journal of ethnopharmacology - uab...

Medicinal plants traditionally used in the northwest of the BasqueCountry (Biscay and Alava), Iberian Peninsula

Gorka Menendez-Baceta a, Laura Aceituno-Mata a,b, María Molina a,b,Victoria Reyes-García c, Javier Tardío b, Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana a,n

a Departamento de Biología (Botánica), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C/Darwin 2, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spainb Instituto Madrileño de Investigación y Desarrollo Rural, Agrario y Alimentario, Apdo. 127, 28800 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spainc ICREA and Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 7 November 2013Received in revised form16 December 2013Accepted 20 December 2013

Keywords:EthnobotanyHerbal remediesTraditional knowledgePublic health

a b s t r a c t

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Many ethnobotanical studies show that people in industrial countriesstill rely on their traditional knowledge of medicinal plants for self-treatment, although the trendmight not be as common as some decades ago. Given the social and public health implications ofethnopharmacological practices, this survey aims at recording and analysing the medicinal plants used inthe folk medicine of the Northwest of the Basque Country focusing on how medicinal plants knowledgeand practices evolve.Materials and methods: Fieldwork consisted of 265 orally consented semi-structured interviews with 207informants about medicinal uses of plants. Interviews were conducted between September 2008 andJanuary 2011. Informants were on average 76 years old (minimum 45, maximum 95), being more thanhalf of them (112) men. Data collected were structured in use-reports (UR). Following informants0

comments, medicinal use-reports were classified as abandoned-UR, when the informants reported thatthe use was only practiced in the past, and prevalent-UR, when the informants reported to continue thepractice.Results and discussion: A total of 2067 UR for 139 species that belong to 58 botanical families wererecorded, being the most important families Asteraceae, Liliaceae sensu latu and Urticaceae. Some of themost important species are commonly used in other European areas (e.g., Chamaemelum nobile, Urticadioica and Chelidonium majus). However, there are also plants commonly used in the area such asHelleborus viridis or Coronopus didymus, that are scarcely used in other areas, and whose record is anoriginal contribution of the local pharmacopeia. It is also the case of remedies such as the use of Plantagoleaves against strains in a local remedy called zantiritu. Overall, and for all variables analysed (total UR,medicinal use-categories, drug preparation and administration), the percentage of UR being currentlypracticed (prevalence ratio) was very low (near 30%) suggesting a strong decay in the use of traditionalmedicinal plants. Exceptionally, some species (Chamaemelum nobile, Verbena officinalis or Anagallisarvensis) had a high prevalence ratio, reflecting the fact that this erosion process is not evolvinghomogeneously. Informants also reported that new species and medicinal plant uses were enteringinto the local pharmacopeia via non-traditional sources such as books, courses, or the internet. Thesemodern ways are now being used to spread some traditional remedies that in the past were only orallytransmitted.Conclusions: This study shows that traditional knowledge is continuously changing, evolving andadapting to the new social and environmental conditions. The image of the local folk medicine as adying reality doomed to disappear should be reviewed. It also shows the need of a culturally sensitiveapproach by the official health systems to these practices.

& 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Many authors including physicians, botanists, geographers,explorers, ethnographers and anthropologists have undertaken

the task of compiling and understanding the traditional use ofmedicinal plants in Europe. The tradition goes back to ancienttimes, when physicians and botanists such as Pedanius Dioscor-ides, Ibn al-Baitar, Pietro Andrea Matthioli, Andrés Laguna orNicholas Culpeper devoted their careers to the study of Europeanmedicinal plants. Their works were inspired not only by theacademic knowledge of their time but also by the folk traditions.Dioscorides, for instance, compiled the knowledge of the places he

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology

0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.12.038

n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 914978110; fax: þ34 914978344.E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Pardo-de-Santayana).

Please cite this article as: Menendez-Baceta, G., et al., Medicinal plants traditionally used in the northwest of the Basque Country(Biscay and Alava), Iberian Peninsula. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.12.038i

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visited when he travelled with the Roman Army (López-Muñozand Álamo, 2007). The goal to improve people0s health motivatedmuch of this ancient tradition of compiling information onmedicinal uses of plants.

Several authors have argued that understanding local uses ofplants might contribute to public-health in a number of ways. Forexample, only some decades ago herbal remedies were the basesof the peasant pharmacopeias of southern and eastern Europeancountries (López-Muñoz and Álamo, 2007). Even today, manystudies show that there is a widespread use of herbal remediesoften hidden to the doctor and a desire of more autonomy in themanagement of personal health (Braulies et al., 2011; Devesa et al.,2004; Leung et al., 2001). In such context, ethnopharmacologicalfield studies could help to provide a bridge between the allopathicmedical community and patients who still rely on their traditionalhealth systems and remedies. The increasing interest in naturaland alternative medicines also urges for a better understanding ofthese systems within the medical community in order to provide amore appropriate service to the patients (Cross et al., 1989; Collegeof Nurses of Ontario, 2009; Quave et al., 2012; Vandebroek, 2013).Furthermore, understanding local uses of plants is of greatimportance for preventing from herbal intoxications (Vallejoet al., 2009) and avoiding the risk of herb–drug interactions(Carrasco et al., 2009).

Many Iberian ethnopharmacological studies, as most Europeanones, show that traditional medical knowledge is suffering astrong erosion, stressing the urgency to document and conservethis wisdom (e.g. Carrió and Vallès, 2012; Hadjichambis et al.,2008; Morales et al., 2011; Parada et al., 2009; Pardo-de-Santayanaet al., 2010; Pieroni and Giusti, 2011; Vitalini et al., 2009).Interestingly, and despite of this erosion process, those samestudies also document that part of the European ethnopharmaco-logical heritage is still alive, mostly among elders and inhabitantsof rural areas.

Within the Iberian Peninsula, a great number of studies havebeen carried out during the last two decades documenting itsmedical ethnobotany (see Cavero et al., 2013; Morales et al., 2011;Rigat et al., 2013 and works cited in Quave et al., 2012). Thesestudies, which have prospected many territories, highlight thehigh diversity of species used with medicinal purposes in theIberian Peninsula. Despite the growing interest in the topic, thereare still poorly studied regions, such as the Basque Country.Although this territory has attracted the interest of ethnographersall over the twentieth century, few researchers have focusedon the local knowledge of medicinal plants with an ethnobo-tanical perspective. For instance, despite having made a vast field

work effort, previous ethnographic studies include few botanicalnames – if any at all –, and sometimes erroneous (Barandiaran andManterola, 2004; Garmendia, 2007, 2009). The only studiesknown to us that have addressed the Basque folk medicine withan ethnobotanical perspective are those of Daniel Pérez (2013) andother works in the provinces of Alava (Alarcón, 2010) and Navarre(Akerreta et al., 2007a, 2007b; Cavero et al., 2011a, 2011b, 2013;Calvo et al., 2011).

To fill the gap, the present research aims at studying themedicinal plants traditionally used in the northwest of the BasqueCountry (Biscay and Alava) focusing on changes on medicinalherbs knowledge and practices. The specific aims of this study are:

� To record the species traditionally used in the northwest of theBasque Country;

� To assess the cultural importance of species, families anduse-categories;

� To analyse the evolution of the use of medicinal plants in thearea; and

� To assess the new trends of transmission of medicinal plantsknowledge.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study area

The study area is located in the north of the Iberian Peninsula(Fig. 1). It constitutes a culturally rich region in which differentBasque and Spanish linguistic communities coexist due to acomplex historic evolution (Bonaparte, 1866; Zuazo, 2008). Speci-fically, there are four geographically and culturally differentiatedBasque regions: Carranza and Gorbeialdea-North in Biscay, andAramaio and Gorbeialdea-South in Alava. The four regions share amountainous orography, similar bioclimatic conditions, a dis-persed settlement, and a common history of a dismantled ruralsociety during the last five decades (Menendez-Baceta et al., 2012).

The highest peaks in the area are the mounts Zalama (1336 m)and Gorbea (1481 m). The latter gives name to two of the regions(Gorbeialdea) and to one of the two protected areas (GorbeaNatural Park, the other being Urkiola0s Natural Park).

