 4(1), 150 – 155. 23. Stuck, BA., Abrams, J., de la Chaux, R., Dreher, A., Heiser, C., Hohenhorst, W. et al (2010). Diagnosis and treatment of

snoring in adults ‐ S1 guideline of the German Society of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery. Sleep and Breathing. 14(4), 317‐321.

24. Punjabi, NM. (2008).The epidemiology of adult obstructive sleep apnea. Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society. 5(2), 136‐143.

25. Young, T., Shahar, E., Nieto, F.J. Redline, S., Newman, A.B., Gottlieb, D.J. et al (2002). Predictors of sleep‐disordered breathing in community‐dwelling adults: the Sleep Heart Health Study. Archives of Internal Medicine. 162(8), 893‐900.

Santrauka

BURNOS PRIEŽIŪROS SPECIALISTŲ VAIDMUO AKSTYVOJOJE KVĖPAVIMO SUTRIKIMŲ, PASIREIŠKIANČIŲ MIEGO METU, DIAGNOSTIKOJE IR GYDYME

JURGITA ANDRUŠKIENĖ, GIEDRIUS VARONECKAS, ARVYDAS MARTINKĖNAS

Reikšminiai žodžiai: burnos priežiūra, knarkimas, kvėpavimo sutrikimai miego metu, miego apnėja.

Tyrimo probleminiai klausimai: ar pacientams, patiriantiems kvėpavimo sutrikimus miego metu, yra reikalinga burnos priežiūros specialistų pagalba? Koks yra kvėpavimo sutrikimų, pasireiškiančių miego metu, paplitimas populiacijoje?

Tyrimo objektas: sąsajos tarp kvėpavimo sutrikimų, pasireiškiančių miego metu ir burnos ertmės pokyčių; Tyrimo tikslai yra (1) nustatyti ryšį tarp burnos sveikatos ir kvėpavimo sutrikimų miego metu; (2) nustatyti

knarkimo ir kvėpavimo sustojimų miego metu pasireiškimo dažnį tarp atsitiktinai atrinktų Palangos miesto gyventojų ir įvertinti burnos priežiūros specialistų vaidmenį, vykdant ankstyvąją kvėpavimo sutrikimų miego metu diagnostiką ir gydymą.

60

Tyrimo metodai. Knarkimo ir kvėpavimo sutrikimų miego metu dažnis nustatytas atlikus anketinę atsitiktinai atrinktų 35‐74 metų Palangos miesto gyventojų apklausą. Subjektyvūs duomenys apie knarkimo ir kvėpavimo sustojimų miego metų dažnį surinkti apklausus 1602 asmenis, 600 (37,5 %) vyrų ir 1002 (62,5 %) moteris. Apklausai naudotas Šiaurės šalių miego kokybės klausimynas. Burnos priežiūros specialistų vaidmuo ankstyvojoje kvėpavimo sutrikimų miego metu diagnostikoje ir gydyme įvertintas atlikus mokslinės literatūros analizę.

Tyrimo rezultatai. Vyrai dažniau nei moterys knarkia kiekvieną naktį, atitinkamai 25,5 % ir 19,6 %, p<0,05. Nuolatinis knarkimas labiau paplitęs tarp vyriausio amžiaus (65‐74 m.) respondentų, lyginant su jauniausio amžiaus (35‐44 m.) tiriamaisiais, atitinkamai 25,3 % ir 12,0 %, p<0,001. Knarkimas labiau paplitęs tarp asmenų, gyvenančių šeimoje (84,8 %), lyginant su vienišais (1,0 %), išsiskyrusiais (9,1 %) ar našliais (5,0 %), p<0,001. Tiriamieji, turintys aukštąjį arba aukštesnįjį išsilavinimą, knarkia dažniau, lyginant su tiriamaisiais, įgijusiais pradinį išsilavinimą, atitinkamai 21,5 %, 53,9 % ir 6,9 %, p<0,001. Miego apnėjos simptomai dažniau pasireiškia tarp vyrų (5,1 %) nei tarp moterų (1,4 %), p<0,001. Kvėpavimo sustojimai miego metu dažnesni tarp 55‐64 m. asmenų, lyginant su 35‐44 m. amžiaus grupe, atitinkamai 5,9 % ir 0,5 %, p<0,05.

Miego apnėja yra labiausiai paplitęs miego sutrikimas. Gali būti nustatoma centrinė, obstrukcinė arba mišri miego apnėja. Pagal išreikštumą miego apnėja gali būti apibūdinama kaip neryški, vidutiniška ir labai išreikšta. Obstrukcinės miego apnėjos sindromo paplitimas tarp 30‐60 metų vyrų yra vidutiniškai 4 %, tarp moterų – 2 % (Kapur, 2010). Pacientai, kuriems yra nustatyta miego apnėja, skundžiasi atminties pablogėjimu, sunkiai susikaupia, dažniau serga depresija, yra irzlesni, skundžiasi suintensyvėjusiu seilėtekiu ir dusuliu nakties metu, o ryte – burnos sausumu. Knarkimas yra arterinės hipertenzijos, išeminės širdies ligos ir galvos smegenų insulto rizikos indikatorius. Negydoma miego apnėja neigiamai veikia gyvenimo kokybę: sąlygoja sumažėjusį darbingumą ir darbo efektyvumą, didina nelaimingų atsitikimų darbe riziką ir neigiamai veikia gebėjimą palaikyti socialinius ryšius (Goncalves et al, 2004). Nediagnozuota arba negydoma miego apnėja gali sąlygoti epilepsijos arba bronchinės astmos paūmėjimus (Bohadana et al, 2002). Pacientai, kuriems yra nustatyta vidutiniška arba labai išreikšta miego apnėja, patiria 15 kartų didesnę autoįvykių riziką, ir tai yra nepakankamai įvertintas pavojus keliuose (Horstmann et al, 2000). Miego apnėjos gydymo tikslas yra atkurti normalų kvėpavimą miego metu, sumažinti mieguistumą dienos metu, išvengti neuropsichologinių ir širdies bei kraujagyslių sistemos pokyčių ir pagerinti gyvenimo kokybę, išvengiant šalutinių poveikių (Fritsch et al, 2001).

Knarkimo ir miego apnėjos diagnostika ir gydymas yra dvi sritys, kur odontologijos vaidmuo yra labai svarbus. Vienas iš rekomenduojamų miego apnėjos korekcijos būdų yra gydymas naudojant ortodontinius įtaisus. Gydant šiuo metodu, odontologai turėtų dirbti komandoje su bendrosios praktikos gydytojai ar miego medicinos specialistais (Barsh, 1996). Burnos priežiūros specialistai turi galimybę pirmieji pastebėti kvėpavimo sutrikimų miego metu, ypač miego apnėjos, požymius. Ankstyva kvėpavimo sutrikimų, pasireiškiančių miego metu, diagnostika gali padėti išvengti ligos progresavimo ir galimų komplikacijų. Prieš pradedant miego apnėjos gydymą naudojant ortodontinius įtaisus, būtina įvertinti burnos ertmės būklę, atkreipiant dėmesį į persirgtas burnos ligas ar ištiriant burnos ertmę. Būtina įvertinti sąkandį, periodonto audinių būklę, dantų mobilumo laipsnį, parafunkcinius įpročius, dantų ėduonies intensyvumo indeksą, gomurio būklę ir dantų jautrumą (Padma et al, 2007). Ortodontiniai įtaisai yra dėvimi tik miego metu, jų veikimo principas pagrįstas kvėpavimo takų praplėtimu, pakeičiant liežuvio arba apatinio žandikaulio poziciją.

Išvados. Burnos priežiūros specialistai gali pastebėti miego apnėjos požymius tarp besikreipiančių į odontologijos kliniką pacientų. Miego apnėja dažniau pasireiškia tarp vyriškos lyties, nutukusių asmenų, kurių kaklo apimtis yra didesnė nei įprastai. Burnos ertmėje yra stebimos riebalų sankaupos ant gomurio, liežuvio (makroglosija) ir ryklės, pailgėjęs minkštasis gomurys, apatinis žandikaulis retrognatinėje padėtyje. Pacientai, kuriems galima įtarti kvėpavimo sutrikimus miego metu, dažnai skundžiasi nuolatiniu knarkimu ir burnos sausumu, ypač, pabudus ryte.

Beveik ketvirtadalis (21,8 %) suaugusių Palangos miesto gyventojų nuolatos knarkia. Kvėpavimo sustojimus miego metu reguliariai patiria 1,6 % tirtų asmenų. Vyrai dažniau nei moterys knarkia reguliariai, atitinkamai 25,5 % ir 19,6 %, p<0,05. Miego apnėjos simptomai dažnesni tarp vyrų (5,1 %) nei tarp moterų (1,4 %), p<0,001. Burnos priežiūros specialistai turėtų bendradarbiauti su bendrosios praktikos gydytojais ir kitais specialistais, diagnozuojant ir gydant kvėpavimo sutrikimus miego metu.

Accepted for publication 15 April 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 balandžio 15

61



PUBLIC HEALTH

LIVING WITH HIV / AIDS DIAGNOSIS: PERSONAL AND SOCIETAL PERCEPTIONS

VILMA ŽYDŽIŪNAITĖ

Vytautas Magnus University / Klaipėda State College, Lithuania

LIJANA VAINORIŪTĖ

Institute of Hygiene, Lithuania

Abstract

Most people with HIV perceive their situation by reflecting it alone or disclosing their health status to someone, often with mixed results. Most health literature seems to favor reflections and disclosure by persons living with AIDS, but it could be that to disclose is not always a good thing. It influences personal limitations of persons with HIV and AIDS. Authors of this article used a qualitative research design to explore the perceptions of persons with HIV and AIDS on their own situation in order to illuminate their meanings of live, fears, emotions and changes of behavior and etc. Being alone with own perceptions is not easy: it naturally creates personal isolation from environment (colleagues, friends), person consciously controls the self and especially in communication with others, personal thoughts are reflected alone then the answers are also given by the self. This closed ‘circle’ of reflecting exhausts the person and creates various fears, attitudes that influence the emotional and psychological self‐destruction of a person with HIV / AIDS. The focus in this article is on personal and societal perceptions of people with AIDS and HIV. Research question: What are the perceptions about the health and social situation among people with HIV / AIDS? Research aim is to illuminate the personal and societal perceptions that are disclosed by people with HIV / AIDS with the focus on their health and social situations.

A total of four women and sixteen men participated in the research. For data collection in‐depth individual interviews were used. The qualitative data were analyzed by applying the qualitative content analysis. Research tool is based on the „Guideline for a Qualitative Research Methodology to Assess the Social Impacts of HIV and Identify Priorities for Advocacy Action“ (UNDP, 2008). Research results illuminated that the individual’s realization of the diagnosed HIV passes the following two phases – an emotional shock and psychological adaptation to the health status caused by the diagnosis. The person infected with HIV reflects on his or her current personal life and future after the diagnosis of HIV, re‐evaluates their life values and feels like a leper or condemned person in society as a result of the existing negative attitudes. The societal attitudes and reactions to people with HIV and HIV/AIDS problems are related to awareness and negative conceptions formed over time as a result of ignorance and lack of awareness, which is why HIV‐positive persons are identified with risk groups, avoiding to view this disease from two aspects – as a social problem and as a disease which must be treated and prevented.

Keywords: HIV / AIDS, interview, meanings, perceptions, self‐empowerment, qualitative content analysis.

Introduction

Research relevance. The most frequent characteristics of social attitudes regarding HIV / AIDS are comprised of the following aspects (AMAS, 2002): (a) defiance – the defiant attitude of the public at large toward the need for knowledge on HIV / AIDS; (b) disassociation – the transfer of responsibility for the spread, prevention and prophylaxis of HIV to “others” who are represented by the health, educational and social services sector; (c) risk practice – the problem of risk groups, i.e. relevance of HIV / AIDS only for representatives of risk groups; (d) fear of infection – the individual’s irrational behaviour and uncontrolled emotional reactions when communicating with HIV; (e) distrust and insecurity – the perception of mutual stereotypes of the public and HIV by ignoring them and blaming each other; (f) moral transcendence – moral norms violated by a person living with HIV, for which this person was ‘punished’ when he or she was diagnosed with HIV; (g) superficial dissemination of information provided by the media an avoidance to present the positive experience of HIV and also examples of discrimination, which would create preconditions for discussions that would increase the level of tolerance in society; (h) secrecy – the consideration of HIV problems in society as “invisible” and thus not discussing them openly, as if they were overcome by a shadow by shame; (i) uncertainty – the limitations on access to health care services to HIV; (j) impact of the environment – the need to perceive that the problems of HIV are not only the problems of this group, but of the whole society, which is comprised of psychological, social, medical, educational, managerial and labor market attitudes.

Qualitative studies of people living with HIV infection are crucial for providing direction for practice and research because they provide the emic perspective. As more of these qualitative studies are conducted, researchers

62

are challenged to develop ways to synthesize the findings for research and clinical practice (Barroso & Powell‐Cope, 2000). A qualitative research strategy was chosen to analyze the complex and multi‐faceted problem of the social vulnerability of HIV (Gamson, 2000):

1. Qualitative research is concentrated on the relationships between variables that represent the life and work contexts and situations of HIV that are not easily measurable. The understanding revealed by the results of the qualitative research creates the preconditions to inform specific institutions that have the power to make decisions regarding the existing obstacles, problems and needs in the decision‐ making process aimed at improving the situation of HIV.

2. Qualitative research enables representatives of different groups who are connected to HIV issues to participate in the survey process and creates preconditions to collect an abundance of information, which is unique.

3. Qualitative research is appropriate for the in‐depth exploration of unique phenomena, the information of which is obtained from small target samples that have experience with HIV‐related issues.

Research novelty. Analysis of the data gathered from interviews with fourteen subjects reveals the emergence of three themes related to the meaning of living with AIDS (Nokes & Carver, 1994): (a) an abrupt shift in patterns of being give rise to changing priorities, (b) fluctuating possibilities arise in the uncertainty of being with and away from close others, and (c) changing hopes and dreams surface from the insights of suffering. Practice propositions were identified from the findings of the study. Kalichman et al (2000) research illuminated that functional health literacy is associated with illness‐related knowledge, understanding, and treatment perceptions for several chronic illnesses. Poor health literacy creates barriers to fully understanding one’s health, illness, and treatments. Misperceptions of treatment in the case of HIV infection, creates danger for potentially transmitting treatment‐resistant strains of HIV. These results have implications for patient education and treatment programming for people who have poor health‐literacy skills and are living with HIV/AIDS. Findings from the studies were categorized into six overarching metaphors (Barroso & Powell‐Cope, 2000): (a) finding meaning in HIV/AIDS, (b) shattered meaning, (c) human connectedness, (d) focusing on the self, (e) negotiating health care, and (f) dealing with stigma. Results of Heinrich (2003) research revealed significant, positive paths from hope to perceived health and from spirituality to hope. Significant negative paths were found between social support and uncertainty in illness and uncertainty in illness and hope. The level of hope may play an important role in enhancing health of HIV seropositive men. Most of research studies are focused on finding the relationships between specific factors (e. g., environmental, personal, institutional, system and etc.) concerning situation, life meanings, and discrimination of people with HIV and / or AIDS. But here is a lack of research, where the concern is about meaningfulness of the personal health and life situation by living with HIV /AIDS for the personal changes focused on finding positive sides that inspire personal changes in perceptions, behavior and life in general. So why in this article the focus is on personal and societal perceptions of people with AIDS and HIV.

Research background. Most people with HIV perceive their personal situation by reflecting it alone or disclosing their health status to someone, often with mixed results. Most health literature seems to favor reflections and disclosure by persons living with AIDS, but it could be that to disclose is not always a good thing (Greeff et al, 2008). It influences personal limitations of persons with HIV and AIDS. Authors of this article used a qualitative research design to explore the perceptions of persons with HIV and AIDS on their own situation in order to illuminate their meanings of live, fears, emotions and changes of behavior and etc. Being alone with own perceptions is not easy: it naturally creates personal isolation from environment (colleagues, friends), person consciously controls the self and especially in communication with others, personal thoughts are reflected alone then the answers are also given by the self. Such closed ‘circle’ of reflecting exhausts the person and creates various fears, attitudes that influence the emotional and psychological self‐destruction of a person with HIV / AIDS.

Research question: What are the perceptions about the health and social situation among people with HIV / AIDS?

Research aim is to illuminate the personal and societal perceptions that are disclosed by people with HIV / AIDS with the focus on their health and social situations.

Research methodology

Research design

The constructed research4 design is based on the integrity of the following two knowledge positions: The position of socially constructed knowledge allows for the forming of knowledge based on alternative

processes and the collection of preconditions. In this respect, it is sought to understand the world of the study’s participants that they live and work in. By providing information, the study participants develop subjective meanings of their experiences oriented towards specific objects. These meanings are different and varied, creating preconditions for the study investigator to see the complexity of the attitudes of study participants rather than narrow the meanings to a few ideas or categories. Therefore reference is made to the respondent’s attitudes toward the situation being examined. The questions are wide‐ranging and generalizing; in this way conditions are created for the

4 Research initriators were UNDP in Lithuania

63

study participants to construct meanings concerning the situation or a meaning arising out of the interaction between the study investigator and the respondent. The more open questions are, the better it is, because the study investigator has the possibility of listening carefully to what the respondent says and understand what the study participants do in their life and work environments. In this respect, emphasis is placed on the process of interaction between individuals, while through the qualitative data that was obtained; meaning is attributed to the experiences of the study participants (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Neuman, 2000).

The position of sustainable or participant knowledge is concentrated on “marginal” groups. With the study results that were obtained, a voice is given to these people, which becomes a unifying aspect when implementing target changes. This knowledge position is a point of reference for groups and persons who experience exclusion or are deprived of their rights (Neuman, 2000; Olesen, 2000).

The qualitative research design should be implemented based on the international qualitative research methodology “Guideline for a Qualitative Research Methodology to Assess the Social Impacts of HIV and Identify Priorities for Advocacy Action Assessment” (UNDP, 2008), which is comprised of the following two stages: stage 1 – individual in‐depth interviews, of which at least twenty HIV are interviewed; stage 2 – target group interviews. Where three target groups representing the education sector, the health care sector, the non‐governmental sector and the business (labor market) sectors are interviewed.

Research sample

The first stage of the qualitative research – the characteristics of the research participants for individual in‐depth interviews. Twenty research participants were selected for individual interviews using the method of targeted maximal diversity selection, where sample units are chosen purposefully so that the research sample is comprised of as many diverse cases of the object under investigated as possible. The survey was directed at identifying common features characteristic of all the cases being investigated (Rupšienė, 2007). A total of four women and sixteen men participated in the research. In the whole interview sample, the age of the survey participants varied between 24 and 49 years of age (the average being 35.65 years of age). According to gender, their age range is as follows: the age of women varies between 24 and 40 years old (the average being 32 years old); the age of men varies between 25 and 49 years old (the average being 36.56 years old).

Distribution of the survey participants by ethnic group is as follows: two women representing the Russian ethnic group and two women representing the Lithuanian ethnic group; eleven men representing the Lithuanian ethnic group, four men representing the Russian ethnic group, and one representing the Polish ethnic group.

The period of living with HIV between survey participants varies between 2 days and 18.5 years (the average is 4.83 years).

Five out of twenty survey participants have a job and work, and one female participant has a job but currently is on sick leave and is undergoing in‐patient hospital treatment. One person indicated that formally he is unemployed, but that he carries out auxiliary works in the private sector. Six survey participants receive social unemployment benefits; one participant receives a social benefit for the child; one interview participant receives a disability pension; two participants receive social assistance; two persons are financially supported by their mothers and one is supported by friends.

Only three survey participants indicated that they have no source of income. The other seventeen persons indicated average financial resources which they allocate for dwelling, food, clothing and medicine each month. The received monthly income varies between 256 litas and 2,400 litas per month (the average of monthly income of all the study sample is 705.41 litas).

Three out of twenty individuals who participated in the interview are not dependent on drugs and have never used them; one study participant has fully completed a rehabilitation course and has not used any drugs for several years. The other sixteen survey participants stated that they are dependent on drugs: three study participants currently do not use drugs, whereas thirteen interviewees do.

The majority of the survey participant admits that their infection with HIV is linked with the use of drugs. Many of them have used drugs and consider themselves to be dependent on drugs. A small percentage of the interview participants claim that they have never used drugs.

A major part of the male participants indicate that they have never had sexual intercourse in exchange for money or with men because their relationships were heterosexual (twelve survey participants). A small number of the make interview participants claim that they have had relationships only with men or their sexual relationships were homosexual (three participants). One survey participants stated that he has had sexual intercourse with both women and men, i.e. he had bisexual relations. Female participants (four) claim that they are heterosexual. One female participant states that she has provided paid sexual services to men.

Three research participants have their own house – one has a private dwelling‐house and one has obtained a mortgage loan from the bank for the acquisition of his own apartment. Some participants live with their relatives: two persons live with cousins, one lives with his grandmother, and one female participant lives with her life partner’s parents. Five survey participants live with parents: three persons live with their mother and two share dwelling with

64

their parents. Two participants received help from their friends regarding a place to live – friends took them in and the interview participants pay them a symbolic rent for the dwelling. Four persons rent apartments, and two live in the rehabilitation centre. The research participants living in the rehabilitation centre feel safe and dignified there. Although they have a place to live, some individuals are planning to change their lives: to change their place of residence, to change the dwelling in order to distance themselves from their “former” life so that there is no relapse. Thus, only a few participants have their own dwelling.

Data collection

In‐depth individual interviews were used. These interviews are designed as a dialogue between an experienced investigator and the informant, who is aimed at obtaining important information that could be, analyzed (Žydžiūnaitė, 2005). This interview was not intended to establish mutual communication and experience exchange, because the task of the investigators collecting information was to encourage the survey participant to open up by sharing his or her experiences. Twenty study participants were interviewed using semi‐structured interview as data collection method.

In this first stage of the qualitative study, individual in‐depth interviews were used due to the following advantages (Rupšienė, 2007): it allows for the collecting of much useful information and important details that often lead to new insights; there is visual contact with the informant; there is a possibility to examine a problem thoroughly; not only are the cognitive aspects of responses visible, but also the emotional aspects of responses; the investigator is able to clarify his questions, thus enhancing the possibility to obtain useful information; the investigator is able to communicate flexibly with particular individuals or under special circumstances.

The preparation for interviews was thorough: (a) the interview questions were translated from English and validated (content validity); (b) the interviewers were selected: three persons who have primary interviewing skills, are characterized by a high‐level social competence and maintain social contacts with HIV, which facilitates access to the survey participants and enhances the possibility of conducting a study of good quality study because the participants feel safe and have confidence in the investigators, which forms mutually positive contact during the interview; (c) all three data collectors were given a two‐hour briefing on the interview specifics, the investigator’s behaviour, presentation of questions, time management, creation of a therapeutic atmosphere during the interview, sequence of questions of a concrete interview questionnaire and the possibilities of clarification thereof, uniform content presentation to the participants, and research ethics.

The duration of each interview was no shorter than 1 hour, and no longer than 1.5 hours (the average duration of the interviews was 1.25 hours).

When collecting data, the text of each interview was recorded with a dictaphone, then transcribed and entered into separate computer file while maintaining the confidentiality and anonymity of the interviewee.

The volume of all twenty interview texts (only the interview text, excluding the questions asked by the investigator) ranged from 8 to 21 pages in A4 format, when the text on each page had a font size of 12 pt, with 1.5 line spacing (taking into account the volume of the entire research sample, the average length of one interview is 12.85 pages).

Data analysis

The method of qualitative content analysis was applied during the analysis of the qualitative in‐depth interviews’ data. Qualitative content analysis allows for the avoiding of superficiality when analyzing the text (Mayring 2000, 2001). The material of qualitative content analysis consists of the text received using different techniques, for example for interviews, and non‐standardized questionnaires containing open‐ended questions (Mayring 2000, 2001).

Mayring (2001) indicates that content analysis is a valid method enabling one to make specific conclusions based on the text being analyzed.