The whole area belongs to the Eurosiberian biogeographicregion. The local climate is temperate Atlantic, with heavy rainfall(in excess of 1100 mm) and an average annual temperatureof 13 1C (EUSTAT, 2013). The potential vegetation includes beech

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Bilbao Biscay

Gip

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Portu

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43º N00´

3º00´W

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Gorbeialdea-North

Zalama

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Carran-za

Aram

aio

MountGorbea

Urkiola

Fig. 1. Study area. Map showing northwestern Basque Country where the survey was carried out.

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forests (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the supratemperate belt and severaloak species (Quercus ilex L. subsp. ilex, Quercus robur L., andQuercus pyrenaica Willd.) in the mesotemperate. Nevertheless,the current natural vegetation is highly managed, especially inthe mesotemperate floor which is dominated by industrial planta-tions of Pinus radiata D. Don (Loidi et al., 1997). These pine forestsare generalised in Gorbeialdea-North and Aramaio but less com-mon in Carranza. Conversely, oaks and beeches cover the forestedareas of Gorbeialdea-South (Inventario Forestal and de Euskadi,2004–2005).

According to the national census (EUSTAT, 2013), a total of22,728 people live in the 13 municipalities forming the wholestudy area (802 km2). All of them have less than 6000 inhabitantseach one and can be considered rural areas. There are markedlinguistic differences among the four regions. Basque is spoken inGorbeialdea-North and Aramaio and Spanish in Carranza andGorbeialdea-South, although the two regions contrast in thatBasque was still spoken until the last century in Gorbeialdea-South, whereas Spanish has been the predominant language inCarranza since the 10th century (Aguirre, 1990; Menendez, 1962).

The local economy was traditionally based on the managementof the farmhouse, (“baserri” in Basque and “caserío” in Spanish),that were clustered in small villages and produced food and othergoods for household consumption. Crops commonly cultivated inthe area included maize (Zea mays L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.),potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), common beans (Phaseolus vul-garis L.) or turnip (Brassica napus L.). A few livestock heads wereraised for household consumption, including one or two dairycows and pigs, and some hens. Moreover, sheep herding isdocumented in the area since prehistoric times. This particulareconomic activity is still quite alive thanks to many active profes-sional shepherds.

With the industrialisation of the study area in the 1950s, therural way of life was abandoned, and each of the studied regionsevolved in a different way. On the one hand, factories wereconstructed near Gorbeialdea and Aramaio. Most people began amixed agrarian-industrial activity working in factories on a parttime basis without leaving the baserri. This allowed for themaintenance of a residual agrarian activity. On the other hand,no new activities were installed in Carranza, which impelled manyof its inhabitants to migrate to urban centres such as Bilbao,completely abandoning the agrarian live. The few people whostayed in the farmhouse changed their economic activities movingfrom a subsistence-oriented to a market-oriented economy,mainly through raising stabled livestock.

The economy of the area is now mainly based on industry andservices, being agriculture and livestock only relevant in certainareas. Nowadays, some aspects of the baserri0s traditional manage-ment still survive, but it is not anymore an economic unit aiminga self-sufficient production. Rather, they are either orientedto produce for the market or to complement the main familyeconomic activities. Crops like potatoes, wheat or corn havelargely been replaced by livestock grazing pastures and Pinusradiata plantations. Small home gardens are still common evenin peri-urban areas.

2.2. Ethnobotanical data collection

Fieldwork was conducted between September 2008 and Jan-uary 2011. We interviewed 207 informants about medicinal uses ofplants. Since we had to interview the most knowledgeable peoplemore than once, we conducted a total of 265 semi-structuredinterviews (Alexiades, 1996; Martin, 1995). All people interviewedwere informed of the purpose of the interview and gave oralconsent to be interviewed.

A snowball sampling technique was used for selecting infor-mants that had a sound traditional knowledge (TK) of medicinalplants used in the area (see Ghirardini et al., 2007). This techniqueconsists in asking to local people for those community membersconsidered to be ‘knowledgeable,’ in our case with specificreference to knowledge of medicinal plants. We selected infor-mants who were born and had lived in the area when the localeconomy was based on the management of local resources.Therefore, we mainly looked for farmers with an active relationwith agriculture and/or livestock breeding that had relied onmedicinal plants for maintaining their health at least during theirchildhood. The mean age of the informants was 76 years (mini-mum 45, maximum 95), being more than half of them (112) men.

2.2.1. Semi-structured interviewsThe interviews were conducted by the first author at the

informant0s house, in Basque or Spanish, depending on theinformant0s language. All interviews were recorded and latertranscribed. Informants were asked to report the wild, cultivatedor bought medicinal plants that had been traditionally used in thearea, what ailments were treated with them, and whether theywere still in use or abandoned. We also asked the local names ofthe plants, and how they were collected, conserved, prepared, andadministered. For data analysis, we considered as traditional thoseuses that had reportedly been practiced in the community for atleast more than one generation (see Ogoye-Ndegwa and Aagaard-Hansen, 2003). During the interview, informants also mentionedmedicinal plant uses that they had learned in courses, or from theinternet, books, naturopathic doctors or other sources not typicallyconsidered TK. This information was registered as modern med-icinal uses and was not included as medicinal plants traditionallyused in the region. Modern and traditional medicinal uses wereanalysed independently for comparative purposes. Finally, infor-mation regarding sex, age, origin and occupation of the informantswas systematically compiled.

2.2.2. Botanical identificationIn addition to the interviews in the informant0s house, when

possible, short walks were carried out with the informantsthrough the surroundings of the farmhouse. Observing the plantspecies in situ is essential to identify them and collect herbariumsamples (Albuquerque et al., 2008). When plants could not beobserved in situ, pictures and illustrations of the species wereshown. A botanical dichotomous key (Aizpuru et al., 1999) wasused to identify the samples. They were also pressed, labelled anddeposited at the herbarium BIO (Leioa, Universidad del País Vasco).In the case of very common cultivated plants such as garlic, onionor potatoes we only took pictures. We only lack herbarium sheetsor pictures from three wild species: Althaea officinalis L., Artemisiaabsinthium L. and Gentiana lutea L. since we could not see theplants. However, the local names, the descriptions of the plantsmade by the informants and their uses does not offer any doubtabout its identity. Flora iberica (Castroviejo et al., 1986–2012) wasfollowed for taxonomy and plant nomenclature for familiesincluded therein, and Flora Europaea (Tutin et al., 1964–1980) forthe rest.

2.3. Data analysis

Data collected during fieldwork were entered in a database. Asin most ethnobotanical surveys, information was structured inuse-reports (UR), i.e., the informant i, mentions the use of thespecies s in the use-category u (Tardío and Pardo-de-Santayana,2008). Use-reports were divided in abandoned-UR, when infor-mants mentioned that the use was only practiced in the past, and

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Table 1Medicinal plants traditionally used in northwestern Basque Country. Only medicinal plant uses with more than one use-report (UR) are shown. PR¼Prevalence ratio.CI¼Cultural Importance index.

Families andspecies(voucher ordigitalphotographnumber)

Local name(Basque;Spanishnames)

Plant part and mode ofpreparationa

Medicinaluse-categor-iesb

Medicinal sub-category and modes ofapplicationc

UR PR % CIspe-cies

AgavaceaeAgave americanaL.d (Photo GM7)

Umorebedarra,enplastubedarra; pita

1 Leaves, macerated in sugar(syrup)

Respir Whooping cough D1 4 50 0.02Cough D1,Cold D1

Bronchitis, pneumonia D1

ApiaceaeFoeniculumvulgare Mill.(GM 814)

Anis bedarra,aniseerbasantie;hinojo, hierbasanta, linojo

1 Fruits, infusion Digest Gases D1 11 45 0.07Stomach disorders D1

Reprod Menstruation D1, 2 50Galactogenous D1

Respir Cold D1, 2 0Cough D1

Petroselinumcrispum (Mill.)Fuss.d

(GM 1016)

Perejile;perejil

1 Leaves, raw Reprod Abortive IN-VA1 9 0 0.062 Stem, raw UPI Sickness RT (applied on the chest)1 2 0

Headache CH2

Skin Nosebleed IN-NA1, Mouth ulcers CH1 2 50Pimpinella anisumL.e

Anise; anises 1 Fruits, infusion Digest Digestive disorders, babies D1 16 38 0.08Stomach disorders D1

Stomach upset D1

Gases D1

AraceaeArum italicumMill. (GM 687)

Sapo bedarra,suge bedarra,sapoberakatza,inar ondokoa;hoja de laculebra

1 Leaves, heated Skin Boils T1, 3, 6, 8, P8 17 18 0.092 Leaves, heated in lard Burns T 1, 5

3 Leaves, heated in olive oil Infected wounds T2, 3

4 Leaves, infusion Chilblains T 3

5 Leaves, ointment Skin rashes R7

6Tubers, heated inolive oil Warts R7

7 Tubers, cut Undefined skin disorders T5

8 Tubers, crushed Musc-skel Muscular and joint pains P2 2 50Reumathism D4Reumathism D4

AraliaceaeHedera sp.(GM 732)f

Untzurrie,untzorrie,auntzorrixe;hiera, hiedra

1 Leaves, crushed Skin Burns P1, T3, W4 Calluses P1 Boils T4, 5 8 38 0.052 Leaves,heated in lard3 Leaves, ointment Wounds and cuts T3

4 Leaves, decoction or infusion Undefined skin disorders T3

5 Leaves, raw Reprod Abortive IN-VA5, D4 2 0

AspleniaceaeAspleniumtrichomanes L.subsp.trichomanes(GM 799)

Sardineta(Spanish)

1 Leaves, infusion Respir Cold D1 2 0 0.01

AsteraceaeAchilleamillefolium L.(GM 619)

San Juanbedarra,milenrama,millorie;milenrama

1 Inflorescence, infusion Digest Diarrhoea D1 3 33 0.012 Inflorescence, burned Stomach disorders D1

Tooths ache I2

Calendulaofficinalis L.(GM 818)d

Kalendula,mariloka,aingeru lora;caléndula

1 Petals, oinment Skin Wounds and cuts T1 3 100 0.012 Inflorescences, macerated inolive oil

Blisters and grazes T1

Undefined skin disorders T2

Chamaemelumnobile (L.) All.(GM 665)

Mantzalilea,mantzanillea,mantzalinille;manzanilla

1 Inflorescences, infusion ordecoction

Digest Diarrhoea D1 158 74 1.09

2 Inflorescences, macerated inolive oil

Digestive D1

3 Inflorescences macerated inalcohol, liqueur

Stomach upset D1, P2

4 Inflorescences, heated in oliveoil

Gases D1

Intestinal worms D1

Stomach disorders D1, 3

Digestive disorders, babies D1

Emetic D1

Heartburn D1

UPI Healthy D1 30 90Headache D1

General malaise D1






Table 1 (continued )






UR PR % CIspe-cies

Panacea D1

Sens Conjunctivitis and irritation of the eyesW1

23 35

Ear disorders DR2

Eyes pain, clean the eyes W1

Respir Cough D1 6 50Cold D1

Sore throat G1

Sinusitis P4

Reprod Menstruation D1 5 20Nervous Nervousness D1 3 100

Jasonia glutinosa(L.) DC.(GM 998)

Tea; té, té dela sierra, té depeñas, té de laRioja

1 Aerial part, infusion Digest Diarrhoea D1 9 89 0.04Stomach disorders D1

Sonchus oleraceusL. (GM 892)

Kardue;cardincha,lechecinas

1 Latex, raw Skin Warts R1, W1 3 67 0.01

Taraxacumofficinale Weber(GM 823)

Diente deleon, kardue,bedar lisue;diente de león

1 Latex, raw Skin Wounds and cuts T1 2 0 0.01Warts T1

BoraginaceaePulmonarialongifolia (Bast.)Boreau(GM 650)

Katarrobedarra,pulmonibedarra,pulmonaria;pulmonaria,hoja delcatarro

1 Leaves, infusion or decoction Respir Cold D1 15 7 0.07Cough D1

Bronchitis, pneumonia D, I1

BrassicaceaeBrassica nigra (L.)Koche

Mostaza,mostazea;mostaza

1 Seeds, heated Respir Undefined respiratory disorders P1 11 0 0.05Cold P1

Bronchitis, pneumonia P1

Brassica oleraceaL. subsp.oleracea (GM)

Aza, azea;berza

1 Leaves, heated Skin Boils T1 2 0 0.012 Leaves, raw Wounds and cuts T2

Coronopusdidymus (L.)Sm. (GM 617)

Pulmonibedarra;hierba de lapulmonía

1 Leaves, decoction or infusion Respir Cold D1 34 21 0.21Cough D1


Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D1 7 14UPI Fever D1 3 67

Lepidiumlatifolium L.(GM 783)

Frailianbedarra,guntzurbedarra,kaputxinobedarra, txisebedarra(Basque)

1 Leaves, infusion Excret Undefined urine and kidney disordersD1

8 75 0.04

Kidney stones D1

Prostate disorders D1

Rorippanasturtium-aquaticum (L.)Hayek (GM 811)

Berroak;berros

1 Leaves, raw Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D1 3 67 0.01Enhance circulation D1

Clean the blood D1

CaprifoliaceaeSambucus nigra L.(GM 1018)

Saukue,sakutie,seukue,flautagaixe;sabuco, saúco

1 Bark, oinment Skin Skin rashes W8 33 48 0.292 Branch, oinment Boils T1

3 Leaves, decoction Erysipelas I9

4 Branch, decoction Infected wounds T1

5 Inflorescences, decoction Wounds and cuts W8, 4, T1, 14

6 Bark, decoction Dog bites T2

7 Bark, egg-white omelette Undefined skin disorders T1

8 Leaves, macerated in water Burns T6, 1, W8, 3, P7

9 Inflorescences, burned Gangrene T1

10 Inflorescences, infusion Respir Cold I5, 4, 9, D10, 11 12 2511 Fruits, syrup Undefined respiratory disorders I10

12 Dew on the leaves Bronchitis, pneumonia D4, 11

13 Bark, heated in olive oil Sens Ear disorders DR13 5 20












UR PR % CIspe-cies

14 Leaves, crushed Eyes rheum W10

Eyes pain, clean the eyes W12, 10

Musc-skel Bruises P6, T1, 2 4 100Muscular and joint pains T2

UPI Headache I5 3 0Fever I4

Cancer T2

Circulat Haemorrhoids W3, T1 2 50

CistaceaeCistus salviifoliusL. (GM 1011)

Loberabedarra,iñerra zurie;hierba lobera,lobera, árnica

1 Leaves, decoction Skin Wounds and cuts W1 6 17 0.03Ulcers W1

Dog bites W1

ClusiaceaeHypericumandrosaemum L.(GM 771)

Sanilla(Spanish)

1 Leaves, heated in olive oil Skin Boils T1, 2 5 0 0.022 Leaves, heated Burns T1

Wounds and cuts T1

Infected wounds T1

Hypericumperforatum L.(GM 790)

San Juan lora,arnika,iperikue(Basque)

1 Aerial part, macerated in oliveoil

Skin Undefined skin disorders T1 2 100 0.01

Wounds and cuts T1

CrassulaceaeHylotelephiumtelephium (L.)H.Ohbad

(GM 831)

Ebagi bedarra,ebaixebedarra, eridebedarra;bálsamo,chupamater-ias,hoja de lachupona, hojade pus

1 Leaves, heated and peeled Skin Burns T1, 3, P5 53 34 0.262 Leaves, cut Acne T1

3 Leaves, ointment Ulcers T1

4 Leaves, crushed Undefined skin disorders T3

5 Leaves, heated in olive oil Calluses T1

Wounds and cuts T1, 2, 4, 5

Infected wounds T1

Boils T1

Embedded thorns T1

Sempervivumtectorum L.(GM 832)