Qualitative content analysis is aimed at identifying (Žydžiūnaitė, 2005): how this phenomenon is perceived / understood by the respondent reflecting on his or her experience, based on the questions asked by the investigator; what differences there are between the theoretical description of the phenomenon being studied and its expression in social reality; what the ways of the informant’s thinking and perception projected towards the research phenomenon are; what the possibilities and limitations are concerning the application of acquired knowledge, skills and capacities in an activity / social reality.

The text presented by informants is study material for qualitative content analysis revealing an individual’s process of reflection.

Morse (1997) specifies the following key characteristics of qualitative content analysis: (a) purpose: to identify the main aspects of the research phenomenon; (b) study material: the whole analysis is carried out in the context of a specific text; (c) significance of the study: new aspects illustrating the research phenomenon are revealed, or the existence of the characteristics of the same phenomenon identified in other studies is validated; (d) substantiating of results: based on the content of the text being studied and its highlighted data presented in sub‐categories and combining them into categories.

65

The following aspects of qualitative content analysis as a research procedure are distinguished (Žydžiūnaitė, 2005):

Research techniques: the research technique used must be incorporated into a communication model; therefore, the most effective way is to use interview or non‐standardized questionnaires containing open‐ended questions.

Text “speaks”: received texts reflect human experiences, attitudes, and feelings and concretize the context. Analysis rules: the text content must be analyzed consistently, step by step, according to the rules of a

particular methodological procedure, and by dividing the analyzed content into analytical units. Categories and subcategories are the essence of content analysis: the text is interpreted on the basis of survey

questions to which answers are provided through formulated categories. Qualitative content analysis is based on interpretation; therefore, the distinguishing of categories and

subcategories is not an automatic, mechanical technique but a creative interpretation process aimed at decoding the meanings contained in the text (Mostyn, 1985; Morse, 1997; Neuman, 2000).

This means that qualitative content analysis may be defined as an empirical, methodological textual analysis carried out within the framework of texts, based on the methodologically justified steps of the analysis.

In the analysis process, it was sought to avoid the formation of preconceived theoretical definitions and descriptions.

Steps of the qualitative data analysis (Mayring, 2000): 1. Selection of the unit for textual analysis describing the completed thought on the action, process, experience,

understanding, etc. (part of the sentence, sentence, paragraph). 2. Multiple reading of the interview text. 3. Open encoding of the selected textual units by highlighting the main thoughts expressed in a particular textual

unit. 4. Comparison of open codes by discovering identical and different codes. 5. Selection of different codes. 6. Grouping of codes linked by a common thought or idea into subcategories. 7. Grouping of categories into categories by a common idea linking them, for example, process, action, experience

of the research participants, etc. 8. Presentation of categories, subcategories and group interview texts proving them in tables.

Research tool

Research tool is based on the international Methodology „Guideline for a Qualitative Research Methodology to Assess the Social Impacts of HIV and Identify Priorities For Advocacy Action“(UNDP, 2008)

The interview tool consists of seven parts: First part includes representation of the researcher and five demographic questions such a sage, gender, ethnic

group, how many time the person knows about his / her health situation, how many children the research participant has.

Second part is connected to perceptions of people with HIV or AIDS about personal situation and consists of nine questions, for example, what does it mean to live with HIV? How the people with HIV are understood? What are differences between people with HIV and without? etc.

Third part is aimed to illuminate the situation of people with PLHIV and AIDS in educational sector and includes nine complex questions. For example, what problems meet people with HIV in educational system? How knows in educational institution about you health state? What should do teachers and other specialists in educational institutions in order to create better learning possibilities for people with HIV? etc.

Fourth part is oriented to unfolding the situation in labor market of people with HIV and AIDS. This part consists of eleven questions. For example, what are the work possibilities for people with HIV in Lithuania? What problems could meet people with HIV and AIDS in working institutions / environments? etc.

Fifth part is aimed to reveal the situation in health care sector of people with HIV and AIDS. This part consists of twelve questions. For example, where do you receive the health care and information, if you need? Do you receive the treatment concerning your health condition? How the health care personnel could help the people with HIV? etc.

Sixth part is oriented to illumination of interactions between people with HIV and AIDS and NGO. This part consists of eleven questions. For example, do you need psychological and social work support? What kind of services you need? What could do the NGO in order to help the people with HIV and AIDS? etc.

Seventh part consists of two final questions concerning their thoughts that were not touched in interview and the acknowledgement for research participants.

This article is focused only on results concerning first and second part of the questionnaire / tool.

66

Research ethics

In the article are presented results are based on the study ‘Vulnerability assessment of people living with HIV in Lithuania‘ (2009)5, which had been performed by researchers of this article in the frame of Research Project between UNDP and Institute of Hygiene (Vilnius, Lithuania).

The study was based on the following provisions (Žydžiūnaitė, 2006): people were involved in the study after they had become familiar with the research content, and their verbal and written consent had been obtained (by signing the document on research ethics); participation of the respondents in the study was voluntary; vulnerability assessment of people living with HIV in Lithuania 30 information about the objectives of the study was accurate; the respondents were not mislead concerning the research objectives, research process, and form and possibilities of presenting the results; the research participants were not forced to perform any actions humiliating their dignity; during the study, compliance with the laws and conventions protecting human rights was observed; the participants were not subject to any physical pain or stress during individual or focus group interviews; the privacy of the participants was not violated; the anonymity of the participants was not violated; the participants were treated in a respectful and fair manner.

Results

What does it mean to be HIV‐positive? The phases of realization reflected in the speaking of the study participants are as follows: (a) the first phase – upon learning one’s diagnosis, an individual experiences emotional shock, and therefore, it is concealed from the environment. The interviewees have a preconceived attitude that the majority of society is hostile to people with HIV. For this reason, they are not inclined to discuss their problem with others. They experience emotional shock, huge stress, panic, or depression; (b) the second phase – after some time an individual gets used to the current situation and little by little opens up to others. However, first of all, a person must realize the importance and meaning of this HIV diagnosis for his or her life. A person comes to terms with their current health situation. The experiences of a person who has been aware of their HIV diagnosis for a long time differ from the experiences of an individual who has been aware of this diagnosis only for several days: a recently diagnosis of HIV has not disrupted the person’s life rhythm and there are no experiences related with public stereotypes. However, every new day brings more and more contemplation and anxiety for this person. This is why one of the study participants’ claims that “old” dreams had to be deleted from his life and strength has to be found for contemplating “new” dreams and different life goals. There were thoughts about returning to drug use. Thus, people with HIV try to “tame” their life situation determined by HIV diagnosis and rethink their life values, on the basis of which they form new life goals.

The research participants state that they constantly reflect on their life situation: is it worth opening up to others regarding their health situation because they can be rejected, or are there any possibilities of starting up a family? They contemplate these things on a daily basis, and this often exhausts a person because this kind of life is characterized by constant tension and anxiety. The study participants claim that they feel “exceptional” not in terms of self‐value but rather in terms of their life situation determined by the HIV diagnosis: they must protect themselves and others and they cannot be fully relaxed as earlier, before the diagnosis of HIV. This means that the self‐empowerment to assume responsibility for themselves and others in terms of prevention creates preconditions for living under a conscious and constant emotional tension, and thinking continuously about what and how they do things. Therefore, an HIV diagnosis also means constant regular use of medicines and a self‐empowerment to use them.

The interview participants note that an individual does not live on his or her own; therefore, they must pay attention to their new needs and the needs of their friends, to think about the safety of their friends and not to disregard public attitudes. Thus this ‘new’ adaptation becomes a conscious process. The people with HIV state that it is difficult to discuss HIV with others because they feel “cursed” and experience public condemnation and hostility.

Table 1

Meaningfulness of living with HIV: personal perceptions

Category Subcategory

Feeling of lazar

Experienced depression

Experienced shock after the diagnosis

Experienced psychological discomfort

Hiding the diagnosis from others in order not to be excluded

Attitudes of a person with HIV concerning disposition of society

5 2009 United Nations Development Programme

67



Informing the environment about the diagnosis

Reconciliation with the current health situation

Deleted ‘old’ dreams from life

Reluctance to fight for the self through coming back to damaging health life style

Paying attention to needs of friends

Paying attention to safety of friends

Paying attention to opinions of society

Attempts to ‘tame’ the situation that is determined by HIV diagnosis

Paying attention to new own needs

Negative experiences by discussing with society about HIV / AIDS

Feeling of damned

Revaluing life values Discovering the new life dreams and aims

Reflecting the possibilities of family buildup

Fear of exclusion after informing the environment about personal health state / HIV diagnosis

Permanent self‐reflection of person with HIV / AIDS about life present and future after knowing the diagnosis

Self‐empowerment for living by resigning the diagnosed illness

Experiencing exceptionality

Responsibility for partner

Responsibility for relationships with environment

‘Placing the self into a frame’

Self‐empowerment for self‐care concerning personal health

Self‐empowerment for permanent use of medicines

Self‐empowerment for safe behavior in society

Living with responsibility for others

Self‐obligation for safeguarding others

Reconciliation with HIV diagnosis Feeling calm

Primarily reaction – shock

‘Time cures’

Reflections on self‐empowerment to be useful for others

Learning to live differently by adapting the self to present health status

Attempts to adapt and belong

What does it mean to live with HIV? What does it mean to other people? The study participants emphasize

different public attitudes concerning people with HIV. In this context, the link is revealed between the existing attitudes of society towards people with HIV / AIDS and their preconceived attitudes related to HIV in a general sense, and more specifically to people with HIV. Based on the survey results, a presumption can be made that the interview participants correlate the concept of “perception” with the concept of “information”. For this reason, there is an obvious tie between the information possessed by society and existing attitudes, which are often negative, and alienate HIV‐positive people. The study participants openly state that HIV is a deadly disease for society, and many people are afraid of even touching those that are infected. The outcome of the data analysis revealed that a lack of information prompts not only social but also psychological exclusion of people with HIV: having no accurate information, the “healthy” consciously avoid communicating with people with HIV, or experience fear, for example, where one has to extend a hand to an HIV‐positive person when giving greeting, or has to sit at the same table. For people with HIV themselves, the changed health status first of all means the protection of people surrounding them from the potential transmission of HIV.

The survey participants believe that the possibilities of the public to communicate with people with HIV, to listen to their experiences, and to receive information about the ways of transmission from them are more effective than other means of providing information, which include for instance only theoretical lecturers, and booklets with fragmented information. However, the interview participants recognize that they often come across “a wall that is hard to break through” [study participants A, D, E] due to the non‐awareness of the public at large. The latter aspect is a clear precondition for the social exclusion of HIV‐positive people. The participants have a positive opinion about educational programmes which allow people with HIV themselves to get to know their health situation better, while simultaneously serving as prevention against large‐scale problems and mental disorders caused by constant tension and self‐remorse. Some research participants accept the HIV diagnosis as a fact and that living with HIV is a natural part of life for them (“you cannot do anything about it... it is like it is” [study participants D, G, H, N]). It is clear from the statements of the respondents that HIV diagnosis was and is the reason for their state of constant tension. Only some of them are capable of concealing this and dealing with psychological tension, whereas others are inclined to convey their anxiety and suffer emotional tension expressively. Tense situations occur when the research participants ask medical specialists for information about other diseases as if denying that HIV is more complicated than other diseases, for example, information about hepatitis B or C. This kind of self‐comfort is one of the self‐management strategies when living in a situation where one’s state of health is determined by an HIV diagnosis. The respondents

68

claim that after the diagnosis of HIV, a person “withdraws to his or her world” [(research participant R]), while many of them experience a mutual, double withdrawal – the person living with HIV withdraws from society and society distances itself from the person with this disease. This shows that society is not ready to accept people with HIV and reveals an HIV‐positive person’s psychological defense by withdrawing from external social contacts.

Table 2

Being infected with HIV: perceptions of others


Relationship between people reactions and nature of relations with HIV–positive person

Influence of people perceptions on attitudes concerning HIV‐positive people

Relationship between reactions of different people with personal information and attitudes

Confronting the ‘wall‘ because of people information ignorance

Negative societal attitudes, which are based on fear to be contaminated

Avoiding to relate

Avoiding to greet

Avoiding to sit the table together

Avoiding to use flatware

Avoiding to use towels

Avoiding to recognize the possibilities of self‐contamination with HIV

Experiencing societal fears and conscious segregation because of information deficiency about HIV

Fear reactions in society

Others treat HIV‐positive people as plague

Societal disgusting with HIV‐positive people

Neutral reactions of society

Experiencing support in society

Experience of relationships with HIV / AIDS people – premise to understand their situation

Experiencing emotional and psychological disjuncture in society Positive societal reactions to HIV‐positive people

Experienced environmental reconciliation with health status of HIV‐positive person

Need for moral support and maintenance Need to be accepted

Self‐commitment to take care about others concerning HIV Reconciliation with health status

Psychological adaptation to diagnosed HIV

Sustaining relations with environment by hiding the HIV diagnosis

‘Just a disease’

Demolishing relationships with friends in a context of HIV diagnosis

‘Sift‐out’ friends

Informing – premise for psychological survival of HIV‐positive people

Educational programmes – help to empathize emotionally

Living in everyday tension Experiencing the living fatigue by living with HIV diagnosis

Both‐sides retirement ‘Departure to own world’

Being curious concerning social questions

Being curious concerning psychological questions

Self‐empowering to informal / self‐directed learning

Learning the foreign language

What and how did your life changed after diagnosed HIV? The research participants confess that each day is full of anxiety, because they cannot plan their future, as they simply “are never sure about tomorrow, what will happen tomorrow” [research participants F, L]. Many study participants stated that immediately after the diagnosis, they went along a complicated path of contemplation, orienting themselves towards the environment they live in: it is not clear what the reactions of their close ones, family, acquaintances or friends will be after they have learned the diagnosis. Knowing information on HIV and psychological consultations encouraged them to inform their environment. Some interview participants claim that they do not see any differences in their life before and after the HIV diagnosis but they are constantly contemplating and living in self‐empowerment, not to return to the negative lifestyle, and find strength to change their life. The research participants said that their life must be changed radically: thinking, decisions, behaviour, and negative life habits. It is hard to do this because one needs moral strength and tremendous motivation to assume responsibility for one’s life. Having found out about their disease, people worry not so much about themselves as they do about their close family members and particularly about the obligations they had accepted before the diagnosis.

They are particularly frightened of financial obligations, for example the repayment of loans. Following the diagnosis of the disease and feeling uncertain about their future, people with HIV on a daily basis experience anxiety and tension, not wanting that that their problems would be transferred to their family members or that someone

69

would have to take financial obligations on behalf of the HIV‐positive person. One of the study participants said that after having found out about his diagnosis, first of all, he purchased more condoms in a pharmacy – this was the first change in his life. Now, after some time has passed, he considers it to be a consequence of the emotional shock and immense stress that he had experienced.

The results of the data analysis revealed that the satisfaction of physiological needs of the majority of the interview participants has not changed – they remained the same as when they were “healthy”. However, sexual relationships changed, for example with one’s wife. In addition, a need for self‐protection has arisen when communicating with others – “so that others would not understand” [research participant H] – as a conscious form of concealing information in fear of being psychologically or socially separated from the environment. In addition a responsibility for others has appeared. For example, if they cut their finger, they try to fix it themselves so that there is no blood left on any surface and no other people would come into contact with this blood. Before they had been diagnosed with HIV, blood donation was a usual practice for some survey participants. After HIV has been diagnosed in the blood centre, the motivation to not use drugs and alcohol appeared (though not immediately). There are some research participants who have accepted the HIV diagnosis calmly because they were consciously taking drugs, i. e. they were aware of information about the consequences and possibilities of getting infected, but they still used drugs though they did not use the syringes used by other people. The interview participants who are still active drugs users today have a stronger anxiety about getting infected with hepatitis C rather than living with HIV. HIV‐positive people often read literature on various diseases and refer to the arguments published by scientists in scientific articles on hepatitis and HIV complications, compare these diseases with each other, and calm themselves down that there are “even more serious diseases” [research participants A, B, C, E, J, M]. Several interview participants live in a partnership with a person who is infected with HIV as well. The interview participant states that HIV was first diagnosed to her partner – she helped him live through the emotionally hard period. Having such an emotional experience, she became stronger psychologically. Later, when she was also diagnosed with HIV, this news did not cause any emotional shock – it was hard but she did not lose the desire to live. Some study participants had the will to withdraw from the use of drugs and start living a healthy life.

Table 3

Life changes of a person with HIV


The diagnosed partner’s HIV

Partner is healthy

Gradual separation of partners after diagnosing HIV

Short‐term relations between partners after HIV diagnosis

Increased motivation not to be drug‐addicted

Increased motivation not to use alcohol

Changes of HIV‐positive person life objectives by motivating the self to live contrary

Overcoming the disappointment after HIV diagnosis by motivating the self for struggling one’s living

Experiencing concern about possible reactions of parents Contemplations about informing the nearest environment about HIV diagnosis Experiencing concern about possible reactions of friends

Self‐empowerment for life changes Internal motivation to live

Conscious change of sexual relations after HIV diagnosis

Change of sexual intercourses with wife

Usual life by satisfying all physiological needs Satisfying the common physiological needs by not excluding differences before and after HIV diagnosis

Fear to be alienated by friends Endeavour to behave differently in order environment does not discover the changes of HIV‐positive person health status

Responsibility of HIV‐positive person for environment / society

Careful behavior of HIV‐positive person with friends in order not to damage them

Changes of life priorities Self‐empowerment to start the life from beginning

Calm acceptance of HIV diagnosis Conscious understanding of HIV diagnosis as an outcome of living style

Living in uncertainty of tomorrow Living in anxiety

Hard reconciliation with diagnosis (‘living in mist’)

Experiencing the burden of obligation for family Financial obligations for family

Relationships between experienced emotional shock and unreasonable changes

Unconscious decisions because of influence of HIV diagnosis

Intensification of relationships with HIV‐positive partner

Support of HIV‐positive partner

Open recognition of drug‐addiction No fear because of HIV diagnosis

Hepatitis C – bigger problem for drug‐user than HIV

70



Extant formal and ‘cold’ relations Recession of nearest environment people after HIV diagnosis Initiated recession by sister

Changes concerning health life style ‘Stop’ for drug‐using

Conscious breaking of social relations with external environment by the HIV‐positive person

Withdrawal

The disclosure of HIV infection has controversial consequences, and one of them is that most often people that are closest to those infected start communicating only formally, “at a distance”. Some research participants consciously distanced themselves from external communication – they do not contact others and others do not contact them. One of the survey participants states that distancing oneself from others is not a rational path. Even though it is hard, one must empower oneself to live a positive life by taking interest in the life, activities and associations of other HIV‐positive people, participating in meetings, etc. It is not easy to say “stop” to one’s former life and “stop” to inactivity, and to “start” a new life by obliging oneself to live differently:

There was a period when I thought that I must cut off relations with everyone and then the problem will be resolved; there will be no need to tell anybody. I stopped communicating with everybody <...> If somebody called, I would say “I have no time”<...> Later I felt the need to communicate. I did not have anyone to communicate with. <...> and I started to look for communication, and how do you look for it? Well, practically that’s clubs <...> parties, and you come and drink some alcohol <...> ‘friends’ appeared <...> I stopped in time, I thought ‐ where I am going and what kind of friends are those? Those were not friends but rather some party companions and that’s it. They were not friends. And then I said to myself ‘stop’. <...> a cardinal change was when I started to think: ‘I am not the only one like this’ <...> then I started to take an interest in organizational things <...> activities carried out in other countries [in countries both nearby and farther away] <...> I started to learn English <...> if one has to carry out an activity, he or she must know the basics of management. I started <...> to take interest in that. <...> knowledge of accounting and organizational matters was needed <...> I broadened my horizons, started to take interest in that, and to learn. <...> my life has changed for the better. But I understand that there are only a few people who can start doing something on their own [research participant V].

Conclusions

Societal attitudes and reactions to people with HIV and HIV/AIDS problems are related to awareness and negative conceptions formed over time as a result of ignorance and lack of awareness, which is why HIV‐positive persons are identified with risk groups, avoiding to view this disease from two aspects – as a social problem and as a disease which must be treated and prevented. The lack of accurate information about HIV in society causes stereotypical tension linked to the fears of society of becoming infected and experiencing a quick and fatal end. An HIV‐positive person tries to “tame” their life situation that has been determined by the HIV‐positive diagnosis. Having stereotypical attitudes, society does not enable itself to change the, and often the opinion still prevails that HIV is a problem of “others” even though those “others” are members of the society which all of us live in. Thus, the realization process is slow and is related to new information about the number of new HIV‐positive cases provided by the media or reading occasional information about negative examples of people with HIV.

The individual’s realization of the diagnosed HIV passes the following two phases – an emotional shock and psychological adaptation to the health status caused by the diagnosis. The person infected with HIV reflects on his or her current personal life and future after the diagnosis of HIV, re‐evaluates their life values and feels like a leper or condemned person in society as a result of the existing negative attitudes. The openness of an HIV‐positive person to his or her close environment unblocks and cleanses relationships/communication between close family members and friends. The loss of friends and relatives and separation of partners is often experienced as a result of their negative viewpoints and stereotypes. While experiencing the compassion and pity of their environment, people with HIV feel emotional discomfort because they understand the fears of people surrounding them that are covered up with goodwill and other behavioral strategies. This situation results in the individual’s gradual exclusion in his or her work environment and outside of it in the formal social networks that are relevant work‐wise for a person living with HIV.

When assuming responsibility for their own health and the health of people surrounding them, people with HIV empower themselves to continual and systematic care of oneself by giving up their harmful lifestyle and harmful habits which have caused their HIV‐positive diagnosis, being attentive in taking medicines, eating nourishing food, and avoiding being in t environments where alcohol and drugs are used because being intoxicated may lead to negative consequences for their own health and the health of others. Having realized the impact of the HIV diagnosis on his or her future life and health, an HIV‐positive person loses the joy of life, understand the limitations of his or her life, and “imprisons” him or herself in psychological and cognitive ‘captivity’ by controlling his or her talking and behaviour in their environment. This double psychological tension suffered by a person living with HIV deprives him or her of the ability to feel comfort in comfort, causing depression and, in some cases, even resulting in the decision to choose to end one’s life upon the appearance of associated health complications.

71

References

1. AMAS. A Multidisciplinary Approach to Dealing with AIDS (2002). Barcelona, Spain: EUE Santa Madrona Attached to Barcelona University & Fundación “la Caixa”.

2. Barroso, J., Powell‐Cope, G. M. (2000). Metasynthesis of Qualitative Research on Living with HIV Infection. Qualitative Health Research. 10 (3): 340‐353.

3. Bitinas, B., Rupšienė, L., Žydžiūnatė, V. (2008). Kokybinių tyrimų metodologija. II dalis. Klaipėda: S. Jokužio leidykla – spaustuvė.

4. Gamson, J. (2000). Sexualities, queer theory, and qualitative research. In N.K.Denzin, Y.S.Lincoln (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. p. 347‐265.

5. Greeff, M., Phetlhu, R. et al (2008). Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences and Perceptions of Persons Living With HIV/AIDS and Nurses Involved in Their Care in Africa. Qualitative Health Research. 18(3): 311‐324.

6. Guideline for a Qualitative research Methodology to Assess the Social Impacts of HIV and Identify Priorities for Advocacy Action (2008). UNDP, Bratislava Regional Centre.

7. Heinrich, C. (2003). Enhancing the Perceived Health of HIV Seropositive Men. Western Journal of Nursing Research. 25(4): 367‐382.

8. Kalichman, S., Brnotsch, E., Suarez, T., Catz, S., Miller, J., Rompa, D. (2000). Health literacy and health‐related knowledge among persons living with HIV/AIDS. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 18(4): 325‐331.