Belarribedarra(Basque)

1 Leaves, crushed Sens Ear disorders DR1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, P3 18 17 0.092 Leaves, peeled3 Leaves, heated4 Leaves, heated in olive oil5 Leaves, infusion6 Leaves, decoction

Umbilicusrupestris(Salisb.)Dandy(GM 628)

Ebagi bedarra,eride bedarra,kapelabedarra,perretxikobedarra;chupamater-ias,gorgoritos,gorritos,huevos

1 Leaves, heated and peeled Skin Burns T1, 2 38 23 0.182 Leaves, oinment Chilblains T1

3 Leaves, crushed Wounds and cuts T1, 2

Infected wounds T1

Boils T1

Warts T1, 3

Undefined skin disorders T1, 2

CupressaceaeJuniperuscommunis L.(GM 925)

Nebro,enebro,ginebro,giniebro(Spanish)

1 Pseudofruits, raw Skin Warts RT1 7 14 0.03

CucurbitaceaeCucurbita maximaDuchesne.d

(Photo GM 5)

Kalabazea;calabaza

1 Seeds, raw Digest Intestinal worms E1 5 0 0.02Constipation E1

DioscoreaceaeTamus communisL. (GM 642)

Irustarbie,ustarbie,basokoesparraguek,esparragera;

1 Root, cut Skin Undefined skin disorders R1 8 0 0.062 Fruits, crushed Skin rashes R1

3 Fruits, decoction4 Fruits, raw Musc-skel Bruises P2 4 0

Muscular and joint pains P2

Rheumatism D3, R4












UR PR % CIspe-cies

dulcamara,espárrago

EquisetaceaeEquisetumtelmateia Ehrh.(GM 635)

Asagaribustena, aseribuztana,petarra; colade caballo,raposera, rabode zorra

1 Aerial part, infusion Excret Undefined urine and kidney disordersD1, 2

37 14 0.27

2 Aerial part, decoction Circulat Uric acid D1

Diuretic D1

Enhance circulation D1, W2 11 27High cholesterol D1

Haemorrhoids D1

Phlebitis D1

Thick blood or high blood pressure D1

Skin Skin infections P2 5 0Wounds and cuts W2

Ulcers W1, 2

Musc-skel Bruises P1 2 50Rheumatism D1

EricaceaeErica cinerea L.(GM 975)

Iñarrea;berozo

1 Flowers, infusion Excret Undefined urine and kidney disordersD1

2 0 0.01

EuphorbiaceaeEuphorbia lathyrisL. (GM 872)

Tartabue,zatorrantzakobedarra;tártabo,hierba de lostopos

1 Fruits, raw Digest Constipation E1 2 0 0.01

Euphorbia peplusL. (GM 760)

Esnebedarra(Basque)

1 Latex, raw Skin Warts T1 14 57 0.072 Aerial part, crushed Calluses T2

Baldness R1

Burns T1

Insect and bug bites T1

Skin rashes T1

Wounds and cuts T1

Ricinuscommunise

Ricino(Spanish)

1 Oil, raw Digest Stomach disorders E1 10 0 0.05Intestinal worms E1

Constipation E1

Stomach upset E1

FagaceaeCastanea sativaMill. (GM 720)

Gastaña;castaña (fruit)

1 Fruits, decoction Digest Diarrhoea E1, D2 3 33 0.012 Bark, decoction

Quercus ilex L.subsp ilex(GM 707)

Artea; encina 1 Leaves, decoction Skin Wounds and cuts W2 3 0 0.012 Bark, decoction Chilblains W1

Quercus robur L.(GM 934)

Aretza,tenteixe;roble, rebolla,roble fresnal,sarach

1 Bark, decoction Digest Diarrhoea D1, 2 3 67 0.012 Fruits, decoction

GentianaceaeCentauriumerythraea Rafn.(GM 919)

Anjinebedarra;centaura,sanalotodo,hierba de lasmuelas

1 Aerial part, infusion Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D1, 2 7 0 0.052 Aerial part, macerated in water Clean the blood D1

Respir Sore throat D1 4 0Bronchitis, pneumonia D1

Flu D1

GeraniaceaeGeranium lucidumL. (GM 894)

Hierba decontraplasmo(Spanish)

1 Aerial part, fried Skin Wounds and cuts T2 2 0 0.012 Aerial part, heated in lard Infected wounds T1

HippocastanaceaeAesculushippocastanumL. (GM 1032)

Gastañapilonga,indigastaña;castañopilongo,

1 Fruits, raw Circulat Haemorrhoids RT1 5 20 0.03Musc-skel Rheumatism RT1 2 0












UR PR % CIspe-cies

castañoviroles

JuglandaceaeJuglans regia L.(GM 813)

Intxurre;nogal

1 Leaves, decoction Skin Wounds and cuts W1, 3 8 25 0.072 Green shell (exocarp) of thefruit, crushed

Infected wounds W1

3 Bark, decoction Burns T4

4 Fruits, ointment Chilblains W1

5 Fruits, macerated in wine Digest Stomach disorders D6 3 06 Leaves, infusion Teeth disorders P3

Intestinal worms D5

Respir Cold I3, D6 2 0Circulat Haemorrhoids D1, T2 2 50

JuncaceaeJuncus sp.(mainly, Juncuseffusus L., GM834; Juncusinflexus L., GM927 and JuncusconglomeratusL., GM 714)

Sie, ie, sihibedarra, iztokisitze,junkua; junco

1 Leaves, raw Skin Warts RT1 36 19 0.17

LamiaceaeMentha pulegiumL. (GM 664)

Anis bedarra;poleo

1 Aerial part, infusion Digest Stomach disorders D1 3 67 0.01Digestive D1

Diarrhoea D1

MenthasuaveolensEhrh. (GM 640)

Astopatana,mendie,patana, erlebedarra,mendie,txarripatana;batán deburro, menta

1 Leaves, raw Digest Diarrhoea D1 5 60 0.042 Aerial part, decoction3 Aerial part, infusion Skin Dog bites W2 4 25

Insect and bug bites R1

Wounds and cuts W2

Nettle stings R1

Mentha spicata L.(GM 729)

Patana; batán,menta

1 Aerial part or leaves, infusion Digest Digestive D1 3 66 0.01Intestinal worms D1

Rosmarinusofficinalis L.d

(GM 816)

Erromeroa,ereinotza;romero

1 Aerial part or leaves, maceratedin alcohol

Respir Cold I2 3 67 0.07

2 Aerial part, decoction Undefined respiratory disorders R1

Circulat Enhance circulation R1 2 50Musc-skel Muscular and joint pains R1 2 50

Rheumatism R1

UPI Fever R1 2 100General pains R1

Teucriumscorodonia L.(GM 947)

Hierba delobo, hoja delobo (Spanish)

1 Aerial part, decoction Skin Wounds and cuts T, P, W1 5 0Infected wounds P1

LauraceaeLaurus nobilis L.(GM 737)

Ereinotza,erramue;laurel,remolorio,ramo

1 Aerial part, infusion or decoction Respir Ashma I1 7 0 0.052 Leaves, infusion Bronchitis, pneumonia D3

3 Leaves, decoction Cold I, D1

4 Branches, burned Undefined respiratory disorders I1

5 Branches, raw Musc-skel Rheumatism R3, D2 2 50Skin Warts RT5 2 0

Psoriasis RT4

Liliaceae sensu latuAllium cepa L.d

(Photo GM 3)Kinpullea,kipula;cebolla

1 Bulb, decoction Skin Calcanean spurs P12 41 15 0.292 Bulb, infusion Insect and bug bites T3

3 Bulb, cut Boils P5, 7, 11, 6, T9, 5, 10, 7, 1, 13, 6, 4

4 Bulb, egg-white omelette Infected wounds P6, T5, 8

5 Bulb, heated Wounds and cuts P6

6 Bulb, fried in olive oil7 Bulb, heated in olive oil8 Bulb, peeled9 Bulb, roasted10 Bulb, heated in lard11 Bulb, raw Respir Sinusitis I3 11 2712 Bulb, crushed Flu D2












UR PR % CIspe-cies

13 Bulb, boiled in wine Cold D1, 2


Ashma I3

Sore throat D1, P4

Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D2 4 100Digest Teeth disorders P5, 13, T5 3 0

Allium sativum L.d

(Photo GM 4)Berakatza; ajo 1 Bulb, egg-white omelette Digest Diarrhoea D6 26 8 0.34

2 Leaves, ointment Intestinal worms E4, 8, D7, 14, 9, 13, 12, 5,R43 Peel of the clove, burned

4 Bulb, raw5 Bulb, macerated in milk6 Bulb, in soups7 Bulb, decoction8 Bulb, crushed9 Bulb, infusion10 Bulb, fried in olive oil11 Bulb, macerated in water Skin Mouth ulcers R4 26 3812 Bulb, macerated in alcohol Infected wounds R4, P10

13 Bulb, macerated in olive oil Wounds and cuts R4, P1

14 Bulb, boiled in milk Warts R4

Deep wounds T10

Insect and bug bites R4

Chilblains R4

Musc-skel Bruises R4 12 33Rheumatism T4, E4, D11, 12

Respir Bronchitis, pneumonia P1 3 100Sinusitis P1

Circulat Enhance circulation E4 3 33Haemorrhoids T2, 3

Aloe vera (L.)Burm. fil.d

(Photo GM 1)

Aloe bera,ebagi bedarra;aloe vera

1 Leaves, crushed Skin Burns T1 2 1 0.012 Leaves, peeled Wounds and cuts T2

Aloe maculataAll.d

(Photo GM 2)

Aloe bera,ebagi bedarra;aloe vera

1 Leaves, ointment Skin Burns T1, 2 8 88 0.052 Leaves, peeled Wounds and cuts T1, 2

Musc-skel Bruises T1 2 50Lilium candidumL.d

(Photo GM 8)

Lirio lora,lirioak,lilixue;azucena

1 Roots, boiled in wine Skin Boils P1, 2, 3 5 0 0.022 Roots, decoction3 Roots, fried in olive oil

LinumusitatissimumL.e

Linoa, liñoa,linue; linaza(seeds)

1 Seeds, heated Respir Bronchitis, pneumonia P1 5 0 0.02Undefined respiratory disorders P1

Cold P1

LythraceaeLythrum salicariaL. (GM 636)

Beherantzakobedarra, tea;hierbas de lacagalera

1 Inflorescences, infusion ordecoction

Digest Diarrhoea D1 17 53 0.08Stomach disorders D1

MalvaceaeAlthaea officinalisL.d (notavailable)

Malvavisco(Spanish)

1 Leaves, infusion Respir Cold D1, 2 2 0 0.012 Roots, decoction

Malva neglectaWallr. (GM 916)

Malva(Spanish)

1 Flowers, infusion UPI Healthy D1 2 0 0.01

Malva sylvestris L.(GM 768)

Mamukioa,malba; malva

1 Leaves, infusion or decoction Digest Stomach disorders D1, 3 10 30 0.142 Flowers, infusion Constipation D3

3 Aerial part, infusion or decoction Stomach upset D3

4 Petals, macerated in water Digestive D4

5 Petals, infusion Respir Sore throat G3 8 06 Aerial part, heated in lard Cold D2, 3

Cough D3

Bronchitis, pneumonia I, P3

Skin Boils T6 4 0Acne W3

Wounds and cuts W3

Infected wounds W3

UPI Fever IN-AN3 3 0Healthy D2, 3












UR PR % CIspe-cies

Musc-skel Sprains R1 2 0Broken bones R3

Sens Eyes rheum W5 2 0Eyes pain, clean the eyes W3

MoraceaeFicus carica L.(GM 849)

Ikoa; higo(fruit)

1 Dried fruits, boiled in wine Skin Boils T3 26 27 0.152 Dried fruits, macerated in honey Warts T, R4

3 Dried fruits, raw4 Latex, raw Respir Sinusitis P2 5 60

Sore throat D1

Cold D1

MyrtaceaeEucalyptusglobulus L.(GM 1030)

Eukalitua,ukalitue;eucalito,ucálito

1 Leaves, decoction Respir Sore throat G, I2 57 23 0.282 Aerial part, decoction or infusion Undefined respiratory disorders I1, 2,

D2, R2

3 Leaves, raw Cough I2

Sinusitis I1, 2

Bronchitis, pneumonia I2, CH3

Cold I1, 2, D2

OleaceaeFraxinus excelsiorL. (GM 1033)

Leixarra,lexarra, SanJuan aretsa;fresno

1 Bark, decoction Skin Warts RT2 3 33 0.022 Leaves, raw Infected wounds W13 Leaves, infusion or decoction4 Branches, decoction Circulat Enhance circulation W4 2 0


PapaveraceaeChelidoniummajus L.(GM 627)

Iodo bedarra,arnika; iodo,celidonia

1 Leaves, raw Skin Warts T2, 3 89 38 0.472 Latex, raw Ulcers T2

3 Aerial part, crushed Skin rashes T2

4 Aerial part, ointment Burns T2, 4

5 Leaves, heated Wounds and cuts T2, 3, 4 P9, 3 R2

6 Leaves, decoction Chilblains T2

7 Aerial part, infusion Infected wounds T1, 3, 4

8 Aerial part, heated in olive oil Gangrene T4, P8

9 Aerial part, decoction Boils T2, 4

Calluses T2

Balness T2



Respir Cold P5, D7 7 71Ashma D7

Bronchitis, pneumonia D6, 7

Circulat Haemorrhoids T2, 4 2 50

PinaceaePinus pinasterAiton.e

Pinua; pino 1 Resin, ointment Skin Wounds and cuts T1 3 67 0.01Undefined skin disorders T1

Burns T1

PlantaginaceaePlantago sp.(mainly,Plantagolanceolata L.,GM 685 andPlantago majorL., GM 824)

Zanbedarra,konejubelarrie;dantén,llantén, hojade llantel,llantel

1 Leaves, heated in olive oil Musc-skel Bruises T1,5, P2 50 42 0.382 Leaves, infusion or decoction Muscular and joint pains T1, P2

3 Leaves, raw Broken bones T1

4 Leaves, crushed Sprains T1, 3, P6

5 Leaves, ointment Skin Warts RT3 20 306 Leaves, egg-white omelette Gangrene P1

7 Seeds, infusion Haemorrhages T3

Wounds and cuts T1, 3, 4, W2, R3

Infected wounds T3

Mouth ulcers G2

Burns T1


Respir Cough D2 4 75Cold D2

Sore throat D2, G2

UPI Panacea T1 2 0General malaise D2

Excret Undefined urine and kidney disordersD2, 7

2 50












UR PR % CIspe-cies

PoaceaeOryza sativa L.e Arroza; arroz 1 Seeds, decoction Digest Stomach disorders E1 23 22 0.11

Diarrhoea E1

Triticum aestivumL.d

(Photo GM 6)

Garie, garixe;trigo

1 Flour, heated Respir Sore throat P5 24 0 0.202 Flour, heated in olive oil Bronchitis, pneumonia P5

3 Bread Cold P1, 5, E11

4 Flour, ointment Undefined respiratory disorders P5

5 Bran, heated6 Bran, boiled in wine7 Seeds, raw8 Stem, dried Skin Deep wounds T8 10 09 Flour, boiled in wine Embedded thorns P5

10 Wholegrain bread Warts RT3, 7

11 Bread, boiled in wine Boils P1, 5, 2, 6, T4

Digest Teeth disorders P5, 6 3 0Constipation E10

Sens 5 Ear disorders P 2 0Musc-skel Lumbalgia P5 2 0

Zea mays L.d

(Photo GM 9)Artoa, artue;maíz, borona,maíz mijo

1 Flour, heated Excret Diuretic D5 18 6 0.182 Flour, boiled in wine Undefined urine and kidney disorders

D53 Flour, decoction4 Flour, raw5 Styles, decoction or infusion Respir Cold P1, 2 16 06 Flour, egg-white omelette Bronchitis, pneumonia P1