9. Lincoln, Y., Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE. 10. Mayring, Ph. (2000). Qualitative Content Analysis [28 paragraph, Qualitativesozialforshung / Forum: Qualitative Social

Research, 2(1): 1‐10/http://www.qualitative‐research.net/fqs‐texte/2‐00/2‐00mayring‐e.htm 11. Mayring, Ph. (2001). Qualitative Analysis – Research Instrument of Mode of Interpretation. 2nd Workshop on Qualitative

Research in Psychology at Blaubeuren, University of Teubingen. Available at: http://www.ino‐teubingen.de/qualitative‐psychologie/t‐wsd/MAyring‐en.htm

12. Morse, J. (1997). Completing a qualitative project: details and dialogue. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. 13. Mostyn, B. (1985). The content analysis of qualitative research data: a dynamic approach. In J.Brenner, J.Brown, D.Comter

(eds.) The Research Interview. London: Blackwell Science Ltd. p. 115‐145. 14. Neuman, W. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 15. Nokes, K., Carver, K. (1994). The Meaning of Living with AIDs: A Study Using Parse's Theory of Man‐Living‐Health. Nursing

Science Quarterly. 4 (4): 175‐179. 16. Olesen, V. (2000). Feminism and qualitative research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Boston: Allyn and

Bacon. 17. Rupšienė, L. (2007). Kokybinio tyrimo metodologija. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla. 18. Žydžiūnaitė, V. (2005). Komandinio darbo kompetencijos ir jų tyrimo metodologija slaugytojų veiklos požiūriu. Kaunas: Judex.

p. 154‐160. 19. Žydžiūnaitė, V. (2006). Taikomųjų tyrimų metodologijos charakteristikos. Vilnius: ŠMM ir Pedagogų Profesinės Raidos

Centras. 20. Žydžiūnaitė, V. (2008). Tyrimo dizainas: sturktūra ir strategijos. Kaunas: Technologija.

Santrauka

GYVENIMAS DIAGNOZAVUS ŽIV / AIDS: ASMENINĖS IR VISUOMENĖS SAMPRATOS

VILMA ŽYDŽIŪNAITĖ, LIJANA VAINORIŪTĖ

Reikšminiai žodžiai: ŽIV / AIDS, interviu, prasmės, supratimas, savęs įgalinimas, kokybinė turinio analizė.

Dauguma užsikrėtusių ŽIV / sergančių AIDS asmenų reflektuoja savo situaciją vieni arba pasisako apie savo sveikatos situaciją aplinkiniams. Dauguma sveikatos priežiūros mokslo šaltinių akcentuoja pozityvius niuansus, kai užsikrėtę ŽIV / sergantys AIDS asmenys atskleidžia aplinkai savo diagnozę ir pasisako apie savo išgyvenimus. Tačiau kol kas nėra empirinių įrodymų, kad atsivėrimas aplinkai vienareikšmiškai lemia pozityvias pasekmes užsikrėtusiems ŽIV / sergantiems AIDS. Tokia nevienareikšmė situacija sudaro prielaidas šiems asmenims gyventi nuolatinėje psichologinėje įtampoje ir dilemoje. Šio straipsnio autorės taikė kokybinio tyrimo dizainą, aiškindamos asmenų, užsikrėtusių ŽIV / sergančių AIDS, sampratas apie asmeninę situaciją, atskleisdamos tyrimo dalyvių iškomunikuojamas prasmes apie gyvenimą, baimes, emocijas ir elgsenos kaitą, ir t.t. Ilgalaikis asmens buvimas su savomis emocijomis nėra lengvas: susikoncentravimas į save natūraliai sukuria asmeninę izoliaciją nuo išorinės aplinkos (kolegų, draugų), o pats užsikrėtęs ŽIV / sergantis AIDS asmuo sąmoningai kontroliuoja save ir asmeninę komunikaciją su kitais, o asmeniniai apmąstymai / refleksijos vyksta taip pat vienumoje, pateikiant sau asmeniškus, niekur ir niekam neiškomunikuojamus atsakymus. Toks uždaras reflektavimo ratas išvargina asmenį ir kuria įvairias baimes, nuostatas, kurios daro įtaką emocinei ir psichologinei savidestrukcijai. Šios straipsnio tyrimo objektas yra asmeninės ir visuomenės sampratos apie žmones, užsikrėtusius ŽIV / sergančius AIDS. Todėl ir tyrimo klausimas neatsiejamas nuo paminėto tyrimo objekto: Kokios yra sampratos apie užsikrėtusių ŽIV / sergančių AIDS sveikatos ir socialinę situacijas? Tyrimo tikslas yra atskleisti asmenines ir visuomenės sampratas, kurias išsako užsikrėtę ŽIV / sergantys AIDS asmenys, koncentruodamiesi į savo sveikatos ir socialinę situacijas.

Individualiuose interviu dalyvavo dvidešimt tyrimo dalyvių, atrinktų tiksline, maksimaliai įvairių atvejų atranka, kai imties vienetai parenkami tikslingai siekiant, kad tyrimo imtis apimtų kuo įvairesnius tiriamo reiškinio atvejus.

72

Tyrimas nukreiptas į bendrų bruožų, būdingų visiems tiriamiesiems atvejams, nustatymą. Tyrime dalyvavo keturios moterys ir šešiolika vyrų. Tyrimo dalyvių amžius visoje interviu imtyje svyruoja nuo 24 metų iki 49 metų (vidurkis yra 35,65 metai). Pagal dalyvių lytiškumą, jų amžius apima tokį diapazoną: moterų amžius svyruoja nuo 24 metų iki 40 metų (vidurkis 32 metai); vyrų amžius vyruoja nuo 25 metų iki 49 metų (vidurkis 36,56 metai).

Duomenų rinkimui taikymas giluminis pusiau struktūruotas interviu, o duomenų analizei – kokybinė turinio analizė. Tyrimo instrumentas rėmėsi „Guideline for a Qualitative Research Methodology to Assess the Social Impacts of HIV and Identify Priorities for Advocacy Action“(UNDP, 2008) metodologija.

Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė: Visuomenė, turėdama stereotipines nuostatas savęs neįgalina jų kaitai ir neretai dar išlieka požiūris, jog ŽIV

yra „kitų“ problema, nors tie „kiti“ taip pat yra visuomenės, kurioje visi gyvename, nariai. Taigi įsisąmoninimas vyksta vangiai ir siejamas su nauja informacija apie naujai užsikrėtusių asmenų ŽIV skaičiumi sužinant informaciją iš žiniasklaidos arba perskaitant fragmentuotą informaciją apie negatyvius ŽIV užsikrėtusių asmenų pavyzdžius. ŽIV užsikrėtęs asmuo bando „prisijaukinti“ ŽIV diagnozės nulemtą gyvenimo situaciją. Asmens įsisąmoninimas apie jam / jai diagnozuotą ŽIV praeina dvi stadijas ‐ emocinį šoką bei psichologinę adaptaciją prie diagnozės nulemto sveikatos statuso. ŽIV užsikrėtęs asmuo reflektuoja apie asmeninio gyvenimo dabartį ir ateitį po ŽIV diagnozės nustatymo ir perkainoja gyvenimo vertybes bei jaučiasi „raupsuotas“, „prakeiktas“ visuomenėje dėl egzistuojančių negatyvių nuostatų. Visuomenės nuostatos ir reakcijos į ŽIV užsikrėtusius žmones ir ŽIV bei AIDS problematiką susijusios su informuotumu ir susiformavusiomis per laiką negatyviomis sampratomis dėl nežinojimo ir neinformuotumo, todėl ŽIV užsikrėtę asmenys tapatinami su rizikos grupėmis vengiant šią ligą matyti dviem kryptimis – kaip socialinę problemą ir kaip susirgimą, kuris turi būti gydomas. Tikslios informacijos apie ŽIV stoka visuomenėje lemia stereotipines įtampas, susijusias su visuomenės narių baimėmis užsikrėsti ir patirti greitą fatališką baigtį.

ŽIV užsikrėtusio asmens atvirumas artimajai aplinkai išgrynina artimųjų ir draugų santykius / ryšius. Neretai patiriamas draugų ir giminių „nubyrėjimas“, partnerių atsiskyrimas dėl jų turimų išankstinių negatyvių nuostatų, stereotipų. ŽIV užsikrėtę asmenys, patirdami aplinkos užuojautą ir gailestį, jaučia emocinį diskomfortą, nes suvokia aplinkos baimes, kurios „uždengiamos“ palankumo ir kitomis elgsenos strategijomis. Tokia situacija sąlygoja palaipsnę asmens atskirtį ir darbo aplinkoje, ir už jos ribų ŽIV užsikrėtusiam asmeniui aktualiuose darbine prasme formaliuose socialiniuose tinkluose. ŽIV užsikrėtę asmenys prisiimdami atsakomybę už savo ir aplinkos sveikatą įgalina save nuolatinei ir sistemiškai savirūpai savo sveikata atsisakant žalingo gyvenimo būdo bei žalingų įpročių, lėmusių ŽIV diagnozę, sąmoningai vartojant vaistus, pilnaverčiai maitinantis, atsiribojant nuo lankymosi aplinkose, kuriose vartojamas alkoholis ar narkotikai, nes apsvaigimo būsena gali lemti negatyvias pasekmes savo ir aplinkos sveikatai. ŽIV užsikrėtęs asmuo, įsisąmoninęs ŽIV diagnozės poveikį savo tolesniam gyvenimui ir sveikatai praranda gyvenimo džiaugsmą, suvokia savo gyvenimo ribotumus, „įkalina“ save psichologinėje bei kognityvinėje “nelaisvėje“ kontroliuodamas savo kalbėjimą ir elgseną aplinkoje. Patiriama ŽIV užsikrėtusio asmens dviguba psichologinė įtampa neleidžia jam jausti gyvenimo komforto, sąlygoja depresijas, o kai kuriems netgi apsisprendimą, atsiradus gretutinėms sveikatos komplikacijoms, – pasirinkti fatališką gyvenimo baigtį.

Accepted for publication 12 January 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 sausio 12

73



PUBLIC HEALTH

QUALITY OF LIFE ASSESSMENT AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS

JURGITA ANDRUŠKIENĖ, VIDA STANIULIENĖ, ASTA MAŽIONIENĖ, ALDONA ŠUMSKIENĖ,

DAIVA LENČIAUSKIENĖ, DAIVA USELIENĖ


REGINA RĖKLAITIENĖ, DALIA VIRVIČIŪTĖ

Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Lithuania

Abstract

Background. The concept of health–related quality of life includes social and psychological as well as physical aspects, so such terms like functional ability, social health and positive health have become important.

Research questions: what is quality of life of students, studying according to the different study programmes in the college? Is the questionnaire WHOQOL‐100 suitable for students’ quality of life assessment?

Research focus – quality of life assessment among students, studying according to the different study programmes in the college.

The aim of this study is to assess the validity and reliability of the WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire in the population of college students and to compare the quality of life mean scores among study programs.

Material and methods. The study sample consisted of the persons studying at the Faculty of Health Sciences Klaipeda State College: 650 women and 32 men, which were the first, second, third and fourth year students (the response rate 73.4 %). All the participants were examined by self‐administered WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire in a period of November – December in 2010. All the domain scores of the WHOQOL‐100 were transformed to reflect a scale from 0 to 100. Mean values were compared using t‐test. Internal consistency of the domains was assessed using Cronbach alpha coefficients. Convergent validity was evaluated using Pearson’s correlations. To compare means of the scores among study programs ANOVA analysis was performed.

Results. Cronbach alpha has demonstrated strong reliability of the WHOQOL‐100 (0.72‐0.88). The results showed the strong correlation between overall quality of life and psychological domains (r=0.57), as well as between level of independency and psychological domains (r=0.59). Weak correlation was identified between spirituality and physical domains (r=0.13). Comparison of the WHOQOL‐100 scores among study programs has showed that student’s quality of life differed in all the domains. Level of independence domain was assessed by the highest score in all study programs.

Conclusions. The first comprehensive data about the quality of life among college students was presented. In the population of the college students the WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire has showed high reliability and convergent validity. The domain of overall quality of life demonstrated the strongest stability; the weakest stability was in the domain of spirituality. WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire was defined as suitable instrument for students’ quality of life assessment. Significant differences in mean quality of life scores were observed in each domain among different study programs. Overall quality of life and environmental domains were evaluated by the highest scores among dental assistance students. Physical and psychological domains have got the highest scores in the oral hygiene study program. The domains of social relationships and spirituality were highly evaluated by physiotherapy students. Study program of nursing has got the lowest scores in all quality of life domains.

Keywords: WHOQOL‐100, students, college, quality of life, validity, reliability.

Introduction

Research context and relevance. The World Health Organization (WHO) Quality of Life (WHOQOL) project was initiated in 1991. The aim was to develop an international cross‐culturally comparable quality of life assessment instrument. Quality of life (QoL), according WHO, assesses the individual's perceptions in the context of their culture and value systems, and their personal goals, standards and concerns. Medical scientific research usually focuses on specific area – health‐related quality of life (HRQL).

The concept of health has been widened when it included social and psychological as well as physical aspects, so such terms like functional ability, social health and positive health have become important. The other main development in measuring QoL has been shifted from physicians’ and careers’ perceptions of quality of life to the individual’s subjective feelings of their own health (Bowling, 1997). HRQL is negatively affected by chronic diseases. One of the most important dimensions of HRQL is sleep quality. Results of scientific research indicate that persons

74

who are not satisfied with their sleep quality have reduced health‐related quality of life in all health domains, as compared with those whose quality of sleep is good. Subjects with depressive mood are characterized by poorer HRQL, as compared with persons which mood is not disturbed. Persons with coronary artery disease and those, who were found to have combined cardiovascular pathology – coronary artery disease with arterial hypertension, were observed to have decreased HRQL scores, as compared with healthy subjects in domains of physical functioning, role limitation due to physical problems, social functioning, pain as well as general health perception that reflected worsened HRQL (Andruskiene, Varoneckas, 2010).

The scientists of the United States of America (Strine, Chapman, 2005) determine that dissatisfied with sleep persons, as compare with good sleeping individuals, more frequently are smoking, using alcohol, are obese and experience depression. Sleep duration up to 9 hours positively affects health‐related quality of life, whereas longer sleep duration has negative effect (Groeger et al, 2004). In the last decade scientists began research in the field of students’ quality of life. The greatest attention is paid to the medical students. The first comprehensive data about the QoL among Lithuanian University students was presented in 2003 (Dučinskienė et al, 2003). However there is still no data about the QoL among college students in Lithuania.

Research questions are the following: what is quality of life of students, studying according to the different study programmes in the college? Is the questionnaire WHOQOL‐100 suitable for students’ quality of life assessment? Research focus – quality of life assessment among students, studying according to the different study programmes in the college.

The aim of the research is to assess the validity and reliability of the WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire in the population of college students and to compare the quality of life mean scores among study programs.

Factors influencing students’ quality of life

In the last decade scientists began research in the field of students’ quality of life. The greatest attention is paid to the medical students. The results show that only 68 % of medical students have heard the term "quality of life" in academic institutions, such as school of medicine, high school or in some discussion groups. Supposedly, there is not well oriented form of learning about "quality of life" for residents, interns and last year medical students. Therefore, there is a need for a formal training on quality of life along the medical studies and its uses in the medical practice in general and with special emphasis on diagnosis and therapeutics (González et al, 2000). Students are not quite acquainted with the term “quality of life”, meanwhile the main behavioral factors are not well disposed towards absolute wellbeing.

A number of studies have showed a high prevalence of bad quality of sleep among university students varying from 19.2 % to 57.5 % and being especially high among medical students (Carney et al., 2006; Suen et al., 2008). Sleep quality is associated with academic progress (r=0.174; p<0.001), leisure activity (r=0.210; p<0.001), and living conditions (r=0.195; p<0.001). Sleep quality is not associated with students' workload during the day (r=0.021; p>0.05) or night (r=0.0664; p>0.05). Daytime sleepiness poses a significant problem for students and is associated both with sleep disorders and work while studying (Veldi et al, 2005).

The most recent research indicates that over 60 % of students are categorized as poor sleepers, which bedtime and awakening time always is delayed during weekends. Students report frequently taking using prescribed medications to alter sleep or wakefulness. Students classified as poor sleepers reported significantly more problems with physical and psychological health as compared with good sleepers. Emotional and academic stress negatively impacted students’ sleep. Excessive exercise, alcohol, caffeine consumption and inconsistency of sleep schedule were not significant predictors of sleep quality. These results demonstrate that insufficient sleep and irregular sleep‐wake patterns are common in the college student population. Close relationships between sleep quality and physical and mental health prove that intervention programs for sleep disturbance in this population should be considered (Lund et al, 2010).

Prevalence of sleep problems is high among Lithuanian students, it reaches 59.4%. Medical students have worse quality of sleep and worse impact of poor sleep on quality of life as compared with students of law and economics (Preišegolavičiūtė et al, 2010).

The main behavioral risk factors of chronic non communicable diseases, such as overweight, obesity, unhealthy diet, lack of physical activity, regular smoking, arterial hypertension, dyslipidemias, unsafe alcohol consumption and others are common among Lithuanian medical students (Burneckienė et al, 2007; Dičkutė et al, 2000; Veryga, Sutkutė, 2003), and it significantly contributes to mortality and morbidity among young people.

The first comprehensive data about the QoL among Lithuanian University students was presented in 2003 (Dučinskienė et al, 2003). The results of the study indicated no significant differences in mean QoL scores in physical and psychological domains among persons, studying biomedical, technological and humanitarian sciences. The QoL scores in the social domain were higher in humanitarian students; it can be explained by better personal relationships and social support, as compare with biomedical and technical students.

75


Sample

The study sample consisted of the persons studying at the Faculty of Health Sciences Klaipeda State College: 650 women and 32 men (the response rate 73.4 %). The respondents were divided to the groups according to the study programs: nursing (n=130), physiotherapy (n=135), beauty therapy (n=143), dental assistance (n=56), oral hygiene (n=66) and social work (n=152). The study sample was divided into quartiles according to the income.

Methods

All the domain scores of the WHOQOL‐100 were transformed to reflect a scale from 0 to 100. Mean QoL values were compared using t‐test and F test, when more than two groups were compared. Internal consistency of the domains was assessed using Cronbach alpha coefficients. Convergent and divergent validity was evaluated using Pearson’s correlations. Test‐retest stability was estimated by repeated questioning of 70 students in a period of two weeks and evaluated by Spearman–Brown coefficient. To compare means of the standard scores between study programs, type of the study and year of studying ANOVA analysis was performed. The difference was considered to be statistically significant when p<0.05.

Research Tool

All the participants were examined by self‐administered WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire in a period of November – December in 2010. The WHOQOL‐100 is organized into the following domains: the overall QoL, physical, psychological, level of independence, social relationships, environmental and spirituality domains. Within each domain, a series of sub‐domains (facets) of QoL summarizes that particular domain of QoL.

The information concerning the respondent’s age (age groups 18‐24, 25‐34, 35‐44 and >45 years), marital status (single, married, cohabiting, married but living separately, divorced), employment status (employed or unemployed) and living region (city, small town or village) was added to the WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire.

Research Ethics

Approval from the local Ethics Commission was obtained prior to the research. Students were informed about the main objectives of the research and were instructed how to fill in the questionnaire. Students who refused to participate in research were not questioned.

Results

Sociodemographic characteristics among students, according to the study programs are presented in Table 1. The major part of students in nursing, physiotherapy, beauty therapy, dental assistance, oral hygiene and social

work study programs are young persons, aged 18‐24 years, respectively 90.0, 77.0, 80.4, 76.8, 69.7 and 63.8 %. One third of beauty therapy (29.4 %), physiotherapy (28.9 %), oral hygiene (37.9 %) and social work (37.5 %)

students are employed (Table 1). A small part of nursing and dental assistant students are working during studies, respectively 13.8 % and 14.3

%. The results showed the strong correlation between overall quality of life and psychological domains (r=0.57), level of independency and psychological domains (r=0.59).

Weak correlation was identified between spirituality and physical domains (r=0.13) (Table 2). The items of the domain of spirituality demonstrated strong internal reliability (r=0.51), domain of environment

has showed weak internal consistency (r=0.18) (Table 3). The Cronbach alpha coefficients in our study ranged from 0.72 (overall quality of life) to 0.88 (psychological

domain). The domain of overall quality of life demonstrated the strongest stability, according test‐retest (r=0.86), the

weakest stability was in the domain of spirituality (r=0.5). The domain of overall quality of life ranged from 59.6 (nursing) to 66.5 (dental assistance), p=0.007 (Table 4).

Physical domain scores ranged from 58.3 (nursing) to 64.4 (oral hygiene), p=0.02. The scores of Psychological domain ranged from 60.5 (nursing) to 66.3 (oral hygiene), p=0.002. Level of

independence was scored from 74.6 (nursing) to 81.4 (dental assistance and oral hygiene), p<0.001. Social relationship was scored from 66.3 (nursing) to 72.2 (physiotherapy), p=0.015. Environmental domain has got the lowest score in nursing program (54.6), the highest one – in dental

assistance (60.3), p=0.001. The scores of spirituality varied from 60.1 (nursing) to 67.3 (physiotherapy), p=0.039. Study program of nursing

has got the lowest scores in all quality of life domains.

76

Table 1

Sociodemographic characteristics, according study programs

Study programs

Nursing Physiotherapy Beauty therapy

Dental assistance

Oral hygiene Social work

Characteristics

n % n % n % n % n % n %

Age, years

18‐24 117 90.0 104 77.0 115 80.4 43 76.8 46 69.7 97 63.8

25‐34 10 7.7 14 10.4 18 12.6 4 7.1 9 13.6 26 17.1

35‐44 1 0.8 16 11.9 5 3.5 1 1.8 5 7.6 14 9.2

>=45 2 1.5 0 0 3 2.1 0 0 3 4.5 8 5.3

Missing data 0 0 1 0.7 2 1.4 8 14.3 3 4.5 7 4.6

Marital status

Single 99 76.2 94 69.6 105 73.4 43 76.8 48 72.7 92 60.5

Married 18 13.8 28 20.7 20 14.0 5 8.9 15 22.7 42 27.6

Cohabiting 12 9.2 12 8.9 16 11.2 6 10.7 2 3.0 18 11.8

Married, living separately

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.8 0 0 0 0

Divorced 1 0.8 1 0.7 2 1.4 0 0 1 1.5 0 0

Missing data 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.8 0 0 0 0

Social status

Employed 18 13.8 39 28.9 42 29.4 8 14.3 25 37.9 57 37.5

Unemployed 112 86.2 96 71.1 101 70.6 48 85.7 41 62.1 95 62.5

Missing data 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Income

1 quartile <400 Lt

28 21.5 22 16.3 26 18.2 11 19.6 2 3.0 32 21.1

2 quartile 400‐699 Lt

25 19.2 24 17.8 22 15.4 10 17.9 10 15.2 20 13.2

3 quartile 700‐1099 Lt

12 9.2 18 13.3 30 21.0 7 12.5 11 16.7 36 23.7

4 quartile >=1100 Lt

5 3.8 12 8.9 5 3.5 1 1.8 14 21.2 19 12.5

Missing data 60 46.2 59 43.7 60 42.0 27 48.2 29 43.9 45 29.6

Living region

City 50 38.5 79 58.5 93 65.0 33 58.9 44 66.7 65 42.8

Small town 32 24.6 30 22.2 24 16.8 11 19.6 10 15.2 46 30.3

Village 48 36.9 26 19.3 26 18.2 12 21.4 12 18.2 41 27.0

Missing data 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 2

Convergent validity of the WHOQOL‐100 domains

The WHOQOL‐100 domains

Overall quality of life

Physical Psychological Level of independence

Social relationships

Environmental Spirituality


1

Physical 0.39 1

Psychological 0.57 0.52 1

Level of independence

0.42 0.52 0.59 1

Social relationships

0.43 0.26 0.56 0.42 1

Environmental 0.52 0.36 0.55 0.44 0.5 1

Spirituality 0.31 0.13 0.47 0.35 0.42 0.31 1

77

Table 3

Reliability of the WHOQOL‐100 domains

Homogeneity The WHOQOL‐100 domains

No. of items r min. Max.