7 Flour, heated in olive oil Undefined respiratory disorders P2

Sore throat P1

Sinusitis P2

Digest Gastritis E3 2 50Constipation T7

Skin Burns P1 2 50Undefined skin disorders P6

PolygonaceaeRumex obtusifoliusL. (GM 958)

Ustei bedarra,ustie, ustaia;bernaula,andagalleta,arroces

1 Leaves, raw Skin Infected wounds T5 4 0 0.052 Leaves, juice Wounds and cuts T5, 6

3 Roots, decoction or infusion Boils T5

4 Stem, raw5 Leaves, heated in olive oil Digest Liver disorders D3 3 06 Leaves, heated in lard Constipation IN-AN4

Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D3 3 67Haemorrhoids T1, 2

PrimulaceaeAnagallis arvensisL. (GM 787)

Pasmobedarra,pulmonibedarra,kangrenabedarra;murajes

1 Leaves, decoction or infusion Skin Infected wounds T2 8 88 0.092 Leaves, ointment Burns T2

Gangrene D1, T2

Wounds andcuts T2


Respir Sinusitis I1 5 40Cough D1

Cold D1


Sore throat P1

UPI Infections D1 3 33Circulat Haemorrhoids T2 2 50


Primula elatior L.subsp. elatior(GM 869)

San Jose lora(Basque)

1 Roots, crushed Musc-skel Sprains P1 4 100 0.02Bruises P1

RanunculaceaeHelleborus viridisL. subsp.occidentalis(Reut.) Schiffn.(GM 666)

Ario bedarra,arioa bisixobedarra;llavera

1 Leaves, infusion or decoction Digest Intestinal worms D1, 2, 3, RT4 44 5 0.212 Leaves, macerated in water3 Leaves, juice4 Leaves, raw

RhamnaceaeRhamnusalaternus L.(GM 715)

Kasrraskillea;carrasquilla

1 Leaves, infusion Circulat Clean the blood D1 21 5 0.132 Splinters or bark, decoction Thick blood or high blood pressure D2

3 Splinters, egg-white omelette Respir Hoarseness D2 5 0Cold D2, P3












UR PR % CIspe-cies

RosaceaeCrataegusmonogyna Jacq.(GM 922)

Arantza,Arantza zuria,elorrie;espino albar,espina blanca

1 Bark, ointment Circulat Enhance circulation D3 4 50 0.052 Thorn, raw Clean the blood D3

3 Flowers infusion or decoction Thick blood or high blood pressure D3,

4

4 Bark, infusion Skin Snake bites IN-DER2 3 335 Fruits, syrup Warts IN-DER2

Wounds and cuts T1

Respir Cold D3 3 0Sore throat D5


Cydonia oblongaMill.d

(Photo GM 13)

Membrillue,miru sagarra,sagarra,madarisagarra(Basque)

1 Fruits, jam Digest Diarrhoea E1 2 0 0.01

Malus domestica(Borkh.)Borkh.d

(Photo GM 10)

Sagarra;manzana(fruits)

1 Fruits, cut Skin Warts R1, RT1 7 57 0.072 Fruits, roasted3 Fruits, raw Digest Constipation E2 4 504 Fruits, decoction Diarrhoea E2, 3

Respir Flu D4 4 75Cold D4

Sore throat D4

Potentilla reptansL. (GM 690)

Bostorrikoa;cinco en rama

1 Leaves, decoction or infusion Circulat Haemorrhoids RT2, D1, S (anal)1 6 67 0.032 Leaves, raw

Prunus avium L.(GM 731)

Kerixe, keixe,txorikerixek;cereza, cerezamontxina(fruits)

1 Fruit stems (cherry stems),infusion

Excret Undefined urine and kidney disordersD1

3 0 0.01

Prunus cerasus L.(GM 988)

Gindek,kerixe-ginde;guinda (fruits)

1 Fruits, macerated in alcohol.Liqueur

Digest Stomach disorders D1 8 0 0.04Reprod Menstruation D1 2 0

Prunus domesticaL.(Photo GM 11)

Okana;ciruela (fruits)

1 Fruits, decoction or infusion Digest Constipation D1, 2 6 67 0.032 Fruits, macerated in water

Prunus spinosa L.(GM 723)

Arana,arranokana,txarriokerana,andrine(fruits);endrina,andrina, arán(fruits)

1 Fruits, macerated in alcohol Digest Stomach disorders E2, D1 6 50 0.032 Fruits, raw Diarrhoea D3

3 Branches, decoction

Rosa canina L.(GM 981)

Larrosa;tapaculos(fruits),arkaia, zarza,azkaraio

1 Fruits, decoction or infusion Digest Diarrhoea D1 3 0 0.022 Fruits, macerated in alcohol Stomach disorders D2

3 Fruits, syrup Respir Bronchitis, pneumonia D1 2 50Undefined respiratory disorders D3

Rosa sp. d Larrosa; rosa 1 Frutis, decoction or infusion Sens Styes W3 2 0 0.012 Flowers, infusion Eyes, clean, pain W2

3 Petals, infusionRubus ulmifoliusSchott.(GM 766)

Zazie, narra,matea; zarza

1 Shoots or stems, raw Digest Emetic E4 13 46 0.152 Shoots, infusion Constipation E4

3 Shots, juice Diarrhoea D2, 3 CH1

4 Fruits, raw Heartburn CH1

5 Aerial part, infusion Stomach disorders D5

6 Leaves, heated in olive oil7 Leaves, decoction or infusion Skin Warts RT8 10 508 Leaves, raw Wounds and cuts T7, 8

9 Fruits, syrup Infected wounds T8

Mouth ulcers CH1, G7

Gangrene P6

Respir Undefined respiratory disorders D9 5 40Sore throat D2,7, G7

Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D2, 7 4 75

Rutaceae1 Fruits, juice, raw Respir Sore throat D, G1, 2 11 36 0.09












UR PR % CIspe-cies

Citrus limon (L).Burm. fil.e

Limoie; limón(fruits)

2 Fruits, juice, decoction orinfusion

Digest Diarrhoea D1 8 38

Citrus sinensis (L.)Osbecke

Laranja;naranja(fruits)

1 Fruits, juice Digest Constipation D1 2 50 0.01

Ruta chalepensis L.(GM 806)

Borkotxa/ie,moskotxa,ruda (Basque)

1 Aerial part, heated in olive oil Digest Stomach disorders P1, 2, D2 12 58 0.072 Aerial part, infusion or decoction Intestinal worms D, P2

Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D2 2 1

ScrophulariaceaeScrophulariabalbisiiHornem. subsp.balbisii(GM 780)

Estrafularia,ebagi bedarra;hoja de lamora

1 Leaves or aerial part, ointment Skin Burns T1 6 50 0.042 Leaves, raw Infected wounds W3

3 Leaves or aerial part, decoction Wounds and cuts T2, 1, W3

Musc-skel Bruises T1, R2 2 50

SolanaceaeSolanumtuberosum L.d

(Photo GM 12)

Patatea;patata

1 Tuber, raw Skin Insect and bug bites T2, R2 3 0 0.022 Tuber, cut Musc-skel Burns R2

Rheumatism RT1 2 0

TiliaceaeTilia platyphyllosScop. subsp.Platyphyllosd,e

Tila, teie(flower); tila(flower)

1 Flowers, infusion Nervous Nervousness D1 8 50 0.06Digest Stomach disorders D1 4 75

UrticaceaeParietaria judaicaL. (GM 623)

Parietaria,gibel bedarra,hormabedarra,tentsiñobedarra(Basque)

1 Aerial part, infusion or decoction Digest Liver disorders D1 4 75 0.042 Aerial part, boiled in wine Digestive D1

3 Leaves, crushed Skin Ulcers P1 3 33Infected wounds P3

Wounds and cuts P1

Excret Undefined urine and kidney disordersD1

2 0

Urtica dioica L.(GM 719)

Asune,sasune; ortiga

1 Aerial part, infusion or decoction Circulat Phlebitis D1 48 17 0.632 Aerial part, raw Enhance circulation R2, D1

3 Aerial part, egg-white omelette High cholesterol D1

4 Rhizomes, decoction or infusion Clean the blood D1

5 Shoots or leaves, decoction orinfusion

Thick blood or high blood pressure D5,

1, 4, R2

Respir Undefined respiratory disorders R2 43 16Cough R2

Sinusitis P3

Flu R2

Cold R2, D1, 4, I1

Bronchitis, pneumonia R2

Sore throat R2, I1

Musc-skel Rheumatism R2 21 14Lumbalgia R2, P2

Muscular and joint pains R2

Arthrosis and decalcifications R2

Sciatica R2

UPI General pains R2 15 27Headache D1

Fever R2

General malaise D1

Digest Teeth disorders T2 3 33Stomach disorders D5

Diarrhoea D1

VerbenaceaeVerbena officinalisL. (GM 632)

Berbena,berberana,laruenbedarra,pulmonibedarra;verbena,verbena deSan Juan

1 Leaves, raw Respir Tuberculosis P6 56 66 0.472 Leaves or stem, infusion Sinusitis D2, P7, 6, 10

3 Leaves, ointment Neumonia P6

4 Leaves, macerated in wine Cold P7, 9 D2

5 Roots, decoction Bronchitis, pneumonia P7, 6, D2

6 Leaves, egg-white omelette Ashma D2

7 Leaves, heated Sore throat P6

8 Leaves, juice Skin Infected wounds P7, 6, T3 24 889 Leaves, heated in olive oil Snake bites D2, 8

10 Roots, egg-white omelette Undefined skin disorders T3

Boils T3






prevalent-UR, when the informants reported still using it. Use-reports were also classified as traditional-UR or modern-URaccording to each informant opinion, depending if knowledgewas based in local knowledge or not. Therefore we found thatthere were medicinal plant uses whose UR were considered allmodern, all traditional or both modern and traditional. The maincorpus of the paper focuses on the traditional uses compiled, andSection 3.5. “Contemporary trends in the use of medicinal plants”analyzes both traditional and modern uses, in an attempt tounderstand how modern and traditional knowledge interact.

We considered 11 different medicinal use-categories based onthe body system treated: Respiratory, Muscle–skeletal, Digestive,Circulatory, Endocrine, Excretory, Sensory, Nervous, Reproductive,Skin diseases, and Undefined Pains and Illnesses (UPI). Eachcategory was subdivided in several subcategories that refer tothe conditions or illnesses treated. From now on, we use the term

“medicinal plant-use” (MPU) to refer to the use of the species s inthe use-category (or subcategory) u. For instance, Urtica dioica L.had twenty five different MPU in our study. One of them wascategorised as ‘circulatory/clean the blood’ and was reported bythree informants, while a second MPU was categorised as ‘respira-tory/cold’ and was reported by 23 informants. Therefore, thesetwo MPU represented 26 URs for this species.

We calculated the following indexes:

a) The Cultural Importance index (CI) assesses the importance ofeach species (CIs), family (CIf), and use-category (CIu). The indexis calculated dividing the number of UR (of the taxon, familyor use-category) by the number of informants (Aceituno-Mata, 2010; Pardo-de-Santayana et al., 2007; Tardío andPardo-de-Santayana, 2008). As the UR were divided intoabandoned/prevalent and traditional/modern, the CI can be







UR PR % CIspe-cies

Burns T3

Gangrene T3, P6

Wounds and cuts P6, T3

Deep wounds P6

Musc-skel Rheumatism D6 5 80Sprains P6

Muscular and joint pains P6

6, 3 Bruises T, PDigest Liver disorders D5, 4 4 0UPI General malaise D2 4 75

Cancer P6

General pains P6

Infections D2

Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D2 4 50Clean the blood D2

Haemorrhoids T3, RT1

ViscaceaeViscum album L.subsp. album(GM 1034)

Yusturie,usturie,eustagie,miura,bigurixe,biurie;muérdago,almuérzago

1 Aerial part, infusion Circulat Thick blood or high blood pressure D1 10 10 0.05High cholesterol D1

VitaceaeVitis vinifera L.subsp. viniferae

Mahatsa; uva(fruits)

1 Wine, heated Musc-skel Bruises P1, 4, 6 12 0 0.182 Wine, heated in lard Sprains P4, 6

3 Wine, boiled4 Wine, raw5 Leaves, raw Respir Cold D1, 3, 4, P2, 3 10 206 Wine, mixed with olive oil Sore throat D3

7 Wine, boiled with honey Skin Boils P1, S3 6 0Wounds and cuts P6

Burns T5

Digest Diarrhoea D4 6 33Teeth disorders P3

Reprod Tonic, after give birth D1, 4 3 0Breast infection P4

a The numbers before the plant part and mode of preparation are used after the mode of application to indicate the plant part and mode of preparation of each remedy.b Medicinal use- categories. Circulat: Circulatory system; Digest: Digestive system; Excret: Excretory system; Musc–skel: Muscle–skeletal system; Nervous: Nervous

system; Reprod: Reproductive system; Respir: Respiratory system; Sens: Sensory system; Skin: Skin diseases; UPI: Undefined pain and illnesses.c Modes of application. CH – chew, D – as a drink, E – eaten, G – in gargles, I – inhaled, R – rubbing, P – poultice; T – applied topically, W – for washing (topical); IN –

Internal (VA, vaginal; AN, anal; NA, nasal; DER; dermical); RT – Ritual; DR – Ear drops; S – Steams.d Species cultivated in the area.e Species or plant products that are bought in the markets.f The material studied had intermediate characters between Hedera helix L. y Hedera hibernica (G. Kirchn.) Bean.






also divided in two addends if the number of prevalent/abandoned-UR or traditional-modern-UR is considered.

b) The Prevalence Ratio (PR) of species (PRs), use-categories (PRu)or modes of administration (PRa). It is based in the PrevalenceIndex (Índice de Vigencia) of Aceituno-Mata (2010). This indexassesses how traditional knowledge evolves as it shows howdifferent plants, use-categories, or modes of administrationsare being or not abandoned. It is defined as the percentage ofprevalent-UR in relation to the total number of UR, i.e. thosereported as still practiced plus those as abandoned. Forinstance, Urtica dioica had a PRs of 18%, since 24 of the total131 UR are being still practiced. Its CI was therefore 0.63, being0.12 the prevalent-CI and 0.51 the abandoned-CI.

c) The ethnobotanicity index (EI; Portères, 1970) for medicinalplants that measures how broad the medical knowledge of theavailable flora is. It is defined as the percentage of plants withmedicinal uses with respect to the total flora of the territory.

d) The ratio medicinal plants per informant, or the total numberof medicinal plants used in the area divided by the totalnumber of informants. This ratio gives a relative idea of therichness of the local pharmacopoeia when the studies com-pared have similar numbers of informants.

For calculating those or similar indexes, some authors (e.g.,Johns et al., 1990) exclude MPU mentioned by only one informant.However, we decided to include them depending on the reliabilityof the informants and the consistency of their reports (seeAlexiades, 1996; Scarpa, 2000).

Finally, the medicinal plants and MPU used in the study areawere compared with published (Akerreta et al., 2007a, 2007b;Alarcón, 2010; Barandiaran and Manterola, 2004; Cavero et al.,2011a, 2011b, 2013; Calvo et al., 2011) ethnobotanical informationon medicinal plants on the Basque Country. We also compared ourdata with a selection of ethnobotanical references of the IberianPeninsula (e.g., Agelet and Vallès, 2001; Aceituno-Mata, 2010;Blanco, 1996; Blanco and Cuadrado, 2000; Bonet, 2001; Benítezet al., 2010; Camejo-Rodrigues et al., 2003; Carrió and Vallès, 2012;Carvalho, 2005; Fernández and Amezcúar, 2007; González-Tejero,1989; Guzmán, 1997; González et al., 2010; Lastra, 2003; Ortuño,2003; Pardo-de-Santayana, 2004, 2008; Parada, 2007; Rivera et al.,1994; San Miguel, 2004; Verde, 2002; Villar et al., 1987).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Overall results and uncommon medicinal uses

Table 1 and Appendix A include the MPU of the 139 speciestraditionally used in the area, grouped in 58 families. Table 1includes those MPU with more than one UR, i.e. which werementioned by more than one informant, and Appendix A the rest.A total of 2067 URs were compiled and the average value of UR perspecies was 15. Taking into account that the total number ofspecies of the study area is estimated in 1133 (Aseginolaza et al.,1984), the ethnobotanicity index for medicinal plants (EI) is 12%, alower percentage than other Iberian regions (Table 2).