Cronbach alpha Test‐retest,

r

Overall quality of life 4 0.4 0.25 0.63 0.72 0.86

Physical 12 0.24 0.06 0.7 0.8 0.69

Psychological 20 0.27 ‐0.01 0.72 0.88 0.84

Level of independence 16 0.24 0.04 0.66 0.82 0.73

Social relationships 12 0.22 0.03 0.63 0.77 0.69

Environmental 32 0.18 ‐0.26 0.75 0.87 0.83

Spirituality 4 0.51 0.34 0.6 0.8 0.5

Table 4

Comparison of WHOQOL‐100 domains among study programs

Nursing Physiotherapy Beauty therapy

Dental assistance

Oral hygiene Social work ANOVA WHOQOL‐100

domains m (95% CI) m (95% CI) m (95% CI) m (95% CI) m (95% CI) m (95% CI) F test

p


59.6 (56.9‐62.2)

65.5 (62.6‐68.4)

63.6 (61.1‐66.1)

66.5 (62.4‐70.7)

65.2 (61.2‐69.1) 61.5 (59.2‐63.7) 3.2 0.007

Physical 58.3 (56.0‐60.7)

62.5 (59.9‐65.1)

60.1 (57.8‐62.3)

64.0 (60.0‐68.0)

64.4 (61.3‐67.5) 60.5 (58.3‐62.8) 2.7 0.02

Psycholo‐gical

60.5 (58.5‐62.6)

66.0 (63.9‐68.2)

62.4 (60.2‐64.7)

65.1 (62.1‐68.2)

66.3 (63.3‐69.4) 62.9 (61.1‐64.7) 3.8 0.002

Level of indepen‐dence

74.6 (72.5‐76.8)

79.2 (77.1‐81.3)

76.5 (74.4‐78.6)

81.4 (78.8‐84.1)

81.4 (78.4‐84.3) 79.4 (77.7‐81.1) 5.2 0.000

Social relation‐ships

66.3 (64.1‐68.5)

72.2 (70.1‐74.3)

68.7 (66.3‐71.1)

70.2 (66.4‐74.1)

70.0 (66.0‐74.0) 70.2 (68.3‐72.2) 2.8 0.015

Environ‐mental

54.6 (52.6‐56.6)

59.9 (58.0‐61.9)

56.8 (55.1‐58.5)

60.3 (57.6‐63.0)

59.4 (56.7‐62.1) 58.0 (56.4‐59.7) 4.5 0.001

Spirituality 60.1 (57.1‐63.1)

67.3 (64.5‐70.0)

62.5 (59.3‐65.7)

65.3 (60.4‐70.2)

63.3 (58.8‐67.7) 62.4 (59.4‐65.5) 2.4 0.039

Discussion

The WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire consists of the six domains: the overall QoL and general health, physical, psychological, level of independence, social relationships, environment and spiritual domains. Estimation of the validity and reliability of the WHOQOL‐100 for every analyzed population group is an essential condition to evaluate survey questionnaire. Validity is a degree to which the measure reflects what is supposed to be measured or to be measured. Convergent validity refers to the extent to which different ways of measuring the same point correlate with one another. In order to assess the construct validity of the WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire, Pearson’s correlation coefficient among items inside and outside the domains were calculated. Pearson’s correlation was the first of the correlation measures developed and is most commonly used, it indicates that r value ranging from 0.10 to 0.29 is considered as weak linear relationship, 0.30 to 0.50 is moderate linear relationship, and above 0.50 is a strong linear relationship (Burns, Grove, 2005). Pearson’s correlation coefficient has showed strong relations between the domains of overall quality of life and psychological (r=0.57) and between level of independency and psychological domains (r=0.59). Weak relation was established between spirituality and physical domains (r=0.13). Internal consistency reliability assessment involves examining of the agreement between two or more measures of the same domain; it

78

refers to the extent to which the items are interrelated. The internal consistency approach to estimating an instrument’s reliability is probably the most widely used method among researchers today. Normal range of Cronbach alpha coefficient values is considered from 0.00 to 1.00, higher values reflect a higher degree of internal consistency (Polit, Hungler, 1995). Cronbach alpha coefficient has demonstrated strong reliability of the WHOQOL‐100 (0.72‐0.88). Level of independence domain was assessed by the highest score in all study programs, implying good mobility, enough resources to perform everyday duties, independence on medications and medical care and not restricted ability to work. These results could be determined by the young age of respondents: 63.8‐90.6% of respondents in all study programs were 18‐24 years old. The domain of environment has got the lowest score (54.6), as compared with other domains. Domain of environment consists of the facets: financial resources, freedom, physical safety and security, health and social care: accessibility and quality, home environment, opportunities for acquiring new information and skills, participation and opportunities for recreation or leisure activities, physical environment (pollution, noise, traffic, climate) and transport. The low score of the environment domain indicates that students feel unsafe socially and financially; it could be related to the relatively low percent of employed students. The rate of employment ranges from 13.8 (nursing) to 37.9 (oral health). Low rate of employment among nursing students determines very low income (<400 lt) for 21.5% of students, the same rate of income was assessed among 3% of oral hygiene students. These results support the conclusions of the study, performed in three universities in Lithuania. Quality of life in this study was measured according the abbreviated 26‐item version of WHOQOL‐100. Domain of environment among the students of university was assessed by the lowest score (12.09), physical health has got the highest score (15.05), it implied good activities of daily living, enough energy, less pain and discomfort, sufficient sleep and rest, good work capacity (Dučinskienė et al., 2003). The results of the research, performed in Vilnius university, also support the results of our study: Vilnius university students the highest scores gave to the domain of level of independency (78.4 among men and 80.3 among women), the lowest scores were given, differently for college students, for spirituality (respectively 56.5 and 55.6) (Jankauskas, Jatulienė, 2008). The questionnaire WHOQOL‐100 has demonstrated very high properties of validity and reliability in the rural population of Lithuania (Rėklaitienė et al., 2008), as well as middle‐aged population of Kaunas (Bacevičienė, Rėklaitienė, 2009). The QoL scores in the rural population, controlled by age, as well as among middle‐aged citizens of Kaunas, demonstrated the highest scores in the domain level of independence. Level of independence in rural population was scored 69.9 among men, 68.0 among women, although the difference according gender was not significant (p>0.05). The scores of level of independence were lowering with age among men and among women. The mean scores for the WHOQOL‐100 domains ranged from 51.3 (overall quality of life) to 72.0 (level of independence) in the community of Kaunas city. The factors, which are considered as the major contributors to the improvement of students’ QoL are equity and accessibility of all educational opportunities, recreational and cultural activities, as well as balancing of study with personal life or family responsibilities (Dučinskienė et al, 2003). The results of our study have showed the critical evaluation of environmental factors, which are very important for students’ quality of life. Significant differences in mean QoL scores were observed in each domain among different study programs. Study program of nursing has demonstrated the lowest scores in all domains, so it suggests the need for deepened analysis of students’ quality of life according study programs, type of the studies and year of studying.

Conclusions

The first comprehensive data about the quality of life among college students was presented. In the population of the college students the WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire has showed high reliability and convergent validity. The domain of overall quality of life demonstrated the strongest stability; the weakest stability was in the domain of spirituality. WHOQOL‐100 questionnaire was defined as suitable instrument for students’ quality of life evaluation.

Significant differences in mean quality of life scores were observed in each domain among different study programs. Overall quality of life and environmental domains were evaluated by the highest scores among dental assistance students. Physical and psychological domains have got the highest scores in the oral hygiene study program. The domains of social relationships and spirituality were highly evaluated by physiotherapy students. Study program of nursing has got the lowest scores in all quality of life domains.

References

1. Bowling, A. (1997). Measuring Health. A Review of Quality of Life Measurement Scales. Buckingham, Philadelphia: Open University Press.

2. Andruskiene, J., Varoneckas, G. (2010). Sleep, Depression and Quality of Life in Coronary Artery Disease. Prevalence, Symptoms and Prevention. Lambert Academic Publishing.

3. Strine, T.W., Chapman, D.P. (2005). Associations of frequent sleep insufficiency with health–related quality of life and health behaviours. Sleep Medicine. 6(1): 23–27.

4. Groeger, J.A., Zijlstra, F.R., Dijk, D.J. (2004). Sleep quantity, sleep difficulties and their perceived consequences in a representative sample of some 2000 British adults. Journal of Sleep Research. 13(4): 359–371.

5. González, N., Padilla, J., Rodríguez, E. et al. (2000). The "quality of life" concept in medical students and postgraduate residents in a university hospital. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 41(4):219‐235.

79

6. Carney, C.E., Edinger, J.D., Meyer, B., Lindman, L., Istre, T. (2006). Daily activities and sleep quality in college students. Chronobiology International. 23(3): 623‐637.

7. Suen, L.K., Hon, K.L., Tam, W.W. (2008). Association between sleep behavior and sleep‐related factors among university students in Hong Kong. Chronobiology International. 25(5): 760‐775.

8. Veldi, M., Aluoja, A., Vasar, V. (2005). Sleep quality and more common sleep‐related problems in medical students. Sleep Medicine. 6(3): 269‐275.

9. Lund, H.G., Reider, B.D., Whiting, A.B., Prichard, J.R. (2010). Sleep patterns and predictors of disturbed sleep in a large population of college students. Journal of Adolescent Health. 46(2): 124‐132.

10. Preišegolavičiūtė, E., Leskauskas, D., Adomaitienė, V. (2010). Associations of quality of sleep with lifestyle factors and profile of studies among Lithuanian students. Medicina. 46(7): 482‐489.

11. Burneckienė, J., Dučinskienė, D., Lukoševičius L., Kašauskas, A., Kondratas, D., Vladičkienė J. (2007). Medicinos studentų alkoholinių gėrimų vartojimo ir rūkymo įpročiai. Lietuvos bendrosios praktikos gydytojas. 11(1):18‐23.

12. Dičkutė, J., Milašauskienė, Ž., Klumbienė, J., Padaiga Ž. (2000). Kauno medicinos universiteto studentų gyvensenos ypatumai ir rizikos veiksnių tarp jų paplitimas 1995‐1997 metais. Medicina. 36: 957‐963.

13. Veryga, A., Sutkutė, G. (2003). Rūkymo paplitimas bei požiūrio į rūkymą skirtumai tarp rūkančių ir nerūkančių Kauno medicinos universiteto VI kurso studentų 1995‐2002 m. Biologinė psichiatrija ir psichofarmakologija. 5: 2‐4.

14. Dučinskienė, D., Kalėdienė, R., Petrauskienė, J. (2003). Quality of Life among Lithuanian University Students. Acta Medica Lituanica. 10(2): 76‐81.

15. Burns, N., Grove, S.N. (2005). The Practise of Nursing Research. Conduct, Critique and Utilization. Elsevier. 16. Polit, D.F., Hungler, B.P. (1995). Nursing Research. Principles and Methods. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. 17. Jankauskas, J. Jatulienė, N. (2008). Vilniaus universiteto studentų gyvenimo kokybė. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. 18. Rėklaitienė, R., Andrijauskas, K., Bacevičienė, M. (2008). Assessment of the quality of life among Lithuanian rural

community. Acta Medica Lituanica. 15(3): 156‐162. 19. Bacevičienė, M., Rėklaitienė, R. (2009). Psychometric properties of the World Health Organization Quality of Life 100

questionnaire in the middle‐aged Lithuanian population of Kaunas city. Medicina. 45(6): 493‐500.

Santrauka

KOLEGIJOS STUDENTŲ GYVENIMO KOKYBĖS VERTINIMAS

JURGITA ANDRUŠKIENĖ, VIDA STANIULIENĖ, REGINA RĖKLAITIENĖ, DALIA VIRVIČIŪTĖ, ASTA MAŽIONIENĖ, ALDONA ŠUMSKIENĖ, DAIVA LENČIAUSKIENĖ, DAIVA USELIENĖ

Reikšminiai žodžiai: gyvenimo kokybė, GK PSO‐100 klausimynas, kolegija, studentai, pagrįstumas, stabilumas.

Tyrimo klausimai: kokia yra kolegijoje skirtingose studijų programose studijuojančių studentų gyvenimo kokybė, vertinant pagal gyvenimo kokybės sritis? Ar Gyvenimo Kokybės Pasaulio Sveikatos Organizacijos (GK PSO‐100) klausimynas yra tinkamas kolegijos studentų gyvenimo kokybei vertinti.

Tyrimo objektas – skirtingose kolegijos studijų programose studijuojančių studentų gyvenimo kokybės vertinimas. Tyrimo tikslas: nustatyti Gyvenimo Kokybės Pasaulio Sveikatos Organizacijos (GK PSO‐100) klausimyno tinkamumą,

vertinant Klaipėdos valstybinės kolegijos Sveikatos mokslų fakulteto studentų gyvenimo kokybę ir nustatyti gyvenimo kokybės sričių vidurkius skirtingose studijų programose.

Tyrimo metodologija. Tiriamųjų kontingentą sudarė Klaipėdos valstybinėje kolegijoje, Sveikatos mokslų fakultete studijuojantys 682 studentai, 95,3 proc. iš jų moterys. Studentai buvo apklausti užsiėmimų metu, apklausa vyko 2010 m. lapkričio‐gruodžio mėnesiais. Apklausai buvo naudotas Pasaulio sveikatos organizacijos (PSO) klausimynas “PSO–100”, kuris sudarytas iš 100 klausimų, atspindinčių 6 gyvenimo kokybės sritis: bendra gyvenimo kokybė ir sveikata, fizinė, psichologinė, nepriklausomumo, socialinių santykių, aplinkos, dvasingumo bei religinių įsitikinimų. Klausimyno pagrįstumas ir vidinis stabilumas buvo vertintas Pirsono koreliacijos koeficientais ir Kronbacho alfos rodikliais, kurių patikimumas leido klausimyną naudoti studentų gyvenimo kokybės tyrimui. Kiekvieno tiriamojo “PSO‐100” klausimyno sričių atsakymų variantai buvo perskaičiuoti standartizuotais balais kiekvienai iš gyvenimo kokybės sričių, kai minimalus galimas balų skaičius 0, o maksimalus – 100.

Rezultatai. Didžioji dalis slaugą, kineziterapiją, grožio terapiją, odontologinę priežiūrą, burnos higieną ar socialinį darbą studijuojančių asmenų, kurie dalyvavo gyvenimo kokybės tyrime, yra jauno amžiaus (18‐24 m.), atitinkamai 90,0, 77,0, 80,4, 76,8, 69,7 ir 63,8 %. Vidutiniškai vienas trečdalis grožio terapijos (29,4 %), kineziterapijos (28,9 %), burnos higienos (37,9 %) ir socialinio darbo (37,5 %) studentų yra dirbantys. Mažiausia dirbančių studentų dalis yra slaugos ir odontologinės priežiūros studijų programose, atitinkamai 13,8 % ir 14,3 %. Kronbacho alfa koeficiento reikšmės (0,72‐0,88) rodo stiprų gyvenimo kokybės sričių vidinį stabilumą. Įvertinus klausimyno konvergentinį pagrįstumą, stiprus ryšys nustatytas tarp bendros gyvenimo kokybės ir sveikatos bei psichologinės srities (r=0,57), nepriklausomumo ir psichologinės srities (r=0.59). Silpnas ryšys nustatytas tarp dvasingumo ir fizinės srities (r=0.13). Tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad visų gyvenimo kokybės sričių vertinimai skirtingose studijų programose statistiškai reikšmingai skyrėsi. Visose studijų programose geriausiai studentai vertino nepriklausomumo sritį. Mažiausias bendros gyvenimo kokybės srities balų vidurkis nustatytas tarp slaugą studijuojančių asmenų, aukščiausias – tarp odontologinės priežiūros studentų, atitinkamai 59,6 ir 66,5, p=0,007. Fizinės gyvenimo kokybės srities vidurkiai svyravo nuo 58,3 (slaugos studijų programa) iki 64,4 (burnos higiena), p=0,02. Psichologinę ir nepriklausomumo sritis mažiausiais balais vertino slaugos studentai, aukščiausiais – odontologinę priežiūrą ar burnos higieną studijuojantys

80

tiriamieji, atitinkamai 60,5 ir 66,3, p=0,002 bei 74,6 ir 81,4, p<0.001. Socialinių santykių srities balai svyravo nuo 66,3 (slaugos studijų programa) iki 72,2 (kineziterapija), p=0,015. Aplinkos sritį mažiausiais balais vertino slaugą studijuojantys tiriamieji (54,6), didžiausiais – odontologinės priežiūros studentai (60,3), p=0,001. Dvasingumo srities įvertinimai svyravo nuo 60,1 (tarp studijuojančiųjų slaugą) iki 67,3 (kineziterapijos studijų programoje), p=0,039.

Išvados. Gauti pirmieji duomenys apie kolegijos studentų gyvenimo kokybę. Nustatyta, kad PSO‐100 gyvenimo kokybės klausimynas yra tinkamas instrumentas kolegijos studentų gyvenimo kokybei tirti. Nustatyti statistiškai reikšmingi gyvenimo kokybės sričių balų vidurkių skirtumai visose studijų programose. Bendros gyvenimo kokybės ir aplinkos sritis aukščiausiais balais vertino odontologinės priežiūros studentai. Fizinę ir psichologinę gyvenimo kokybės sritis geriausiai vertino burnos higieną studijuojantys asmenys. Socialinių santykių ir dvasingumo sritims aukščiausius balus skyrė kineziterapiją studijuojantys asmenys.

Accepted for publication 17 February 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 vasario 17

81



SOCIAL WORK

SOCIAL REHABILITATION PROCESS FOR VICTIMS OF PROSTITUTION AND TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN

AKVILĖ VIRBALIENĖ, SKAIDRĖ RAČKAUSKIENĖ


Abstract

The article represents the process of social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking in women. Victims of prostitution and trafficking in women are physically and psychologically damaged, they find it very hard to return to normal life due to the sense of humiliation, lack of personal and social skills and family relations. Therefore social rehabilitation is crucial for this particular group of individuals. Topic of this study is clearly defined by a question: How is the process of social rehabilitation for victims implemented? Subject of the study – social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking in women. Aim of the study – introduce the process of social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking in women. Data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis method. Victims of prostitution and trafficking in women acquire social and personal skills with the help of social rehabilitation. With the help of social workers victims restore relationships with their families and find new friends. Social rehabilitation provides conditions for restoration and improvement of personal skills, which are directed towards understanding and development of self‐value and this in turn determine rational need to respect one self and strive for normal functioning within the community and society.

Keywords: social rehabilitation, prostitution, trafficking in women.

Introduction

Relevance of the topic. There is no official statistics on trafficking in women in Lithuania; however, it is believed that approximately 2000 women per year are taken to foreign brothels (Stankūnienė et al, 2007). Increasing poverty and unemployment stand as one of the main reasons for prostitution as an occupation. Everyday hundreds of women leave their homes in search of work and better life. They are involved in forced prostitution whether by deception, violence, threats or blackmail. They end up in illegal businesses and service industries where they suffer physical and psychological violence and lawlessness of employers. According to Karmaza et al (2005 a) women taken out of sexual slavery are damaged both physically and psychologically. It is very hard for a woman to return to normal life when she is alone because she lacks necessary skills and relationship with her family is broken. Thus social rehabilitation for this group of people is vitally important. Aim of social rehabilitation is to help women who were forced to work in foreign or Lithuanian brothels and women who agreed to be involved in prostitution but feel as outcasts, deceived and humiliated. It takes a lot of efforts for a woman to return to society and avoid becoming a victim of trafficking in humans or prostitution again. For this reason social rehabilitation is important – it helps women return to full social life and restore relationship with others (Ruškus, Mažeikienė (2005), Blinstrubas, Balčiūnas (2005). Therefore constant participation in social rehabilitation sessions is the most effective way to help a victim of trafficking in women or prostitution return to society.

Research issue. The matter of trafficking in women in Lithuania has not been widely studied. Sipavičienė et al (2004) study the topic of trafficking in women and introduce the extent of prostitution worldwide. Authors Puidokienė (2008), Nachbaur et al, (2007), Prokopčik (2006), Karmaza (2005), Navaitis (2005), Sipavičienė (2006), Marcinkevičienė (2003), Bazylevas (2003), Acus (2001) ventilate the reasons, consequences of such phenomenon by discussing possible ways of solving this problem and helping the victims. Raymond (2005) studied the reasons and consequences of sexual industry. Ruškus et al (2005) carried out a study on the effectiveness of aid provided to victims of prostitution and trafficking in humans in Lithuania. This research emphasized the importance of inter‐institutional cooperation and systematic attitude towards the process of reintegration. There are no thorough researches on process of social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking in humans. Thus the main issue of this study is the question: How is the process of social rehabilitation for victims implemented?

Research focus – social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking in women. Research aim: to introduce the process of social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking in

women.

82

Course of social rehabilitation process while working with victims of prostitution and trafficking in women

Social rehabilitation is considered one of the essential means of fighting trafficking in women and prostitution. Such aid is important in the aspect of human rights since it provides possibility to reduce negative consequences of trafficking in women. The aim of social rehabilitation in relation to victims of prostitution and human trafficking is to neutralize the effects of psychological trauma, develop cooperation and socialization skills, avoid social exclusion and return the person to a full life within the society (Ruškus et al, 2005). In order to do so women are directed to non‐governmental organizations such as rehabilitation centers or teams that can provide the necessary help to victims of prostitution or human trafficking. According to Ruškus and Mažeikienė (2005) aid to victims of prostitution or human trafficking during social rehabilitation is divided into two trends: development of new skills and integration into society. Thus, social workers help develop skills necessary for easier integration into society and maintain emotional stability during the whole process. Ruškus and Mažeikienė (2005) separated three stages of social rehabilitation and necessary integrate elements which are applied during the rehabilitation programme in nongovernmental institutions. First stage involves getting to the victims and their intervention. Main objective at this stage is to prevent possible exploitation or intervene before the potential victims fall into the network of trafficking in women. According to Ruškus et al (2005), institutions determining possible victims inform organizations that provide rehabilitation, which in turn creates an aid scheme in cooperation with other organizations. Immediate aid to victims of prostitution and trafficking in women is given 24 hours a day. This means that the victim can be met (at the airport, state boarder, any other place), can be given the necessary aid (medical, social, psychological, legal), the necessity of help can be determined and physical security guaranteed. The victims are separated from their exploiters, souteneurs and are offered a safe place. Nongovernmental institutions are capable of accommodating women suffering a crisis. This is done in order to protect them from further sexual exploitation, minimize influence of negative environment and ensure proper psychological microclimate. According to Sipavičienė (2004), it is crucial to provide the immediate first medical aid to victims of sexual exploitation and prescribe appropriate treatment. Such women have suffered constant physical and sexual violence and thus have serious gynecological disorders, may be infected with AIDS or suffer from other physical injuries. This proves that victims of prostitution and trafficking in women are in need of medical help because the traumas, injuries they have suffered and diseases they have cause serious danger to their health and life.

Another key stage of the first part is collection of information on the victim and her environment. However, victims usually no longer communicate with their families and that is why social workers try to help them create their social network anew (Ruškus & Mažeikienė, 2005). This helps social workers collect more information on the victim and eases her integration into society and gives the support of her family. Sipavičienė et al (2004) state that it is important to get as much information from various sources as possible, in order to create the further plan concerning the aid. Information collected by social workers gives the insight on the problem and creates possibility of providing a more effective help. Last element of the first rehabilitation stage is the evaluation of social behaviour and communication skills of victims of prostitution and trafficking in women and their involvement into studies or vocational preparation. According to Sipavičienė (2006), at first victims refuse the support and help and usually demonstrate rejection and nervous conduct. Such behaviour is the result of sexual violence and sufferings that conditioned the loss of communication skills that must be restored. Attainment of social skills during the rehabilitation gives possibility for faster integration into full‐value social life.

Second stage of social rehabilitation comprises the specificity of rehabilitation and aid. According to Ruškus J. and other authors (2005) rehabilitation at this stage should be individual and specialist of various fields should be reached at any time. Such help is necessary to the victim in order to ensure her physical and psychological safety. Ruškus and Mažeikienė (2005) believe that each victim is unique and need individual access and aid model. Successful rehabilitation process and integration into society are ensured by creating an individual aid plan for every client and by considering her needs and possibilities. Another means used in the second stage of rehabilitation is psychological help, formation of social and occupational skills and inducement of motivation (Ruškus et al, 2005). According to Alifanovienė et al (2008) women who escaped their souteneurs need to see psychologists because they help them regain self‐confidence and restore broken family relationships. Karmaza et al (2005) believe that victims of human trafficking need psychological help to overcome compunction, distrust in others, understand ones feelings and learn how to express them. Thus psychological aid help victims deal with consequences of trauma increase their self‐esteem and encourage development and formation of communication skills. In order to prevent the return to prostitution special means must be used in the process of rehabilitation. Social rehabilitation however, will only be successful if the victim is motivated and willing to accept the treatment. According to Alifanovienė (2008) material welfare is one of the main values in the life of human trafficking victims and the need to improve it may encourage such women to ask for help and undergo rehabilitation. We can make an assumption that meeting material needs during rehabilitation is very important and that it may become the key motive to change ones lifestyle. Once these needs are satisfied the victim may find other demands that will initiate more changes. Establishment of short‐term and long‐term goals and

83

finding a person who will assist the victim during the whole rehabilitation programme is an important step at the second stage of rehabilitation (Ruškus & Mažeikienė, 2005). Setting goals and support of another person helps the victim change and look for solutions rather than concentrate on the problem itself. Sipavičienė (2004) states that victims are inclined to set only short‐term plans which are usually related to what they should avoid rather than new achievements. For this reason social worker must be trustworthy so that victims could rely on him and create a step‐by‐step system helping her to achieve set goals. Creation of such a plan as if approves a pre‐modeled behaviour which increases self‐confidence of a woman. According to Alifanoviene (2008), assistance and support of social worker enhance victim’s motivation to change the current situation and continue rehabilitation. Ruškus and Mažeikienė (2005) believe that social worker empower the victim to change present situation, i.e. a person who was no longer able to change or improve her life finds the will and strength to start controlling and managing her own psychological and social reality with the help (through the mediation) of another person. Independence of victims is stimulated using various resources from the surrounding environment. Thorough implementation of set objectives and constant support at this stage of the programme ensures an effective rehabilitation to victims of prostitution and trafficking in women and helps them to integrate into a full‐value social file.

Third stage is the reintegration. This stage involves work with the victim’s environment – formation of family and friends’ circle, observation and prevention from returning to prostitution and constant communication with the victim. According to Ruškus and Mažeikienė (2005) working with the victims of prostitution and trafficking in women alone does not improve the quality of their reintegration; it is necessary to involve their families and friends. Support of the family and friends give strength to function in the social life and keep away from sexual industry. However, according to Sipavičienė (2004) many victims of prostitution and trafficking came from dysfunctional families, foster homes or boarding schools and maintain no relations with their families. Therefore social worker becomes the closest person they have during the rehabilitation. This is why it is not so easy to cancel the help and the process takes a long time and cannot be terminated immediately. Victims are given the possibility to visit, talk and express their emotions and concerns but they must realize that other people cannot solve their problems, they must make decisions themselves.

In summary we can state that the purpose of social rehabilitation is to help victims fight the consequences of hardships they suffered, integrate them into the normal life of society. Rehabilitation programme consist of three stages. At the first stage victims are protected from repeated exploitation and given the necessary medical, social and psychological help. Rehabilitation begins at the second stage by creating an aid plan, raising goals and objectives. That is when with the help of formation of occupational and social skills women are motivated and encouraged to fight the outcomes of their experiences. Third stage deals with reintegration. Main work is directed towards family and friends of the victim; women are observed so they wouldn’t end up in the trafficking network again. Every victim is different and need an individual aid plan with regard to their needs and possibilities.


Sample Social workers from Caritas Lithuania project “Aid to the Victims of Trafficking and Prostitution” participated in

this study. The interview took place at: Vilkaviskis diocese, Siauliai diocese, Telsiai diocese and Kaunas archdiocese.

Methods

Data collection. 5 respondents were interviewed. This interview was carried out at the Caritas Lithuania project “Aid to the Victims of Trafficking and Prostitution”. Respondents were selected using Kardelis (2002) target group formation principle allowing the researcher to select people who are most characteristic with regard to the study subject. Participants: one social worker from Marijampole – Vilkaviskis diocese, two social workers from Klaipeda – Telsiai diocese, one social worker from Siauliai – Siauliai diocese and one from Kaunas – Kaunas archdiocese.

Demographic characteristics of study participants: a) gender: 5 women; b) age average – 28 years; c) education: 3 higher university, 2 higher non‐university.

Data analysis. Data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis which is based on the following (Žydžiūnaitė, 2006): (1) the researcher reads the text several times, understands its content and meaning and has no preconceptions. (2) The text is “divided” into separate parts that reflect essential aspects and contexts in which these aspects exist. (3) Divided text is given as a separate subcategory. (4) Few subcategories are placed into one category.

Research Tool

Following issues were analyzed in the process of qualitative content analysis: How is the process of social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking in women implemented? What skills does the victim acquire during rehabilitation?

84

Research Ethics

Benevolence principle. Right to be unharmed. Questions given to informants were designed and asked in a manner of preserving the invulnerability of the person. Usefulness of the study. Informants agreed to participate in this study because researchers have explained its usefulness and possibilities of improving problem‐solving process.

Principle of justice. Right to just and honest treating. Researchers have discussed all conditions of participation in this study with the informants. Researchers were given the possibility to ask questions about the study and get full information. Right to privacy. Informants were guaranteed on the anonymity and confidentiality regarding information given during the study. Right to get accurate information and status of informants. The informants were guaranteed that all given information will be used to achieve study objectives.

Results

Having completed qualitative content analysis of responses to the question “How is the process of social rehabilitation for victims of prostitution and trafficking implemented?”

6 categories were distinguished: social aid, psychological aid, communication network, material aid, ensuring safety.

Table 1 Process of social rehabilitation aid to the victims of prostitution and human trafficking

Category Subcategory Evidence

Help with documentation

“… usually all of them have no documents so we help them get new ones…” “…we help settle various documents, allowances…”; “…sign up for qualification enhancement courses or education institutions…”

Social aid

Development of life skills

“…they need to be taught basic skills of self care and hygiene…”; “…maternity skills…”; “…domestics skills…”; “… even self‐respect”

Psychological consultations

“…they see a specialist…”; “…get individual consultations by a psychologist…”; “…they want to see a psychologist, only are a little embarrassed…”

Psychological aid

Moral support “…they talk, feel better and feel supported and understood, no one judges them…”; “…they feel encouragement…”

Seeing a doctor “…they are tested for AIDS and HIV…”; “…sometimes are prescribed with medications…”; “…undergo gynecological examinations and treatment…”; “… need to be encouraged to go see a doctor…”

Communication with social service institutions

“…they are afraid to go there alone and when they do they don’t’ know how to describe their situation…”; “…we accompany them in various institutions and then the attitude towards these women is completely different and everything happens a lot faster…”

Communication network

Legal aid “…we hire a lawyer…”; “…a lawyer is a necessity…”; “…they help sue victims’ offenders…”; “…teach girls how to behave in the courtroom…”

Support with the necessities

“…when the girl gets sick we give her medicine…”; “…supply them with clothes, footwear, means of hygiene, soap, shampoo…”; “…supply pampers for women with small children…”; “…give children clothes and toys…”;

Material aid

Accommodation “…there is an apartment where girls can stay…”; “…give temporary accommodation…”

Safe confidential accommodation

“…if we think that the girl is in danger we settle her in a safe house so that her souteneur wouldn’t find her…”; “…we provide shelter from possible dangers and recurrence of situation…”

Ensuring safety

Help in search of work “…we constantly gather work ads…”; “…motivate them to work…”; “…we try to encourage them to find jobs…”

Responses of study participants proved that social rehabilitation is a complex process and social workers play an important role in helping victims of prostitution and human trafficking. First step in social rehabilitation is handling all relevant documents and then the formation of life skills (“…they need to be taught basic skills of self care and hygiene…”; “…maternity skills…”; “…domestics skills…”).

Having evaluated the level of the problem social worker starts creating a cooperation network with various organizations in order to ensure safety of their clients.

Social workers support every woman individually and accompany her in every step. As we can see, social support and rapid response are essential elements in the process of social rehabilitation as they help victims return to normal life faster (“…we accompany them in various institutions and then the attitude towards these women is completely different and everything happens a lot faster…”).

85

Results of the study allow us to state that ensuring safety is one of the fundamental elements of social rehabilitation (“…if we think that the girl is in danger we settle her in a safe house so that her souteneur wouldn’t find her…”). Physical safety of the person (“…we provide shelter from possible dangers and recurrence of situation…”) is not the only important thing in social rehabilitation; social security – possibility of having a job (“…we try to encourage them to find jobs…”) – is also important. Based on results of this study we see that social rehabilitation progress in two directions: development of new skills; integration into society. This confirms results of Ruškus and Mažeikienė (2005) research on the process of social rehabilitation of victims of prostitution. We can state that results of both Ruškus and Mažeikienė (2005) research and this study confirm that social rehabilitation consists of three stages: getting to victims and their intervention, rehabilitation and reintegration.

Purpose of social rehabilitation is to help victims acquire strong social and personal skills needed for easier integration into social life.

Question “What skills does the victim acquire during rehabilitation?” was used to determine the level of importance of social rehabilitation to victims of prostitution and in what ways it helps them return to social life and independent functioning.

Table 2 Skills acquired by victims of prostitution during social rehabilitation period

Category Subcategory Evidence

Interaction with familiar environment

“…restore relations with their families…”; “…find new friends…”; “…find a life partner and start a family…”

Development of empathy “…start to understand feelings of others and react to then differently…”; “…their attitude towards others changes…”

Social skills

Problem‐solving skills “…they register at the labor market and handle all documents…”; “…see doctors…”; “…they go to medical institutions if they need help and don’t wait for their condition to worsen…”; “…know when and where to apply for their allowances…”

Self‐confidence “…they gain self‐confidence…”; “…they start trusting their own strength and possibilities…”

Self‐control “…try to quit taking drugs…”; “…women with drinking problems start anonymous alcoholic meetings and strive for changes…”

Psychological resistance to social influence

“…they start to understand that they cannot trust strangers…”

Behaviour control “…they become more composed…”; “…calm…”; “…they stop yelling and become easier to talk to…”

Education “…they complete qualification courses…”; “…those who have no secondary education graduate schools…”

Personal skills

Career “…start working…”; “…find jobs…”

Two categories where distinguished after studying skills acquired by victims of prostitution and human trafficking during social rehabilitation period: social skills and personal skills. Social skills are necessary both in professional and everyday life. Person lacking such skills barely function within the society. According to Ruškus (2006) victims of prostitution and human trafficking especially lack these skills. This view is also confirmed by Leliūgienė (2008) who believes that formation and improvement of social skills are necessary for successful integration into society because their absence serve as a “disincentive” for integration. Thus we can state that social rehabilitation has been successful and useful for the victims of prostitution and human trafficking as we can clearly see their ability to restore relations with families and start new ones (“…find new friends…”; “…find a life partner and start a family…”).

Study results show that victims of prostitution and human trafficking learn how to express their feeling and empathically react to experiences of others (“…start to understand feelings of others and react to then differently…”). In a way, social worker helps these women express their feelings, understand themselves and feelings of other people, react empathically.

In the case of crisis however, social worker must take specific actions and show what must be done. People who experienced a crisis have psychological problems and their ability to think is damaged as they constantly feel fear and tension (Sipavičienė, 2004). Study results however showed that victims do learn to solve their problems (“…they register at the labor market and handle all documents…”; “…see doctors…”).

The interview had confirmed that victims of prostitution and human trafficking restore their personal skills. Six subcategories were separated in the category of personal skills: self‐confidence, self‐control, psychological resistance to social influence, behaviour control, education and career.

Victims of prostitution and human trafficking are inclined to conformist behaviour. Fear and shame reduce their self‐esteem. Therefore it is very important to help victims restore self‐esteem because knowing that you can control even an insignificant situation builds their self‐confidence (Sipavičienė, 2004). One of the highest achievements of social rehabilitation is the psychological resistance of victims to social influence (“…they start to understand that they

86

cannot trust strangers…”). And this shows that women understand issues of their behaviour and the lack of self‐preservation sense.

During social rehabilitation victims learn self‐control (“…they become more composed…”; “…calm…”; “…they stop yelling and become easier to talk to…”), continue education (“…those who have no secondary education graduate schools…”), seek career (“…start working…”; “…find jobs…”). This proves that women successfully complete social rehabilitation, overcome their shame and self‐doubt, develop and improve social skills.

Summarizing the skills acquired by victims of prostitution and human trafficking during the period of social rehabilitation we see that personal skills were most noticeable, i.e. self‐confidence, control over behaviour and emotion, complete education programmes and find a job. These social skills help victims communicate freely find friends and restore relations with their families.

Social and personal skills give these women an opportunity to integrate into a full‐value social life and function as its equal member.

Conclusions

Women who escape prostitution network usually have little or no life skills and so in order to help them integrate into social life and function properly they are involved in the process of social rehabilitation. This is when women get complex help divided into three stages: getting to victims and their intervention, rehabilitation and reintegration. At these stages victims are protected against further exploitation, they are provided with medical, psychological, legal and social aid and necessary items. Social rehabilitation is effective since it involves all specialists necessary to help victims return to normal life.

Victims of prostitution and human trafficking acquire necessary social and personal skills during social rehabilitation. With the help of a social worker victims get in touch with their families and start new friendships. Social rehabilitation creates conditions to regain and improve personal skills which are directed towards recognizing self‐value and personal development and this determine a rational need for self‐respect and motivates them to strive for normal functioning within the community and society.

References

1. Acus, A. (2001). Marginalinės grupės tapsmas (sociologiniai prostitucijos tyrinėjimai). Sociologija. Mintis ir veiksmas. 3‐4 (7), 56‐ 67.

2. Alifanovienė, D., Trepekaitė, L., Baniulienė, A. (2008). Prekybos moterimis aukų reabilitacijos proceso analizė išorinių ir vidinių veiksnių aspektu. Jaunųjų mokslininkų darbai. 4 (20), 66‐70.

3. Bazylevas, I., Žekonis, R. (2003). Prekybos žmonėmis prevencija ir kontrolė Lietuvoje. Vilnius: Smirnovo individuali įmonė. 4. Karmaza, E., Šimaitis A., Kvieskienė, G., Barkauskaitė, M., Garckija, R., Kasperavičiūtė, E., Merfeldaitė, O., Valantiejienė, S.,

Ingelevič, D. (2005). Prekyba moterimis ir vaikais: metodiniai patarimai pedagogams prevencinės veiklos aspektai. Vilnius: Švietimo aprūpinimo centras.

5. Karmaza, E., Kasperavičiūtė, E., Augutienė, R., Sipavičienė, A. (2005). Prekybos žmonėmis pavojai ir prevencinė veikla mokyklose. Vilnius : Mokslo aidas.

6. Leliūgienė, I., Baronaitė, A., Zapolskytė, Ž. (2008). Prekybos moterimis aukų resocializacijos edukacinės galimybės. Socialinis darbas. 7(2), 131‐144.

7. Marcinkevičienė, D. (2003). Diskriminacija bei smurtas prieš moteris prekybos moterimis ir prostitucijos kontekste. Available at: http://www.moterys.lt/assets/leidiniai/indexe29d.html?show_content_id=426.

8. Navaitis, G. (2005). Nepilnamečių merginų teigiamą požiūrį į prostituciją sąlygojanti šeimos struktūra. Specialusis ugdymas. 1 (12), 45‐50.

9. Palavinskienė, B., Prokopčik, M., Vidrinskaitė, S., Žiobienė, E.(2006). Tarptautinis kovos veiksmų prieš prekybą žmonėmis reglamentavimas. Prekyba žmonėmis: prevencija, aukų apsauga, problemos sprendimo būdai. Vilnius: Lietuvos žmogaus teisių centras.

10. Puidokienė, D. (2008). Kompleksinė pagalba prekybos žmonėmis seksualinio išnaudojimo aukoms: Klaipėdos miesto institucijų bendradarbiavimo patirtis. Tiltai. 4 (45), 29‐45.

11. Ruškus, J., Mažeikienė, N. (2005). Prekybos moterimis ir prostitucijos aukų reabilitacija ir reintegracija Lietuvoje: padėties analizė ir galimybių modeliavimas. Socialinis darbas. 4 (2), 100‐ 113.

12. Ruškus, J., Mažeikienė, N., Blinstrubas, A., Balčiūnas, S. (2005). Prekybos moterimis ir prostitucijos aukų reabilitacija ir reintegraciją. Šiauliai: Šiaulių knygrišykla,

13. Raymond,G.J. (2005). Sex Trafficking is Not „Sex Work. Available at:

http://action.web.ca/home/catw/readingroom.html?x=74355&AA_EX_Session=3e4a773dc58070889be8bdae0fda4965

14. Stankūnienė, V., Jasilionis, D., Mikulionienė, S., Sipavičienė, A. (2007). Lietuvos demografinės raidos iššūkiai. Vilnius: STI.

15. Sipavičienė, A., Erentaitė, R., Tureikytė, D., Gorovičiūtė, D., Gaidys, V., Bazylevas, I., Žekonis, R., Augutienė, R. (2004). Prekyba moterimis: problemos, sprendimai, žvilgsnis iš vidaus. Vilnius: Tarptautinės migracijos organizacijos Vilniaus biuras.

16. Sipavičienė, A. T. (2006) Tarptautinė gyventojų migracija Lietuvoje: modelio kaita ir situacijos analizė. Vilnius: Tarptautinės migracijos organizacijos Vilniaus biuras.

17. Žydžiūnaitė, V. (2006). Taikomųjų tyrimų metodologijos charakteristikos. Vilnius: Ciklonas.

87

Santrauka

SOCIALINĖS REABILITACIJOS PROCESAS NUKENTĖJUSIOMS NUO PROSTITUCIJOS IR PREKYBOS MOTERIMIS

AKVILĖ VIRBALIENĖ, SKAIDRĖ RAČKAUSKIENĖ

Reikšminiai žodžiai: socialinė reabilitacija, prostitucija, prekyba moterimis.

Straipsnyje analizuojamas socialinės reabilitacijos procesas dirbant su nukentėjusioms nuo prostitucijos ir prekyba moterimis. Prostitucijos ir prekybos moterimis aukos yra fiziškai ir psichologiškai pažeistos, joms yra sunku grįžti į pilnavertį gyvenimą, nes nuolat jaučia pažeminimą, trūksta asmeninių, socialinių įgūdžių, artimųjų ryšių. Todėl socialinė reabilitacija tampa būtina šiai klientų grupei. Viena pagrindinių vertimosi prostitucija priežasčių, tai didėjantis skurdas ir augantis nedarbas. Pačiai moteriai grįžti į pilnavertį visuomenės gyvenimą yra labai sunku, nes ji neturi ar yra praradusi tam reikalingus įgūdžius, yra nutrūkę ryšiai su artimais žmonėmis. Todėl socialinė reabilitacija šiai klientų grupei yra būtina. Socialinės reabilitacijos tikslas – teikti pagalbą moterims, kurios apgaule prekeivių žmonėmis buvo ar yra išvežtos į užsienio šalių ar Lietuvos viešnamius, bei moterimis, kurios sutiko bet kurioje šalyje būti įtrauktos į prostituciją, bet jaučiasi paniekintos, apgautos, žeminamos. Išsamių tyrimų apie socialinės reabilitacijos procesą nukentėjusioms nuo prostitucijos ir prekyba žmonėmis aukoms nėra. Todėl tyrimo problemą sudaro toks klausimas: Kaip vyksta socialinės reabilitacijos procesas aukoms?

Tyrimo objektas – socialinės reabilitacijos procesas nukentėjusioms nuo prostitucijos ir prekyba žmonėmis. Tyrimo tikslas: Atskleisti socialinės reabilitacijos procesą nukentėjusios nuo prostitucijos ir prekybą žmonėmis. Metodai. Duomenims rinkti taikytas pusiau struktūruotas interviu, o analizei – kokybinė turinio analizė. Tyrimo instrumentas. Kokybinės turinio (content) analizės procese buvo analizuojami tokie klausimai: Kaip

vyksta socialinės reabilitacijos procesas dirbant su nukentėjusiomis nuo prostitucijos s bei prekyba žmonėmis? Tyrimo imtis. Interviu metodu buvo apklausti 5 respondentai. Išvados. Auka, ištrūkusi iš prostitucijos tinklo, yra iš dalies arba visiškai praradusi gyvenimiškus įgūdžius. Siekiant

padėti aukai integruotis į pilnavertį visuomenės gyvenimą ir jame savarankiškai funkcionuoti, ji yra įtraukiama į socialinės reabilitacijos pagalbos procesą. Reabilitacijos proceso metu teikiama kompleksinė pagalba, kuri suskirstyta į tris etapus: aukų pasiekimas ir intervencija; reabilitacija; reintegracija. Šių etapų metu yra užtikrinamas aukos saugumas nuo tolesnio išnaudojimo, suteikiama medicininė, psichologinė, teisinė ir socialinė pagalba, bei auka aprūpinama būtiniausiai daiktais. Socialinės reabilitacijos pagalbos proceso teikimas aukai yra efektyvus, nes yra įtraukti visi būtiniausia specialistai, kurių reikia aukai siekiant grąžinti ją į pilnavertį visuomenės gyvenimą. Nukentėjusios nuo prostitucijos ir prekyba žmonėmis aukos socialinės reabilitacijos metu įgyja socialinius ir asmeninius įgūdžius. Socialinio darbuotojo pagalba, reabilitacijos metu, auka atstato nutrūkusius santykius su artimasis, užmezga naujus santykius su draugais. Socialinės reabilitacijos metu yra sudaromos sąlygos atkurti ir tobulinti asmeninius įgūdžius, kurie yra nukreipti į savo asmens vertės supratimą ir tobulinimą, o tai lemia racionalų suvokimą gerbti save ir siekti pilnavertiškai funkcionuoti tiek bendruomenėje, tiek visuomenėje.

Accepted for publication 30 March 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 kovo 30

88



SOCIAL WORK

PROMOTING FACTORS OF YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN NON‐GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

JOLITA BUZAITYTĖ – KAŠALYNIENĖ, IEVA NARKELIŪNAITĖ

Vilnius University, Lithuania

Abstract

The research shows that very few young Lithuanian people participate in the activity of the non‐governmental organizations, i. e. they are members of these organizations and on the basis of the voluntary activity are involved in the organization management, administration, organizing the activities and perform other activities. Meanwhile the non‐governmental organizations play an important role in the democratic society, through them citizens can represent the social interests, through the activity in them citizens have opportunities to develop their skills. The latter, educational function of non‐governmental organizations is very important for young people, who participate in non‐governmental youth organizations, as by participating they train democratic, decision‐making, responsibility sharing and other social skills. The non‐governmental (youth) organizations – organizations established by citizens’ free will, registered as associations, charity support funds and public institutions. Organizations are voluntary managed, refer to the voluntary activity, are seeking useful to society goals, and are independent from the government and not for‐profit. The participation in the activity of the non‐governmental organizations is the expression of the citizenship. The various research results of Youth situation in Lithuania show that third of youth participate in non‐formal educational activities and participation in non‐governmental organizations creates a smaller part of these activities. The main reasons of youth non‐participating are lack of information about the organizations and lack of time. These reasons are subjectively perceived by young people, although, there are more personal and environmental factors, promoting and preventing the youth participation. The research reserved by LR Ministry of education and science showed that youth have little interest in the organizations, working in the educational institutions or in the areas where their educational institution is. Therefore, the goal of this article is to clarify the private and family environmental factors to 18‐25 year old youth participation and non‐participation in non‐governmental/ social, based on voluntary activity organizations.

Methods: questioning survey and statistical analysis. Sample: the members of youth organizations. Results. Comparing the groups of participating and non‐participating in social organizations youth was

determined that in the participating group there were more young people characterized by the extraversion and openness to experience. Extraverts are active, optimistic, easy chatting, open for new contacts persons. Personal characteristic of openness to experience is asserted by curiosity, willing to experience, to feel, artistry, interest in art etc. The example shown by parents, their participation in the activity of non‐governmental organizations also increases the social activity of young people. Social norms and the traditions of the social, voluntary activity show the expectation in young people behavior, therefore, environment, which recommends non‐governmental organizations and their activity, stimulates young people to participate. Moreover, in the participating group there were more parents, involved into the activity of non‐governmental organizations, youth of this group more often felt the attitude and the appreciation of the surrounding to non‐governmental organizations. Hence, personal characteristics – extraversion and openness to experience, and the environmental characteristics – the parental participation and the closest environment recommendations are the stimulating factors for youth to participate in non‐governmental organizations. Subjectively perceived motives of participating and non‐participating in the activity of non‐governmental organizations are affected by the broader considerations of the social and cultural context. Dominate self‐serving motives for participation, by participation is gaining for the knowledge, skills and appreciation.

Keywords: non‐governmental organization, youth.

Introduction

Research relevance and novelty. Two decades have passed since the Second declaration of Lithuanian independence. Nowadays twenty year olds grew up in a free, democratic country, in which was not the only one youth organization, to which were included all young people, but many youth organizations, where participation was voluntary and a free choice of them, depending on personal interests. Research shows that very few of Lithuanian

89

youngsters participate in non‐governmental organization activities; i. e. members of these organizations and on the basis of voluntary perform different functions in organizations, for example, managing the organization, administrating, organizing the activities, training etc. The factors of youth not participation in youth organization activities are almost not explored; Jonutytė (2007b) generally studied the motives and causes of voluntary activity and Zaleskienė, Kvieskienė (2007) – students’ social activity.

Recently, much attention is given to youth civic education, emphasizing the participation of young people in decision‐making processes as one of the features of a democratic society (Zaleskienė et al, 2006). The non‐governmental (youth) organizations play an important role in the democratic society as they represent and defend public interest, allow members to learn and mature through the participation in managing the organizations, administrating, organizing the activities and performing. Non‐governmental (youth) organizations – organizations established by the citizens’ free will, registered as associations, the aid and charity foundations and public organizations. The organizations are self‐managed, based on voluntary activity, pursue useful to society goals, being independent from government and non‐profit. Non‐governmental organizations educate young people’s citizenship, meet and implement common youth or separate youth groups’ needs and interests, by incorporating the members of the organization into decision‐making processes, which underlie the democratic society. In 1996, recognizing the importance of the non‐governmental organizations in a self‐creation of the democracy‐civil society, in Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania the resolution was carried to approve „Regarding to the National Youth Policy concept”. In 2003, the law of the basics of the Youth Policy was accepted, which established a youth policy at national and regional structure, principles, fields, defined the functions of youth organizations etc. In 1995, the law of organisation of the Republic of Lithuania was accepted (Valstybės žinios, 1995‐02‐24, Nr. 18‐400 ) and in 2004 it was replaced by the law of Associations of the Republic of Lithuania (Valstybės žinios, 2004‐02‐14, Nr. 25‐745), which allowed to citizens, over 18 years to establish organizations – voluntary associations, in order to achieve common members’ needs and goals.

As the law of the basics of the Youth Policy, as the law of Associations of the Republic of Lithuania allows young people to gather into organizations or to join to already existing, however, it doesn’t oblige, because youth policy is based on the principles of voluntary, self‐sufficiency and autonomy. However, the research showed that only small part of young people volunteer and participates as members in non‐governmental organizations. According to the research data of youth situation in Lithuania (2007), bespoke by the Youth Affairs Department of SSLM, only quarter of the investigated had participated or participated during the research in formal or not formal youth groups’ activity, also the third of youngsters stated that they would like to participate in it, if they found the group or organization corresponding their hobby. Even 43 proc. of investigated youngsters did not participate and noted that they would not like to take participation in such activity. Similar data was achieved by Zaleskiene, Kvieskienė (2007) in the research of “Students’ expression of social activity in Lithuania”, the researchers analyzed the models of civil participation and Lithuanian youth expression of social activity. The research showed that youth activity is small – 65 % of pupils and 73 % of students don’t participate in any activity. The participation of Lithuanian youth is orientated to the models of participation in social aspects, as the main motive to participate is “proving yourself”, “wish to learn working with others”. The main reasons of not participation are named as the absence of information about organization and lack of time. Similar research of “16 – 24 years old youth social participation” was carried out by the work group made from the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania. The research showed that youth is little interested in organizations, working in the institutions of education or in the areas, where their institution of education is.

In order to clarify and understand what motivates various and with different age people to participate in a non‐paid activity, various motivation theories are applied, such as Maslow “Pyramid of needs”, Herzberg “Two factors”, the social exchange, social norms and other theories. Although, different authors’ distinguished motivational factors coincide, nonetheless the consensus of opinion is absent. Annotating the human activity, mainly in the debates is met the effort to understand what leads human self‐determination to engage in activity. There was a problem: what are the main sources of activity? Searching for the answer to this question, primarily it had been solved from where the stimulus of activation arises– from the inside of the person or from the influence of external surroundings (Jacikevičius, 1995).

Behaviour theorists believe that person arrives in his interaction with the environment, in which he grows. In this way the greatest impact to the personal social activation, involvement into non‐governmental organizations makes the environment: the attitude of the family, community, society to voluntary participation in organizations (Jonutytė, 2007b). According to Fogelman, primarily parents teach their kids prosocial behaviour, inculcate social responsibility, positive interaction, implant a sense of justice. The researches show that those kids, who observe how their parents accomplish voluntary activity, more often involve into voluntary activity rather then their peers, whose parents are socially passive (Jonutytė, 2007b). Sociologist Wilson (2000), who especially paid a lot of attention to the issue of volunteers’ motivation, notes that one of the reasons why the person is willing to participate in voluntary activity is his parents’ participation in such activity. Therefore, parental activity, parental support and approval of the students’ involvement into decision‐making process in the field of school management, for example: school councils,

90

student parliament, observance and respect of their opinions and decisions, increase not only their motivation to participate, but also the senses of the social responsibility and justice.

A different view is shared by a various theories of the dynamic personality. Adherents of these theories are seeking human activation in the motivation, because actually trends of the human activity are determined by internal incentives – personality. Authors of the Personality features theories believed that it is more important to highlight the main features of the personality in willing to know human motive power. English psychologists Eysenck and Eysenck believed that most of our personality features can be simply expressed by two dimensions: extroversion and introversion and by the emotional stability or emotional volatility. Extroverts were defined as active and sociable persons. Introverts – persons, who focus on their inner world, thoughts and feelings. People‘s conditions characterized as emotional stability are stable, controllable, unchangeable and so on. Persons distinguished by the emotional volatility can be recognized by their fast mood swings, fluctuations of the feelings, inability to govern (Jusiene, Laurinavičius, 2007).

Americans Costa and McCrae are the direct heirs of Eysenck and Cattel traditions, in 1980‐1990 rebuild the theory and testing of the personality features. Working in the field of psychometric personality features they proposed three and subsequently five personality dimensions, known as “five‐factor model” or “the most important five” model. This model has some slightly different versions, which are empirically analyzed by various questionnaires. Despite this fact, the most usable questionnaire in the world is Costa and McCrae created NEO – PI ‐ R (Revised NEO Personality Inventory) personality questionnaire, which includes such components of personality’s structure: extroversion, agreeableness, consciousness, openness to experience and neuroticism. Each quality has its own particular characteristics, for example, extroverts are social, active, expansive, optimistic, their life pace is fast, therefore, they always have to feel busy, while neuroticism tend to show person’s tendency to experience negative emotions – fear, sadness, frustration, anger, adm etc., people are anxious, apprehensive, easily lose the courage, feel uncomfortable among other people, are not able to control their passions and desires.

Many authors when the researches were carried out confirmed that very important drivers of the voluntary activity are the age, gender and the position in society of the volunteer. Wuthnow (1998) results of the research showed that people, who socially integrated into the society with success, have a greater need to indulge in a social activity (Jonutytė, 2006a). Wilson (2000) confirms that extraverts are more likely to participate than introverts, because they like various organizations, clubs, people’s gatherings and so on, as they have greater need to interact and to belong to the community than others.

In the educational context of the “active citizenship” is used to attach significance to the phenomenon of participation, noting that not all young people are citizens from the political point of view, but being the members of family, school, society they are also subjects of the political socialization, they are preparing to become active citizens. Depending on the context, the expression “active citizenship” highlights different aspects of the activity, according to them three approaches can be divided: “The popular view” – here concepts of participation and activity are used to determine the political effectiveness, “The conceptual view”, where the concept of the participation is associated with the support to one or another ideology and “The empirical view”, where “the active citizenship” is associated with the participation in the community life (Zaleskienė et al, 2006). In this article, the authors refer to the second and the third views, where active citizenship is expressed through the participation in social organizations, which have their goals and ideologies, for example, scouts, catholic students, valanciukai, students’ corporations and others, and their activity spreads in the context of the community life.

There are a lot of factors affecting the participation of youth in non‐governmental youth organizations, although a part of them will be discussed in this article.

Research questions: by what personal characteristics the participators differ from non participators? What motives determine the youth participation? What is the difference of the social activity of the participating and non participating youth parents?

Aim is to illuminate the personal and family environmental factors in 18‐25 year old youth participation and non‐participation in social, based on voluntary activity youth organizations.

Research methodology

Sample

In the research participated 154 youngsters of 18–25 year old age and they made two research groups. The members of youth organizations, participating in those organizations’ activity were in the first group. The second comparison group was composed of similar age, gender and education of young people, non‐participating in social organizations. The lower age limit was determined by the chosen instrument – NEO‐FFI personality questionnaire, which can be applied only under 18. The upper age limit due to the age distribution of the first test group, the oldest was 25 years old.

91

Methods

For data collection was performed the questioning survey and data analysis were realized by applying SPSS 14.0, when the methods of statistical analysis were used to process the data: frequencies, means, standard deviations. The statistical findings were taken on the basis of the parametric criteria: Student T – criteria. The correlation between features and motives was measured by the Spearman’s correlation coefficient. A level of significance α was chosen as 0,05.

Research tool

Two questionnaires were prepared, one ‐ for participating, another – for non‐participating youth. The questionnaire was from two parts, the first one involved NEO –FFI personality questions, the second one Clary (1999b) “6 motives of voluntary participation” questions.

NEO – FFI personality questionnaire was used in order to determine the features of the (non) participating youth. It is a Lithuanian shortened version of NEO PI‐R questionnaire, developed by McCrae and Costa in 1992. The permission to translate into Lithuanian language gave one of the questionnaire authors R. McCrae. The translation is aligned with authors, the methodology approved in previous studies (Žukauskienė, Barkauskienė, 2006). NEO – FFI questionnaire consists of 60 questions, which are separated into 5 subscales of 12 questions in each. The questionnaire identifies following characteristics: neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, consensus, consciousness, which internal validity of the construct (Cronbach alpha) is: neuroticism – 0,791; openness to experience – 0,554; extroversion – 0,761; agreeableness – 0,692 consciousnesses – 0,824.

In order to find out the motives of participating youth Clary motivation questionnaire was used (Clary et al., 1998a). Clary distinguishes such participating motives: respect, self‐defense, understanding, values, social etc. Burns (2006) investigation results show that this theory is one of the most significant ones in studies of the motives of participation in voluntary activity. Burns (2006) results prove undeniable importance of the earlier mentioned six factors in the investigation of the motives of voluntary activity.

Results

The motives of (non)participation in social youth organizations. The participation in social, based on voluntary activity, youth organizations is important for the socialization and education of young people, as in participation they become subjects of some social relationships, engage into the peers’ group life, also gain various experience, that composes the basis of the development of the skills and competence, for example, finding the solution of the problems, organizing, managing, making the decisions and others. During the research the aim was to clarify the youth subjectively perceived motives of participating and non‐participating in activity of social organizations.

Ten motives of participation were given to the members of social organizations, which they had to evaluate in the range of four. The most important motives for participation were following: the possibilities to acquire new knowledge and develop skills that might be useful in the future (66%); the possibilities to meet and socialize with interesting people (61 %); the attractive ideas of organizations (43 %); the possibilities to find new friends (43 %).

Also Clary „6 motives of voluntary participation” questionnaire was given to the participating youth (Clary et al, 1999b). This questionnaire consists of 30 indicators, which falls into 6 motivation factors of voluntary activity: career, respect, self‐defense, social, understanding/knowledge and values. The most important motive for encouraging young people to participate was the motive of understanding or knowledge. Clary (1998a) and Esmond (2004) stated that people, who are driven by this motive, have a great desire to learn from the voluntary experience, to gain new skills. Another significant motive is respect. People, who are encouraged by this motive, seek for the assessment and recognition of their skills and activity (Clary, 1998a; Esmond, 2004). An external evaluation is important for the formation of person’s self‐confidence and self‐consciousness or self‐seeing (Leonavičius, 1998). Less important motives were career, self‐defense, values and social. The motive of career means that participation in social activity conduces to professional career, for example, a possibility to become an earner from the volunteer, participation in social organizations related to the professional activity, provides with professional or efficient skills and so on. A small meaning of the career motive might be related to the characteristics of research group, as youngsters involved in this research belonged to the organizations, which are not related to the concrete professions. The attitude of employers could also make an influence for such results, because it is rarely considered experience of voluntary or social activity during the recruitment. Participating youth do not participate for decreasing their negative feelings about themselves, the guilt; also the involvement of their close people into activity has no influence to the participation of themselves. These motives can be related to age, because in Clary (1993) research these motives were important, authors notice that according to the age, the character of organization activity and others the motives can change(Clary, 1998a).

8 statements of non‐participation motives with 4 range Likert type evaluation scale were presented to the non‐participating youth in activity of social organizations. Research subjects agreed that they are not participating in activity of social organizations because they have other occupation (54,5 %); because of the lack of information about activity of organizations (49 proc.), they are not interested in the activity of organizations (49 %), because of the lack

92

of time (47 %). Subjects were student age, nowadays, part of the students study and work, willing to pay for the studies or to earn for living, therefore it is understandable that they are busy and have no time for social activities. Moreover, market of leisure services and entertainment is with a great range of offers. It is also a serious argument about the lack of information coherent with activity of organizations, as from one hand the youth organizations themselves are not numerous and they pay more attention to internal and not to external communication. On the other hand the media almost do not pay attention to positive presentation of activity of social organizations, rather they remember it, when the disaster occurs during the trip or camping.

The highlighted motives of participation reveal the importance and the need of the role of the educational social organizations, as young people seeking in them opportunities of self‐education and skills‐training. On the other hand, the aspects of selfishness reveal in the motives of participation in social activity. The young people are seeking for personal goals in social activity, i. e. their skills‐training and recognition. This suggests that self‐serving motives prevail over the motives of altruism, solidarity and service to society. As self‐serving, as altruistic motives are important in the social activity, although the self‐serving motives dominate. Klingenberger (1996) distinguished the motivation of voluntary, social activity into old one and new one. Orientation to social wealth, responsibilities, feelings of commitment, altruism dominated in the old motivation and orientation to personal needs, organization choice according to experience and conformity, reciprocity of giving and taking is typical to the new motivation.

The comparison of characteristics of the participating and non‐participating persons. For the authors of the article was important to find out not only the subjectively perceived motives of participation in the social organizations, but also subjective, though subjectively non‐reflective, personal factors, i. e. by which personal characteristics the participating in social organizations youth distinguish and by which personal characteristics they differ from non‐participating. To achieve this goal, NEO – FFI personality questionnaire was given to all subjects of the research. Both groups were similar in consciousness, neuroticism, characteristics of consonance, the groups were statistically significantly different in openness to experience and characteristics of extraversion, in the table 1 the levels of significance are given.

Table 1

The levels of significance of statistical comparison of personal characteristics of participating and non‐participating youth

Characteristic p significance (the difference is significant with =0,05)

Neuroticism 0,422 Agreeableness 0,869 Consciousness 0,320 Openness to experience 0,002 Extraversion 0,020

The consciousness as the personality characteristic dominated in both participating and non‐participating

groups (respectively 28,6 % and 31,2%) A person, who has consciousness as a feature, distinguishes by planning and organization. This dimension covers the need for the achievement, meticulously carries out the moral duties, etc. The consciousness is associated with academic education, although it may have a negative side – undue scrupulousness, tidiness or workaholic behavior (Žukauskienė, Barkauskienė, 2006). The main difference was found that among the participators there were more extraversion persons (38 %, comparing with 16 %). Persons who have extraversion as a characteristic distinguish for socialism, although socialism is not the main feature to identify the extraversion. The activity, volubility, optimism are typical for them. The extraverts are defined as social, kind, warm people, therefore, they enjoy the company of others and easily make new contacts. The extraverts enjoy noisy environment, so they live in a great speed, are energetic, always have to feel busy (Žukauskienė, Barkauskienė, 2006). Moreover, among the participators were more youngsters distinguished for openness to experience (18, 2 % comparing with 9,1%). Persons referred to openness to experience are curious, artistic. They pay a great attention to the internal empathy, the internal and external world. The openness comes through the wish to experience trades as much as possible. Such people are sensitive to art and beauty, they are interested in poetry, music and art (Žukauskienė, Barkauskienė, 2006).

Thus, such personal characteristics as openness to experience and extraversion increase the chance to engage into the activity of social organizations. The received data confirm Wilson’s (2000) presumption that extraverts are more likely to participate than others, as they like the gatherings of people, various organizations, clubs and have a need to communicate and to belong to the community (the openness to experience). However, having these characteristics is not enough to involve and participate in non‐governmental organizations. It can be assumed that the personal or subjective factors interact with the external factors, therefore, further on in the article the possible parents’ influence to youth participation is discussed.

Social activity of the parents of participating and non‐participating youth. Social environment consists of many systems: the family, friends, the group of peers, the educational institution, cultural, political, ideological context and others. The particular characteristics of all these systems may induce or prevent the social activity,

93

although during this research the attention was paid only to the characteristics of parents, the closest environment. In order to explore the possible influence of parents to youth participation, the social activity of the parents, the tendency to help others/ share with others, the attitude of the closest environment about the non‐governmental organizations and/or social activity were analyzed. In the Table 2 the statements and the statistical importance of comparison of the participating and non‐participating youth’ groups are given.

Table 2

The statistical importance of comparison of the parents’ social activity of the participating and non‐participating youth

Statement p significance (the difference is significant with =0,05)

At least one of my parents participates in the activity of non‐governmental organizations, is/was a member

,023

My parents help neighbors ,620 Together with parents I help/ helped neighbors ,701 Usually we assemble needless stuff and give it to the people or the charitable organizations

,667

My parents donate during the action of the charity / support ,490 The people of my environment recommend non‐governmental organizations/social activity

,021

A small part of parents of both participating and non‐participating youth were / are involved in activity of the

non‐governmental organizations, although in the group of participating youth there were more social active parents than in the group of non‐participating and this difference was statistically important. Moreover, the people from the participating in social activity youth environment more recommended social organizations and their activity than people from the non‐participating one and this difference was statistically important. These results allow proposing that parents’ participation or showed example is factors of stimulating the social activity. It approves and other result of the research that as more often parents help their neighbors, as more often their children help neighbors (correlation coefficient r=0,312; p=0,000).

Environmental support or positive valuation of the social organizations and their activity is also a stimulating factor to participate, as by this aspect the studied groups were in statistically significantly difference, more often the support felt the participating group. The wider social context affects the behavior of young people, in order to adapt to their environment, to be valued and appreciated in it, they are trying to justify the expectations of the surrounding people. In Lithuania, small social activities, the voluntary traditions, according to the number of participators the participation and social activity are rather the exception than the norm. This might be related to the Soviet experience when there was one organization and all holding greater role in public life people had to belong to it and voluntary had to be obligatory, therefore, a negative attitude or stance to the contrary has formed. However, to check this assumption the deeper research is required.

These results are approved by Wilson (2000) hypothesize that person would more keen on to participate if his parents also participated, parents, friends by recommending the participation in voluntary activity emphasize not only the motivation to participate, but also the senses of the social responsibility, justice, mutuality.

Comparing the help others and the activities of charity in the participating and non‐participating groups there were not found the significantly differences, it can be assumed that it is not related to the participation in social activity.

Conclusion

The factors of participating in the activity of non‐governmental organizations have to be analyzed by the systematic view, considering the personal and environmental factors, as personal behavior is the result of liaison between personal and environmental characteristics. The results of the research revealed that particular personal and environmental characteristics only increase the possibility that young people will involve into the activity of non‐governmental organizations, however, these characteristics were nor necessary for participation nor enough.

Such characteristics as extraversion and openness to experience increase the participation in non‐governmental, based on voluntary activity, organizations. Extraverts are active, optimistic, easy chatting, open for new contacts persons. Personal characteristic of openness to experience is asserted by curiosity, willing to experience, to feel, artistry, interest in art etc.

The example shown by parents, their participation in the activity of non‐governmental organizations also increases the social activity of young people. Social norms and the traditions of the social, voluntary activity show the expectation in young people behavior, therefore, environment, which recommends non‐governmental organizations and their activity, stimulates young people to participate.

94

The subjectively perceived motives of participating and non‐participating in the activity of the non‐governmental organizations, are also affected by the broader social and cultural context. Dominate self‐serving motives of participation, by the participation is seeking for the knowledge, skills and recognition, and altruistic, help others, contribution to community life, solidarity expressing motives are less important. This is reflected in the priority of the individual and his needs against the tendency of social needs. Other activities prevent the participation, i. e. work, studies, and great offerings of leisure and entertainment services, therefore, there is a lack of time for social activity. There is also a lack of information for youth, as there is little spread of information about non‐governmental organizations and organizations little communicate about themselves and the media devote less positive attention to them.

References

1. Burns, J. D., Reid, S. J., Toncar, M., Fawcett, J., Anderson, C. (2006). Motivations to volunteer: the role of altruism. International Review on Public and Non Profit Marketing. 3(2), 79‐91.

2. Clary, G. E., Snyder, M., Ridge, D. R., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: a functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 74 (6), 1516 – 1530.

3. Clary, E. G., Snyder, M. (1999). The Motivations to Volunteer: Theoretical and Practical Considerations. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 8 (5), 156‐159. Available at: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=104&sid=bcf41c43‐b888‐45b2‐976b‐5b14c2899583%40sessionmgr108

4. Esmond, J., Dunlop, P. (2004). Developing the Volunteer Motivation Inventory to Assess the Underlying Motivational Drives of Volunteers in Western Australia. Research Project. CLAN WA Inc.

5. Jacikevičius, A. (1995). Žmonių grupių (socialinė) psichologija. Vilnius: Spindulys. 6. Jaunimo situacijos sociologinis tyrimas (2007). Vinius: UAB “Spinter tyrimai”. Available at:

http://www.nisc.lt/lt/files/main/prezentacija%5B1%5D.pdf 7. Jonutytė, I. (2006). Jaunųjų savanorių motyvavimas tęstinei socioedukacinei veiklai su vaikais. Pedagogika. 83, 96‐102. 8. Jonutytė, I. (2007). Savanorystė socialinio ugdymo sistemoje. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla. 9. Jusienė, R., Laurinavičius, A. (2007). Psichologija. Vilnius: Mykolo Romerio universiteto Leidybos centras. 10. Klingenberger, H. (1996). Handbuch Altenpadagogik. Bad Heilbrunn: WB‐Druck GmbH. 11. Leonavičius, V. (1998). Georgas Herbertas Meadas ir asmens savimonės teorija. Sociologija. Mintis ir veiksmas. 1, 136‐146. 12. Zaleskienė, I., Kvietkienė, G., Gulbinas, R., Misiūnienė–Žemaitytė, G. (2006). 16 – 24 metų jaunimo visuomeninis

dalyvavimas. Tyrimo ataskaita. Vilnius: LR ŠMM. Available at: http://www.smm.lt/svietimo_bukle/docs/tyrimai/sb/Visuomeniskai_aktyvus_asm_2009_03_10.pdf

13. Zaleckienė, I., Kvietkienė, G. (2007). Besimokančio jaunimo visuomeninio aktyvumo raiška Lietuvoje. Socialinis ugdymas. 3(14), 88–106.

14. Wilson, J. (2000). Volunteering. Annual Review of Sociology. 26, 215‐240. 15. Žukauskienė, R., Barkauskienė, R. (2006). Lietuviškosios NEO PI‐R versijos psichometriniai rodikliai. Psichologija. 33, 7‐21.

Available at: http://www.leidykla.vu.lt/fileadmin/Psichologija/33/7‐21.pdf

Documents

1. Lietuvos Respublikos Asociacijų įstatymas (2004). Valstybės žinios, 2004‐02‐14, Nr. 25‐745. 2. Lietuvos Respublikos Jaunimo politikos pagrindų įstatymas (2003). Valstybės žinios, 2003 m. gruodžio 4 d. Nr. IX‐1871.

Santrauka

JAUNIMO DALYVAVIMĄ NEVYRIAUSYBINĖSE ORGANIZACIJOSE STIPRINANTYS FAKTORIAI

JOLITA BUZAITYTĖ–KAŠALYNIENĖ, IEVA NARKELIŪNAITĖ

Reikšminiai žodžiai: jaunimas, nevyriausybinės organizacijos.

Tyrimo aktualumas ir naujumas. Tyrimai rodo, kad labai mažai Lietuvos jaunuolių dalyvauja nevyriausybinių organizacijų veikloje, t. y. šių organizacijų nariais ir savanoriškais pagrindais dalyvauja organizacijos valdyme, administravime, veiklų organizavime ir atlieka kitas funkcijas. Tuo tarpu nevyriausybinės organizacijos demokratinėje visuomenėje atlieka svarbų vaidmenį, per jas piliečiai gali atstovauti visuomeninius interesus, per veiklą jose piliečiai turi galimybių lavinti savo kompetencijas. Pastaroji, edukacinė nevyriausybinių organizacijų funkcija yra ypač svarbi jaunimui dalyvaujančiam jaunimo nevyriausybinėse organizacijose, nes dalyvaudami jie lavina demokratijos, sprendimų priėmimo, atsakomybių pasidalijimo ir kitas socialines kompetencijas. Nevyriausybinės (jaunimo) organizacijos – laisva valia piliečių sukurtos organizacijos, registruotos kaip asociacijos, labdaros paramos fondai ir viešosios įstaigos. Organizacijos yra savarankiškai valdomos, remiasi savanoriška veikla, siekia visuomenei naudingų tikslų, yra nepriklausomos nuo valdžios ir nesiekia pelno. Dalyvavimas nevyriausybinių organizacijų veikloje yra pilietiškumo raiška. Jaunimo situacijos Lietuvoje tyrimų rezultatai rodo, kad apie trečdalį jaunimo dalyvauja neformaliojo švietimo veiklose, o dalyvavimas nevyriausybinėse organizacijose sudaro mažesniąją dalį šių veiklų. Pagrindinės jaunuolių nurodomos nedalyvavimo priežastys yra informacijos apie organizacijas ir laiko trūkumas. Šios priežastys yra jaunuolių subjektyviai suvokiamos, tačiau yra daugiau asmeninių ir aplinkos veiksnių skatinančių ir trukdančių jaunimo dalyvavimui. LR Švietimo ir mokslo ministerijos užsakymu atliktas tyrimas parodė, kad jaunimas

95

mažai domisi organizacijomis, veikiančiomis mokymosi įstaigose ar vietovėse, kuriose yra jų mokymosi institucija. Todėl šio straipsnio tikslas yra atskleisti 18 ‐ 25 metų amžiaus jaunimo dalyvavimo ir nedalyvavimo nevyriausybinėse / visuomeninėse, savanoriška veikla pagrįstose organizacijose asmeninius ir šeimos aplinkos veiksnius.

Tyrimo metodai: apklausa, raštu, naudojant uždaro tipo klausimyną ir statistinė analizė. Tyrimo instrumentas: parengtos dvi anketos, viena – dalyvaujančiam, kita – nedalyvaujančiam jaunimui. Tyrimo imtis: tyrime dalyvavo 154 18–25 metų jaunuoliai, kurie sudarė dvi tiriamųjų grupes. Pirmoje grupėje

buvo jaunimo organizacijų nariai, dalyvaujantys šių organizacijų veikloje. Antroji lyginamoji grupė buvo sudaryta iš panašaus amžiaus, lyties ir išsilavinimo jaunuolių, nedalyvaujančių visuomeninėse organizacijose.

Tyrimo rezultatai. Lyginant dalyvaujančių ir nedalyvaujančių visuomeninėse organizacijose jaunuolių grupes nustatyta, dalyvaujančiųjų grupėje buvo daugiau jaunuolių pasižyminčių ekstraversija ir atvirumu patyrimui. Ekstravertai yra aktyvūs, optimistiški, lengvai bendraujantys, atviri naujoms pažintims asmenys. Atvirumo patyrimui asmeninė savybė pasireiškia smalsumu, noru patirti, išgyventi, artistiškumu, domėjimusi menu ir pan. Taip pat dalyvaujančiųjų grupėje daugiau buvo tėvų įsitraukusių į nevyriausybinių organizacijų veiklas, šios grupės jaunuoliai dažniau jautė nevyriausybines organizacijas ir jų veiklą palaikančias aplinkinių nuostatas ir vertinimus. Vadinasi, asmenines savybes ‐ ekstraversiją ir atvirumą patyrimui, ir aplinkos savybes – tėvų dalyvavimas ir artimiausios aplinkos palankus atsiliepimas yra jaunuolių dalyvavimą nevyriausybinių organizacijų veikloje skatinantys veiksniai. Subjektyviai suvokiami dalyvavimo ir nedalyvavimo nevyriausybinių organizacijų veikloje motyvai yra paveikti platesnio socialinio, kultūrinio konteksto. Vyrauja savanaudiški dalyvavimo motyvai, dalyvavimu siekiama žinių, kompetencijų ir pripažinimo.

Accepted for publication 03 April 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 balandžio 03

96



SOCIAL WORK

SOCIAL WORKERS WHO WORK WITH PERSONS WITH ALZHEIMER‘S DISEASE AND THEIR EXPERIENCES THAT INFLUENCE THE RISK OF BURNOUT SYNDROME

AKVILĖ VIRBALIENĖ


Abstract In this article is introduced the experiences of social workers who work with persons that have Alzheimer‘s

disease which can cause the risk of professional burnout syndrome. Social workers often experience professional tiredness, which can be called one of the most urgent problems of professional development. It is possible that social workers can feel emotional, physical and psychological overwork if they intensively communicate with persons with Alzheimer’s disease, their environment and other institutions. The problem of this analysis can be formulated with the following question: how does the risk of professional burnout manifest while working with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease at the ward centers? The object of the research: the experiences of social workers who work with patients that have Alzheimer’s disease which can cause the risk of burnout syndrome. The data is analyzed applying the method of qualitative content analysis. The results of this analysis highlighted that the social workers’ communication with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease is strained but also selfless. The communication process with these people is troubled because of the lack of competence, i.e., it is difficult to maintain a close and valuable relation between the ill person and social worker. Due to the decrease of the feeling of competence, dissatisfaction with their activity results and negative evaluation of their work results, the risk of the burnout syndrome for the social workers can increase.

Keywords: social workers, persons with Alzheimer’s disease, professional burnout syndrome.

Introduction Burnout syndrome is a complex, prolonged and sometimes dynamic process that appears because of

permanent unsolved stressful situations at work. According to Pacevičius (2006), the burnout syndrome is one that develops on a background of chronic stress, which eventually exhausts worker’s emotional (of energy) and personal resources. Many psychologists and psycho analytics are of the opinion that the burnout frequently tends to display to the professionals that maintain close and long‐termed processes of communication with their clients at the emotionally strained environment. Due to the fact that the ward and care of a person with Alzheimer’s disease has its own particular features and is constant, the supply of qualified social service depends on the specialized professional competence of the social worker (Žydžiūnaitė et al, 2008).

The amount of people all around the world that are ill with dementia, as well as with Alzheimer’s disease, is increasing. It is supposed that in 2016 dementia will be the main reason of indisposition. It is counted that every year over 4.6 million people get ill with dementia (Ferri et al, 2005). The Alzheimer’s disease totally changes the patient’s personality and is the worst attendant at the old age. With the progress of this illness one absolutely loses his independence. Thus the nursing and social care of clients who have the Alzheimer’s disease is a hard work that impoverishes the mentality and raises stresses. Therefore there is a big risk of manifestation of burnout syndrome for social workers that work with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease.

Research issue. As Pacevičius puts it (2006), the biggest burnout risk exists for three professions: medicine, social workers and pedagogues. If we base on the psychological data of the research and compare the workers of medicine, social sciences and teachers between each other, the burnout syndrome accompanies social workers the most often (Evers, 2002). Social workers’ professional tiredness has become one of the most urgent problems of professional development and needs active methods of problem’s solution (Leliūgienė et al, 2003). There are a lot of researches done on the professional burnout, but these researches are divided creating blocks following the factors that caused professional burnout syndrome. Thus the individual factors that cause professional burnout were analyzed by Oktay (1992), Schaufeli, Enzmann, (1999), Maslach, Jackson, Leiter (1993), Maslach (2003), Pacevičius (2006) and Langelaan (2006), the organization’s factors by Byrne (1994), Van Yperen (1998), Butler, Konstantine (2005), Certer (2006) Hall, (2007), etc. From the medical point of view the Alzheime’s disease was analyzed by Barden (2004), Daubaras (2004) and Rudalavičienė, Norbekovas (2005). Lesauskaitė, Macijauskienė (2004), Naujanienė (2004), Palujanskienė (2004) analyze this illness from the social work’s point of view. According to Žydžiūnaitė, Virbalienė (2007), elderly persons that are ill with Alzheimer’s disease change the nature of social workers’ activity and the character of social work. Meanwhile social workers that communicate intensively with their clients, their environment and other institutions experience emotional, physical and psychological overwork (Kondrošovienė et al, 2008).

97

Therefore the problem of this analysis can be formulated with the following question: how does the risk of professional burnout manifest while working with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease at the ward centers?

Research focus: experiences of social workers who work with clients that have Alzheimer’s disease which can cause the risk of professional burnout syndrome.

Aim is to reveal the experiences of social workers who work with clients that have Alzheimer’s disease which can cause the risk of professional burnout syndrome.

Particularities of social worker’s activity during the work with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease at the ward centers

Various disorders that are particular to the elderly people require weighty efforts from the doctors, nurses, kinesiotherapists, psychologists, social workers and relatives of the client. Social workers face the elderly patients who suffer from the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease at the long‐term care institutions and stationary health care centers. Different difficulties arise when communicating with these patients: communication, dressing, feeding, personal hygiene, bathing and many other problems (Lesauskaitė et al, 2008). Social workers find it hard to participate in long conversations due to the fact that the ill person encounters with difficulties concentrating his attention. Since the patient can concentrate his attention only on one task simultaneously, complex instructions often evoke perplexity: the ill person tries to define a thing which name he doesn’t know or sometimes can create a new word to describe it. The patient tends to repeat the words that he knows, but it is hard to formulate a logic sentence and the meaning of his affirmation lowers. The deterioration of short‐term memory brings to the repetition of thoughts and the patient often forgets what he has just said. The communication with the patient not only can be influenced by the deterioration of the memory but also with the non‐concentration of the attention, apathy or malaise (Macijauskienė, 2008).

Hence the patient’s self‐care and personal hygiene decay. According to Macijauskienė (2008), sometimes it is necessary to give instructions for every day activity and leisure even to the patients at initial stage of the illness so that the occupation could produce satisfaction. Consequently, one of the most important fields of activity of social worker who works with patients that have Alzheimer’s disease appear here: it is the organization of patient’s occupation. If organized appropriately, it can contribute solidly to the social support of these persons. As Bagdonas puts it (2007), beyond the problems of the disease, some patients themselves are “tough”; that is, there are so called “tough” clients and the communication with them is very complicated. When working with this kind of people, the social worker hardly gets feedback that could sustain the feeling of professional effectiveness. Therefore it is very important to learn how to communicate with this person, because the socialization problems and internecine misunderstandings can evoke client’s / patient’s anger or aggression. When nursing this kind of client one must always emphasize or stimulate the skills that the patient still has and be flexible to the situation that keeps changing (Pilkauskienė, 2009). The social worker must remain patient and wait for the client to answer his questions, not interrupt him. If the social worker sees that the ill person finds it difficult to find a right word, he can nicely propose him a supposed word that the client doesn’t find/remember. According to Macijauskienė (2008), the communication is more natural if the questions are formulated in the mode that the ill person could answer yes or no. The author also writes that it is not preferred for the social worker to contradict the patient because if it happens, troubled reactions like scream, anger or crying might appear.

As Macijauskienė (2008) puts it, people with Alzheimer’s disease require care in their every day activity. Some clients are not able to choose appropriate clothes (agreeably to the season, daytime or occasion). Other ill persons are used to take off their clothes and don’t understand that this action is inappropriate. It can be related not only to the decline of perception but also to high temperature or a willing to go to the bathroom. Some patients tend to wear the same clothes every day and refuse to change to clean outfit. Eventually the elder people forget how to dress themselves, can no longer clasp their buttons or zipper. Thereby the social worker who works at the ward center with persons that have Alzheimer’s disease fulfills assistant’s and consultant’s parts in patient’s every day activity. However, as Valeikienė and Skalskis (2008) mark, not only the loss of memory and behavior troubles are typical for the persons with Alzheimer’s disease, but one other important symptom also emerges, that is, the loss of autonomy. It is not only the loss of particular activities as the use of telephone, vehicles, appropriate use of medications, but also the inability managing administrative and financial field. One person is acknowledged as sufficiently autonomic when he himself is initiative, plans and organizes his works and accomplishes his tasks. It is essential not to forger the skills of the ill person that he had before. It is also important to consider the physical defects or problems with sight that can disturb the accomplishment of some activities, but it doesn’t mean that one has intellectual disorder (Valeikienė, Skalskis, 2008).

Thus the social worker has to observe the client, follow his abilities in every day activity and measure the skills that he had before. We can note that emotional work that requires intensive display of emotions which do not correspond to the real feelings of social workers is very exhausting for them. Kondrašovienė and Zabulytė‐Kupriūnienė (2008) confirm this idea and write that a long work with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease inflicts on allegiance’s

98

to work decrease and negative point of view towards the clients appears. The worker that used to be kind, sympathetic and who knew how to listen becomes indifferent and sometimes even intolerant or rough. The worker that has to communicate with clients tries to physically and emotionally distance from them.

Fast changes in client’s behavior enforce social workers to adapt to the environment that varies. This impetuosity of adaptation can cause stress and activates the risk of burnout syndrome. The burnout syndrome makes huge negative influence to the worker himself and the organization in which he works. This phenomenon is related to different forms of breaks in work: non‐qualified work, diminished effectiveness, and intention to retire or frequent employee’s rotation (Kondrošovienė, Zabulytė‐Kupriūnienė, 2008). The reason that evokes all mentioned situations is the reduced satisfaction with one’s work, diminished allegiance to one’s functions and the organization. However, the ability to understand the particularity of your work, to realize concrete results of the work and not to forget your own needs as a person and as a professional and satisfy them – these are the factors that help to avoid the risk of burnout. Here we can highlight the position of social worker as a professional – he must help his clients not wasting nor emotionally overstraining himself. According to L. Kondrašovienė and J. Zabulytė‐Kupriūnienė (2008), there is no ideal way to maintain the psychical health, but there are various strategies that can benefit the meaningful work and help not to burnout. Vollmer (1998) says that it is possible to suppress the burnout risk in all stages; yet the crucial thing is to notice the symptoms and understand what is going on.

Then the social worker that works with “tough” patients, including those who have Alzheimer’s disease, must always follow his own condition, seriously exercise the self‐examination in order to avoid persistent overwork, emotional tiredness and the risk of burnout which comes consequently, i.e., the worker has to follow the prevention of burnout. Social workers should not hold too big expectations or hopes when working with persons that have Alzheimer’s disease. Conversely, they should try to assess their work situation critically hence all these factors make a big influence on the results of their activity.


Sample

In research had participated 5 social workers who work with persons with Alzheimer’s disease. The research participants were interviewed at ward centers. The investigator includes those people to the group which, in his opinion, are the most typical to the researched feature. In other words, the investigator forms the group according to his particular aims (Kardelis, 2007).

Demographic characteristics of research participants: a) gender: 5 women; b) age: age average – 36 years; c) work experience in social work: 10 years. According to Pines (2002), the burnout is more relevant in the beginning of carrier, that is, younger specialists (between the age of 30 and 40) tend to burnout more quickly than older workers.

Methods

For data collection was applied the semi‐structured interview. Interview helps to understand informants’ experiences and attitudes about the researched question in their own words (Bitinas, Rupšienė, Žydžiūnaitė, 2008). The method of a semi‐structured interview is practical because the communication is not strictly formalized and this forms free environment between the interviewer and participant of the research (Žydžiūnaitė et al, 2008).

For data analysis were applied the qualitative content analysis. Žydžiūnaitė (2005) affirms that content analysis is a valid method that allows specific conclusions based on the text of analysis. Main steps of research data elaboration process (Žydžiūnaitė, 2008):

Exclusion of manifestation categories with reference to “key words”.

Segmentation of content categories to subcategories.

Identification of categories/subcategories content elements conjunction.

Interpretation of content data.

Research tool

The interview consisted of two key questions: 1. What kind of communication do you have with persons that have Alzheimer’s disease? 2. How do you qualify yourself when working with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease?

Research ethics

The research participants voluntarily participated in the interview; they were not urged nor enforced. The aim of the research and the use of its results were introduced to the participants. Informants’ confidentiality during the research was ensured. During the interview, the informants’ dignity and respect were tried to preserve not asking intrusive questions that are related to the analyzed problem.

99

Results

According to the theory of fairness, whose main point is the relationship between clients and service suppliers at the working environment, that explains the burnout syndrome, communication with the client is essential and must have effective benefit for both sides. As Dierendonck affirms (2001), communication and relations between the client and supplier will be qualified as righteous if efforts correspond to the obtained results. Hence there we see that the social worker’s communication with the person with Alzheimer’s disease should be at least minimally useful. The burnout syndrome asserts when there is no balance between what one gives and what one gets and the relationship between the worker and the client/patient is understood as incorrect. This theory can be applied in the environment of workers whose work requires intensive contact with their clients/patients (Bakštytė, 2010).

Consequently, the informants were asked the following question: What kind of communication do you have with persons that have Alzheimer’s disease? After the qualitative content analysis of the answers to this question we part 3 categories: tense communication, firsthand care, lack of competence.

Table 1

Social workers’ communication with persons that have Alzheimer’s disease

Category Subcategory Affirmation

Simple speech

“One has to communicate with these patients in the most simple speech as possible…”, “…they often don’t understand and I have to keep on repeating, that is why I speak in a very simple mode…”, “… one has to search easy words, the most simple words”.

Self‐control

“…sometimes you get tired and it is hard to answer the same questions, so you have to control yourself…”, “you get angry or want to laugh, but it is important to control yourself in front of the client…”, “… it’s essential to control myself, sometimes I count in my thoughts…”.

Lack of empathy

“It is sometimes very difficult to understand client’s feelings, to empathize to his feelings…”, “Sometimes you don’t even hear them…”, “it’s very hard to react empathetically to their speech, but of course I try…”, “They often forget what have just said and repeat the same things many times…”

Lack of patience “Sometimes they keep on asking and asking and again asking…”; “I try but often don’t have patience…”

Tense communication

Childish communication “Sometimes we pander and treat them as children…”, “the communication with them is possible but it results to be like with kids”, “… it is true that one has to communicate with them, but the communication is inadequate, like with a kid, but at the same time a little bit different…”.

Firsthand care Self‐sacrifice “…you have to sacrifice yourself and try to make it easier for them…”, “you go and go, communicate and sacrifice yourself for that person, it hurts my heart, I want it to be better for him, at least a little brighter…”, “sometimes you think that it’s a pity to leave them alone, they need to be in fulltime care, that is why you keep communicating with them and sacrificing yourself, although you’re not thinking about it while doing it…”.

Lack of information “…some problems emerge and I don’t know how to solve them because of the lack of knowledge and experience…Then I have to consult with my colleagues or direction…”, “…I don’t have enough information when working with people who have this illness…”

Lack of competence

Lack of communication skills “I feel a lack of communication skills, it is difficult to adapt to the changed stage of the person…”, “…it would be better but I don’t have good communication skills…”

From the words of interrogates we can deduce that it is difficult to maintain a close, valuable relationship for

the social workers that work with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease (see table 1). Social workers find it hard to communicate with these clients because personal and professional aims’ reduction6 can have influence. This reduction asserts as negative evaluation of one’s professional skills and achievements, limitation of professional possibilities, depreciation of one’s importance at work (Pacevičius, 2006).

The answers of the participants accentuate two important moments that define the social workers’ communication with persons that have Alzheimer’s disease: here were have the categories of tense communication

6 In other sources it is called decreased personal accomplishment.

100

and lack of competence, and a category of firsthand care. In late illness stages the communication with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease is very difficult but possible. It is often interacted without words, thus it’s not easy to interpret and one has to have patience and skills (Macijauskienė, 2008).

Then the research data reveals and we can mark that social workers lack of patience (“it is sometimes hard to open my mouth because I have no patience to explain things…”) and feel a lack of communication skills (“I feel a lack of communication skills, it is difficult to adapt to the changed stage of the person…”): these factors lead to the risk of burnout. The burnout syndrome also appears when one sacrifices himself too much for his work and clients. In the research we also have a category of firsthand care which consists of self‐sacrifice subcategory (“sometimes you think that it’s a pity to leave them alone, they need to be in fulltime care, that is why you keep communicating with them and sacrificing yourself, although you’re not thinking about it while doing it…”).

Therefore we can affirm that the social workers’ communication with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease is particular. We may also call it ambiguous as we see that sometimes the communication is selfless, but at the same time requires more communication skills, empathy and patience. The expressed informants’ opinion affirms that the communication difficulties and lack of competence are particularly induced by the evaluation of personal social worker’s achievements that could be explained as competence feeling contraction, appearance of a feeling of non‐effectiveness, intensification of dissatisfaction, negative work evaluation or mistrust (Hersen, 2002).

As Pacevičius puts it (2006), self‐evaluation level correlates negatively with the burnout, i.e., workers that feel a lack of self‐confidence tend more to the professional burnout as these who qualify themselves positively. The informants were also asked the following question: how do you qualify yourself when working with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease? After the qualitative content analysis of the answers to this question we part 2 categories: positive and negative self‐evaluation (see table 2).

Table 2

Social workers’ self‐evaluation when working with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease

Category Subcategory Affirmation

Self‐confidence “At work I feel self‐confident and secure of what I do…”

Positive

Self‐realization “Doing my work I fulfill my professional needs, I like my job”, “and…I would say that I’m hardy…”

Lack of self‐confidence “…when problems emerge, I don’t feel self‐confident…”

Negative

Inadequacy “I often feel uncomfortable, as if I were inadequate, that is, I don’t know if it was correct what I’ve done…”, “sometimes I feel inadequate because the nurses know more and I’m afraid to fail…”

In the category of positive self‐evaluation we can part two subcategories: self‐confidence (“At work I feel self‐

confident and secure of what I do…”) and self‐realization (“Doing my work I fulfill my professional needs, I like my job”). The answers of the participants confirm that some social workers that work with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease do qualify themselves positively.

Therefore we can affirm that these social workers are able to control themselves even in stressful situations and are more patient. According to Pacevičius (2006), personal endurance is an important element of the social work: the social worker that has patience can save himself from professional burnout because the ability to control situations, to be always active and flexible is the factors that help to resist stressors (Pacevičius, 2006).

On the other hand, low level of patience, lack of self‐confidence, low self‐respect and the intent to avoid your own problems frequently create the model of an individual which tend to stresses, and the professional burnout syndrome appears (Bakšytė, 2010).

Therefore, a part of research participants could experience the risk of professional burnout due to the research data that highlighted that social workers also qualify themselves negatively. In the category of negative self‐evaluation we part two subcategories: lack of self‐confidence (“…when problems emerge, I don’t feel self‐confident…”) and inadequacy (“I often feel uncomfortable, as if I were inadequate, that is, I don’t know if it was correct what I’ve done…”). According to Muller, the feeling of personal inadequacy augments the level of burnout risk. Maslach (2003) confirms it by writing that weak and less self‐respectful workers experience the burnout syndrome more often.

101

Conclusion

By working with a person with Alzheimer’s disease the social worker confronts with the very particular activity. He communicates constantly with the ill person with Alzheimer’s disease, organizes his occupation and fulfills assistant’s and consultant’s parts in patient’s every day activity. The social worker is habitually observing the condition of his patient qualifies his acquired skills and tries to adapt them in his integration to society. The social worker confronts various difficulties and problems that arise from particular Alzheimer’s disease symptoms and disorders which aggravate the communication process. Therefore social workers feel tired from emotional empathy and overwork appears more regularly: these features condition the risk of professional burnout syndrome.

The communication between social workers and persons that have Alzheimer’s disease is tense but sometimes selfless. The lack of competence encumbers the communication process with these people, i.e., it becomes difficult to maintain a close and valuable relation. Meanwhile the risk of burnout syndrome can arise for social workers that feel a decrease of competence, dissatisfaction with their work results or qualify their activities’ results negatively. Social workers that work with persons who have Alzheimer’s disease qualify themselves positively as well as negatively. The risk of professional burnout persists because the factors of lack of patience, self‐confidence or self‐adequacy determine the appearance of psychological stress and can later evolve to the professional burnout syndrome.

References

1. Bagdonas, A. (2007). Profesinės veiklos įvadas. Socialinis darbas. Vilnius: VU. 2. Barden, I., Vogel, A., Wodraschke, G. (2004). Ligonio slaugymas namuose. Kaunas: LIC ,,Už gyvybę“. 3. Byrne, B.M. (1994). Burnout: testing for the validity, replication, and invariance of causal structure across elementary,

intermediate, and secondary teachers. American Educational Research Journal. 31(3), 645–673. 4. Butler, S. K., Constantine M. G. (2005). Collective self‐esteem and burnout in professional school counselors. Professional

School Counseling. 9, 55–62. 5. Certer, S. B. (2006). When the enemy lies within: risk for professional burnout among family lawyers. American Journal of

Family Law. 20(3), 160 – 168. 6. Daubaras, G. (2004). Psichiatrija somatinėse gydymo įstaigose. Vilnius: Charibdė. 7. Dierendonck, D., Schaufeli, W. B., Buunk, B. P. (2001). Burnout and inequity among human service professionals: a

longitudinal study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 6(1), 43 – 52. 8. Evers, J.G., Brouwers, A., Tomic, W. (2002). Burnout and self‐efficacy: A study on teachers’ beliefs when implementing an

innovative educational system in the Netherlands. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 72, 227–243. 9. Ferri, C. P et. al. (2005). Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study. Lancet, 366, 2112‐2117. 10. Hall, D. S. (2007). The relationship between supervisor support and registered nurses outcomes in nursing care unitų.

Nursing Administration Quarterly. 31(1), 68–80. 11. Kardelis, K. (2007). Mokslinių tyrimų metodologija ir metodai. Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla. 12. Kondrašovienė, L., Zabulytė‐Kupriūnienė, J. (2008). Socialinis darbas ir sveikatos priežiūra. Kaunas: Vitae litera. 13. Langelaan, S., Bakker, A. B., Van Doornen, L. J. P., Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). Burnout and work engagement: do individual

differences make a difference? Personality and Individual Differences. 40, 521 – 532. 14. Leliūgienė, I., Rupšienė, L., Baušytė, A. (2003). Lietuvos socialinių pedagogų profesinio nuovargio priežastys. Pedagogika. 67,

12‐18. 15. Lesauskaitė, V., Bagdonas, G., Macijauskienė, J. (2008). Gerontologija socialiniams darbuotojams. Kaunas: Vitae litera. 16. Lesauskaitė, V., Macijauskienė, J. (2004). Biologinio senėjimo socialinės pasekmės. Socialinė gerontologija: ištakos ir

perspektyvos. Kaunas: VDU leidykla. p. 62‐84. 17. Macijauskienė, J. (2008). Sergančiųjų Alzheimerio liga ir kitomis demencijomis priežiūra ir slauga. Kaunas: Vitae litera. 18. Maslach, Ch. (2003). Job burnout: new direction in research an intervention. Current Directions in Psychological Science.

12(5), 189–192. 19. Maslach, С., Jackson, S. E., Leiter M. P. (1996). Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual. Palo Alto, California: Consulting

Psychological Press, Inc. 20. Naujanienė, R. (2004). Socialiniai senėjimo aspektai. Socialinė gerontologija: ištakos ir perspektyvos. Kaunas: VDU leidykla. p.

104‐116. 21. Oktay, J.S. (1992). Burnout in hospital social workers who work wigh AIDS patients. Social‐Work. 37(5), 432–439. 22. Pacevičius, J. (2006). Profesinis perdegimas kaip organizacinės elgsenos problema. Ekonomika ir vadyba: aktualijos ir

perspektyvos. 2(7), 125–129. 23. Palujanskienė, A. (2004). Seno žmogaus psichologija. Socialinė gerontologija: ištakos ir perspektyvos. Kaunas: VDU leidykla.

p. 86‐101. 24. Pines, A.M. (2002). A psychoanalytic–existential approach to burnout: Demonstrated in the cases of a nurse, a teacher, and

a manager. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training. 39(1), 103–113. 25. Rudalavičienė, P., Norbekovas, A. (2005). Slaptieji pacientai – mirštančiųjų šeimos nariai. Sveikatos mokslai. 3(40), 100‐103. 26. Schaufeli, W. B., Enzmann, D. (1999). The Burnout companion for research and practice: A critical analysis of theory,

assessment, research and interventions. Washington DC: Taylor and France. 27. Thomas, J. C., Hersen M. (2002). Handbook of Mental Health in Workplace. London: Sage Publication. 28. Van Yperen, N.W. (1998). Informational support, equity and burnout: The moderatin effect of self‐efficacy. Journal of

Occupational Psychology. 71(1), 29–33. 29. Žydžiūnaitė, V., Stepanavičienė, R., Bubnys, R. (2008). Artimųjų išgyvenimai prižiūrint Alzheimerio liga sergantį asmenį:

102

socialinio darbo kontekstas. Šiauliai: Šiaulių kolegijos leidybos centras. 30. Žydžiūnaitė, V., Virbalienė, A. (2007). Artimųjų bendravimas su šeimos nariu, sergančiu Alzheimerio liga, rūpinantis juo

namuose. Sveikatos ir socialinių mokslų taikomieji tyrimai: sandūra ir sąveika. 3, 31‐36.

Santrauka

SU ALZHEIMERIO LIGA SERGANČIU ASMENIU DIRBANČIŲ SOCIALINIŲ DARBUOTOJŲ PATIRTYS, SĄLYGOJANČIOS PROFESINIO ,,PERDEGIMO“ SINDROMO RIZIKĄ

AKVILĖ VIRBALIENĖ

Reikšminiai žodžiai: socialiniai darbuotojai, Alzheimerio liga sergantys asmenys, profesinis ,,perdegimo“ sindromas.

Tyrimo aktualumas. Perdegimas dažniausiai pasireiškia tų profesijų atstovams, kuriose vystosi artimi ir ilgalaikiai bendravimo procesai su klientais emociškai įtemptoje aplinkoje. Kadangi Alzheimerio liga sergančio asmens globa ir priežiūra turi savo specifiką ir yra pastovi, kokybiškos socialinės paslaugos teikimas priklauso nuo specializuotos socialinių darbuotojų profesinės kompetencijos. Socialiniai darbuotojai yra specialistų grupė, kurios profesinis nuovargis yra tapęs viena aktualiausių profesinės raidos problemų bei reikalauja aktyvių problemos sprendimo būdų. Todėl tyrimo problemą sudaro klausimas: kaip pasireiškia profesinio perdegimo rizika dirbant su Alzheimerio liga sergančias asmenimis globos namuose? Atskleisti socialinių darbuotojų, dirbančių su Alzheimerio liga sergančiu klientu, patirtys, sąlygojančias profesinio perdegimo sindromo riziką. Socialinis darbuotojas, dirbdamas su sunkiais klientais, taip pat ir su sergančiais Alzheimerio liga, turi nuolat stebėti savo būseną, rimtai vykdyti savianalizę, kad išvengtų nuolatinio pervargimo, emocinio persitempimo, o vėliau ir perdegimo rizikos, kitaip tariant, laikytis ,,perdegimo“ prevencijos. Socialiniai darbuotojai turėtų nepuoselėti per didelių lūkesčių ir užmojų dirbdami su Alzheimerio liga sergančiais, o pamėginti darbo situaciją vertinti kritiškai, nes visa tai turi stiprų poveikį veiklos rezultatams.

Tiriamųjų imtis. Tyrimo imtis tikslinė patogioji. Iš viso apklausti 5 socialiniai darbuotojai, dirbantys su Alzheimerio liga sergančiais asmenimis globos namuose. Demografinės tyrimo dalyvių charakteristikos: a) lytis: 5 moterys; b) amžiaus vidurkis – 36 metai; c) socialinio darbo patirties vidurkis: 10 m.

Duomenų rinkimo metodas – pusiau struktūruotas interviu. Duomenų analizės metodas – kokybinė turinio analizė. Rezultatai. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, kad su Alzheimerio liga sergančias asmenimis dirbantiems socialiniams

darbuotojams sunku išlaikyti artimą, pilnavertį bendravimą. Vėlyvųjų ligos stadijų metu bendravimas su Alzheimerio liga sergančias asmenimis labai sudėtingas, bet įmanomas. Bendravimas dažniausiai būna nežodinis, todėl nelengva interpretuoti, nes reikalinga didėlė kantrybė ir įgūdžiai. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, kad perdegimo sindromo rizika kyla dėl per didelio pasiaukojimo savo darbui ar klientams. Tyrimo rezultatai liudija, kad socialiniai darbuotojai stresinėje situacijose sugeba kontroliuoti situacijas, jaučia ištvermę. Socialinis darbuotojas turėdamas išsiugdęs ištvermę gali apsaugoti save nuo profesinio perdegimo, nes gebėjimas kontroliuoti situacijas, būti pastoviai aktyviam, lanksčiai reaguoti į pokyčius – atsparumas stresoriams. Taip pat tyrimas atskleidė, kad socialiniai darbuotojai save vertina ir neigiamai, o asmens nepilnavertiškumo jausmas padidina pardegimo rizikos laipsnį. Vadinasi, perdegimo sindromą greičiau patiria silpni, mažesnę savivertę turintys darbuotojai.

Išvados. Dirbdamas su Alzheimerio liga sergančiu klientu socialinis darbuotojas susiduria su specifinės veiklos pobūdžiu. Jis nuolat bendrauja su Alzheimerio liga sergančiuoju, organizuoja užimtumą, kasdieninėje jo veikloje ir higienoje atlieka padėjėjo ir patarėjo vaidmenis. Socialinis darbuotojas nuolat stebi kliento būseną ir vertina jo įgytus įgūdžius bei siekia tai pritaikyti jo integracijai į bendruomenę. Socialiniai darbuotojai susiduria su įvairiais sunkumais ir problemomis, kylančiomis iš specifinių Alzheimerio ligos pasireiškimo simptomų, sutrikimų, kurie apsunkina bendravimo procesą. Dėl šios priežasties socialinius darbuotojus nuvargina emocinis įsijautimas, dažniau atsiranda pervargimas, o visą tai sąlygoja profesinio ,,perdegimo“ sindromo riziką.

Socialinių darbuotojų bendravimas su Alzheimerio liga sergančiais asmenimis yra įtemptas, bet kartais ir pasiaukojantis. Bendravimo procesą su šiais žmonėmis apsunkina kompetencijos stoka, t.y., tampa sunku išlaikyti artimą, pilnavertį bendravimą. Savo ruožtu, socialiniam darbuotojui dėl kompetentingumo jausmo mažėjimo, nepasitenkinimo veiklos rezultatais ar negatyvaus darbo rezultatų vertinimo gali iškilti perdegimo sindromo prasidėjimo rizika. Socialiniai darbuotojai, dirbdami su Alzheimerio liga sergančias asmenimis, vertina save ir teigiamai, ir neigiamai. Todėl profesinio perdegimo rizika išlieka, nes asmenybės ištvermės bei teigiamo savęs vertinimo nebuvimas, nepilnavertiškumas yra labai svarbūs faktoriai, kurie lemia psichologinio streso atsiradimą, o vėliau gali išsivystyti ir profesinio perdegimo sindromas.

Accepted for publication 22 February 2011 Priimtas publikuoti 2011 vasario 22

103

© Klaipėda State College, Klaipėda, Lithuania, 2011

AUTHOR GUIDELINES

Methodological parameters of the article

• Summaries in Lithuanian (one A4 page) and English (500 words) languages, if the article is in English; in Lithuanian (one A4 page) and German (500 words) languages, if the article is in German. • Keywords. • Body of the article:

� Introduction of the study (research context and urgency, aim, problem, focus, article structure);

� Background of the research (conceptual framework);

� Methods (data collection and analysis, sample);

� Results;

� Discussion;

� Conclusions;

� References.

Manuscript Style and Content. The manuscript (including all charts, figures and tables) must be doubt le – spaces with 2,5 margins. Pages must be numbered consecutively. We prefer Microsoft Word. A title page must be a separate on the disk; do not include it in the manuscript file. It must include a title of no more than 10 words; names, credentials, job title, department and institution of each author; and the name, address, telephone, fax, and e‐mail for the corresponding author. Manuscripts must be in English and Lithuanian. Between 4.500 and 5.500 words in length and no more than 20 references. Structured under appropriate headings, the abstract should accompany the manuscript on a separate page. It should normally include the article’s aim, background and conclusion. Abstracts for reports of empirical studies should also include the methods and results. Up to five tables and / or figures may be included. Up to five keywords in alphabetical order should follow the abstract. Articles involving statistical methods should state the source of research subjects, selection methods, sample size, response rate and main results with confidence intervals and actual P values.

References. Harvard style must be used. References are cited in the text using the author names followed by year of publication, e.g. (Bruce, 2004). When there are three or more authors, the first author’s name followed by et al. should be used, e.g. (Koch et al., 2005). If there is more than one reference per year from an author, distinguish with a letter, e.g. (Connel, 2000a), (Connel, 2000b). A reference list including all citations must be supplied on a separate page. References are listed in alphabetical order by first author names. References must include sufficient information to retrieve source material. When a web page is cited, please provide the date it was last accessed. The following are examples of style:

Wright, S., Cloonan, K., Leonhardy, P., Wright, G. (2005). An international programme in nursing and midwifery: building capacity for the new millenium. International Nursing Review, 1 (52), 18 – 23.

Rosenbaum, J., Jones, S. (2003). Interactions between high schools and labor markets. In Hallinan, M. (ed.), Handbook of Education. Kluwer, New York, pp. 564 – 570.

Le Roux, J. (2002). Intercultural curriculum: educatioonal dimensions. Action Research, 4 (2). Available at:

<http://www.educ/educatarena/sample_pdfs6/CEJI16_1a.pdf> [2006 01 04].

Bills, D. (2004). The Sociology of Education and Work. Blackwell Publishing, UK.

Units, Spelling and Measurement. System, International (SI) should be used. Spelling should conform to The Concise Oxford Dictionary.

Illustrations. Illustrations must be professionally prepared, submitted in a form suitable for reproduction, and supplied on separate pages. The first 100 characters of any caption should describe key aspects of the illustration. The captions should be typed on a separate page at the end of the manuscript rather than in the text or under the illustrations. Illustrations should be provided to either single (83 mm) or double column (175 mm) width. Lettering should be sans serif and of 2 – 3 mm. height. Lines should be at least 0, 33 mm wide in final size and symbols should be 2 – 3 mm across. All illustrations should be referred to in the text as figures using Arabic numerals, e.g. Fig. 1, etc. in order of appearance.

Tables. Charts, figures and tables must be on separate pages. Tables containing only essential data should be double – spaced and numbered separately e.g. Table 1 and a caption for each should be supplied. Only horizontal lines should be used, one above and one below the column headings and one at the table foot. All abbreviations must be defined in a footnote.

Copyright. Copyright must be assigned to Klaipeda College. The copyright covers the exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute the article in any medium, including reprints, photographic reproductions. Microfilm, electronic reproductions or any other reproduction of a similar nature and translations. If the paper is part of a larger study and you or other authors, have written additional papers that have been published / submitted for publication using the study as the basis for the article, you must contact the Editor with details to ensure there is no breach of copyright. Copyright assignment is a condition of publication and papers will not be passed to the publisher fore production unless copyright has been assigned. To assist authors an appropriate copyright assignment form will be supplied by the editorial office.

Authors are responsible for correctness of their article languages.

104

© Klaipėdos valstybinė kolegija, Klaipėda, Lietuva, 2011

GAIRĖS AUTORIAMS

Metodologiniai straipsnio reikalavimai

• Straipsnis parengiamas anglų arba vokiečių kalba. • Santraukos – lietuvių (vienas A4 formato puslapis) ir anglų (500 žodžių) kalbomis, jei straipsnis parašytas anglų kalba; lietuvių (vienas A4 formato puslapis) ir vokiečių (500 žodžių) kalbomis, jei straipsnis parašytas vokiečių kalba. • Reikšminiai žodžiai. • Pagrindinė straipsnio dalis:

� Tyrimo pristatymas (tyrimo kontekstas ir poreikis; tyrimo tikslai; tyrimo problema; tyrimo objektas; straipsnio struktūra);

� Tyrimo teorinis pagrindimas;

� Tyrimo metodologijos pagrindimas (duomenų rinkimas ir analizė, tiriamųjų atranka);

� Rezultatai;

� Diskusija;

� Išvados;

� Literatūra.

Rankraščio stilius ir turinys. Rankraštis turi būti atspausdintas su dvigubais eilėtarpiais, visos paraštės turi būti 2,5 cm. Puslapiai numeruojami nuosekliai. Pageidautina, kad rankraštis būtų rengiamas Microsoft Word programa. Titulinis lapas diske turi būti atskiras, jo nereikia pridėti prie viso rankraščio. Jame turi būti pavadinimas, sudarytas iš ne daugiau kaip 10 žodžių, autoriaus (‐ių) vardai ir pavardės, kvalifikacija, pareigų pavadinimas, kiekvieno autoriaus atstovaujama institucija. Reikia nurodyti autoriaus, su kuriuo galima kontaktuoti rengiant straipsnį leidybai, pavardę, adresą, telefono ir fakso numerį, elektroninio pašto adresą. Rankraščiai turi būti parašyti lietuvių ir anglų kalbomis. Jų apimtis – 4.500‐5.500 žodžių ir literatūros sąraše nurodyta ne daugiau kaip 20 straipsnio tekste paminėtų šaltinių.

Santrauka, išdėstyta su reikiamomis antraštėmis, rašoma atskirame lape. Joje nurodomas straipsnio tikslas, pagrindimas ir išvada. Empirinių tyrimų ataskaitų santraukose taip pat reikia nurodyti metodologiją ir rezultatus. Tekste gali būti ne daugiau kaip 5 lentelės ar paveikslai. Pateikiama ne daugiau kaip 5 reikšminiai žodžiai abėcėlės tvarka, po santraukos. Straipsniuose, kuriuose aprašomi tyrimai remiasi statistiniais metodais, nurodomas statistinio stebėjimo vienetas, atrankos metodai, imties dydis, gautų atsakymų procentai, nurodant paklaidos intervalą ir tikrąjį paklaidos dydį.

Šaltinių nuorodos. Laikomasi Harvardo stiliaus. Šaltiniai tekste cituojami nurodant autoriaus pavardę ir šaltinio publikavimo metus, t.y. (Bruce, 2004). Kai yra trys ar daugiau autorių, nurodoma pirmojo autoriaus pavardė ir prierašas et al. t.y. (Koch et al., 2005). Jeigu yra daugiau negu viena cituojamo autoriaus publikacija per metus, jos žymimos raidėmis, t.y. (Connel, 2000a), (Connel, 2000b). Literatūros ir kitų šaltinių sąrašas pateikiamas atskirame lape. Šaltiniai išvardijami abėcėlės tvarka pagal pirmojo autoriaus pavardę. Informacija apie šaltinius turi būti tiksli, kad būtų galima rasti nurodytą medžiagą. Jei nurodomas interneto tinklalapis, būtina pažymėti datą, kada į jį paskutinį kartą žiūrėta. Toliau pateikiama keletas pavyzdžių:

Wright, S., Cloonan, K., Leonhardy, P., Wright, G. (2005). An international programme in nursing and midwifery: building capacity for the new millenium. International Nursing Review, 1 (52), 18 – 23.

Rosenbaum, J., Jones, S. (2003). Interactions between high schools and labor markets. In Hallinan, M. (ed.), Handbook of Education. Kluwer, New York, pp. 564 – 570.

Le Roux, J. (2002). Intercultural curriculum: educatioonal dimensions. Action Research, 4 (2). Prieiga per internetą: <http://www.educ/educatarena/sample_pdfs6/CEJI16_1a.pdf> [žr. 2006 01 04].

Bills, D. (2004). The Sociology of Education and Work. Blackwell Publishing, UK.

Matavimo vienetai. Turi būti naudojama tarptautinė matavimo vienetų sistema (SI).

Iliustracijos. Iliustracijos turi būti profesionaliai parengtos, tinkamos publikuoti ir dauginti. Jos pateikiamos atskiruose lapuose. Iliustracijos pavadinimo pirmosios 100 raidžių turi apibūdinti pagrindinius iliustracijos aspektus. Geriau iliustracijų pavadinimus atspausdinti atskirame lape rankraščio gale, o ne pateikti juos tekste ar po iliustracijomis. Iliustracijos pateikiamos vieno (83 mm) ar dviejų (175 mm) stulpelių pločio. Iliustracijoje esančios raidės spausdinamos Sans Serif šriftu ir turi būti 2‐3 mm aukščio. Linijų plotis – ne mažiau kaip 0,33 mm galutiniame variante, o simboliai turi būti 2‐3 mm pločio. Visos iliustracijos tekste žymimos arabiškais skaitmenimis, pvz., 1 pav., numeruojamos iš eilės.

Lentelės. Diagramos, paveikslėliai ir lentelės spausdinamos atskiruose lapuose. Lentelės, pateikiančios pagrindinius duomenis, turi būti atskirtos dvigubu tarpu ir sunumeruotos, t.y. 1 lentelė ir t.t. Kiekviena lentelė turi turėti atskirą pavadinimą. Lentelės formatuojamos brėžiant tik 2 horizontalias linijas: vieną po lentelės antraštės ir antrą lentelės pabaigoje. Visos santrumpos iššifruojamos ir paaiškinamos išnašose.

Autorių teisės. Straipsnio autorinės teisės turi būti perduotos Klaipėdos Valstybinei kolegijai. Autorinės teisės suteikia teisę straipsnį reprodukuoti ir platinti įvairiais būdais, t.y. iš naujo jį publikuoti, daryti fotoreprodukcijas, mikrofilmus, kurti elektronines laikmenas ir kitas panašias straipsnio kopijas. Jeigu straipsnis yra didesnės mokslinės studijos dalis arba Jūs ar kiti autoriai parašėte daugiau straipsnių, kurie buvo publikuoti ar buvo priimti publikuoti, ir Jūs naudojate studiją ar kitus straipsnius kaip šio straipsnio pagrindą, būtina susisiekti su kitas publikacijas paskelbusiomis leidyklomis ir išsiaiškinti, ar nepažeidžiamos jų autorinės teisės. Autorinių teisių perdavimas yra būtina sąlyga publikuojant straipsnį ir, jei jos nebus suteiktos leidėjui, straipsnis nebus publikuojamas. Siekdama autoriams padėti kolegijos leidykla pateiks autoriams reikiamą autorinių teisių perdavimo dokumento formą. Autoriai atsakingi už jų straipnių kalbos taisyklingumą.

107

SVEIKATOS IR SOCIALINIŲ MOKSLŲ TAIKOMIEJI TYRIMAI: SANDŪRA IR SĄVEIKA Mokslo darbai, 1(8), 2011

13,5 sąl. sp. l. Tiražas 50 egz.

Išleido Klaipėdos valstybinė kolegija, Jaunystės g. 1, LT‐91274 Klaipėda Tinklalapis internete: http://www.kvk.lt/

Spausdino Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla, Herkaus Manto g. 84, 92294 Klaipėda