Furthermore, we found a low number of medicinal plants andof the ratio medicinal plants per informant (0.67). Interestingly,comparing our figures of the latter index with studies with asimilar number of informants, they resemble to results from otherBasque speaking regions such as Northern Navarra (0.69) andother Eurosiberian areas such as Piloña (0.73). Nevertheless, theyare considerably lower than the figures found in other Mediterra-nean territories such as Montseny (2.04) or Cabo de Gata (1.65)(see Table 2). Overall, those findings reinforce the idea, alreadyhighlighted in a previous ethnobotanical survey in the region(Menendez-Baceta et al., 2012), that the number of species withtraditional uses in the area is not very high.

Fig. 2 presents the 10 families with the highest CI, indicating inblack and white the CI of the different species of each family.According to this index the most important medicinal familieswere Asteraceae (1.26), Liliaceae sensu latu (0.74), Urticaceae(0.69), Crassulaceae (0.54), Poaceae (0.51) and Rosaceae (0.50).The dominant position of Asteraceae in the local pharmacopoeiasof the world has been previously highlighted (e.g., Moerman et al.,1999; Saslis-Lagoudakis et al., 2011). We also find some particula-rities, for example, Lamiaceae, a very relevant family in manyMediterranean medicinal floras (e.g., Agelet and Vallès, 2001;Aceituno-Mata, 2010; Benítez et al., 2010; Cakilcioglu andTurkoglu, 2010; Carrió and Vallès, 2012; González-Tejero, 1989;González-Tejero et al., 2008; Novais et al., 2004; Parada et al.,2009; San Miguel, 2004) ranks only eighteenth in the study area(CI¼0.17), although it is the third in number of species (7 speciesbelonging to 4 genera). In our opinion, if we want to know howimportant a family is in a local pharmacopoeia, the CI is a better

Table 2Quantitative ethnobotanical data in several Iberian ethnopharmacologycal studies.

Region Reference Flora MP Inf MP/Inf EI

Northern regionsMontesinho Natural Park Carvalho (2005) 1271 166 100 1.66 13.1Piloña San Miguel (2004) n.d. 114 157 0.73 n.d.Campoo–Los Valles Pardo de Santayana (2008) 1500 166 107 1.55 11.1Northwest Basque Country Present study 1133 139 207 0.67 12.3Northern Navarra Cavero et al. (2011a) n.d. 174 253 0.69 n.d.

Eastern regionsCerdanya Muntané (2005) 1600 234 150 1.56 14.6Pallars Agelet (1999), Agelet and Vallès (2001, 2003a, 2003b) 1500 437 264 1.66 29.1Alt Empordà (whole region) Parada (2007), Parada et al. (2009) 1750 335 178 1.88 19.1Montseny Bonet (2001) 1500 351 172 2.04 23.4Castellón Mulet (1990,1991) 2128 365 155 2.35 17.2

Southern regionsPN Cazorla, Segura y LasVillas Fernández-Ocaña (2000) 1933 322 183 1.76 16.7W Granada Benítez et al. (2010) 1345 229 279 0.82 17.0PN Cabo de Gata Martínez (1993), Martínez et al. (1996) 1000 253 153 1.65 25.3

MP: medicinal plants; MP/Inf: ratio medicinal plants per informant; EI: Ethnobotanicity index.






indicator than the number of species because it includes informa-tion about the spread of use of the different species of the family.Interestingly, some Lamiaceae species highly relevant in otherIberian herbal floras (Quave et al., 2012) and present in the area,such as Origanum vulgare L., Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi., Sideritishyssopifolia L. or Thymus praecox Opiz. (Aseginolaza et al., 1984),are not medicinally used in the study region.

Except for Rosaceae, the most important families in this studyinclude only one or two relevant species that account for morethan 70% of the UR of the family (Fig. 2). For instance, Asteraceaehas 13 species, but Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. represents 89%of the URs (the longest white bar-part of Asteraceae in Fig. 2),Verbenaceae and Plantaginaceae contain only one taxon (only onecolour in Fig. 2).

The 15 medicinal species with highest CI are shown in Fig. 3.Each pattern represents one of the 11 different medicinal use-categories. Interestingly, the top 9 species provide remedies for themost common health conditions: Urtica dioica and Verbena offici-nalis L. for respiratory disorders; Chamaemelum nobile for diges-tive; Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. for excretory; Plantago major L. andP. lanceolata L. for muskle-skeletal; Chelidonium majus L. andAllium cepa L. for skin; and Urtica dioica for circulatory complaints.As mentioned by Aceituno-Mata (2010), they can be consideredthe First-Aid Kit that characterises each culture.

The three most important plants in this study (Chamaemelumnobile, Urtica dioica and Chelidonium majus) are also among the

most relevant taxa in other northern Iberian regions such asCantabria (Pardo-de-Santayana, 2008), Asturias (San Miguel,2004) and Navarra (Cavero et al., 2011a, 2011b). These speciesare also commonly used in other European areas (Quave et al.,2012). The local pharmacopoeia also includes in the top 15 plants,such as Sambucus nigra L., Allium cepa, Allium sativum L. orEucalyptus globulus L., widely employed in other European areas.This overlap might be a sign of the existence of a commonbackground shared with the majority of Iberian cultures, or evenwith other Mediterranean and European regions (Leonti et al.,2009; Quave et al., 2012).

However, among the top 15 species, at least two [Helleborusviridis L. and Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.(¼Lepidium didymum L.)]are not common in other Iberian local pharmacopoeias (seereviewed bibliography in the methods). Thus, according to ourinformants, Helleborus viridis was commonly given to children forkilling intestinal worms. This MPU did not appear in the reviewedbibliography and other uses of this species have been scarcelyreported (e.g., Pardo-de-Santayana, 2004, 2008; Villar et al. 1987).There is more information about the use of Helleborus foetidus L.,a well-known toxic specie in the Iberian Peninsula (e.g., Guzmán,1997; Muntané, 1994), that has been employed to kill rats (Blanco,1996) or fish (Álvarez-Arias, 2000), and to cure animals (Agelet,2008; Blanco, 1996; Lastra, 2003; Pardo-de-Santayana, 2008).Another case is Coronopus didymus, frequently used in the areato cure respiratory disorders and as a blood purifier. A similarmedicinal use of this species has been only reported in thebordering region of Soba, in Cantabria (Pardo-de-Santayana,2004).

Besides uncommon species, we found also rarely cited MPU ofspecies such as Plantago major and Plantago lanceolata. Althoughthese two species are medicinal plants well-known in manyregions (e.g., Aceituno-Mata, 2010; Parada et al., 2002; Verdeet al., 1998), none of the references reviewed reports their usefor treating strains through a deeply-rooted magic ritual.

We also found other interesting species that are not among thetop 15. For example, the use of the fleshy leaves of Sempervivumtectorum L. to treat skin diseases appears in many works(Fernández and Amezcúar, 2007) but not to treat ear pains andinfections. The decoction of Cistus salviifolius L. and Teucriumscorodonia L. is used to wash infected wounds caused by the biteof wolfs or dogs, use that is reflected in the species0 folk name

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

BrassicaceaePlantaginaceae

VerbenaceaePapaveraceae

PoaceaeRosaceae

CrassulaceaeUrticaceae

LiliaceaeAsteraceae

CI

Fig. 2. Cultural importance (CI) index of the 10 most important families at thestudy area. Black and white bar-parts indicate the contribution of each species tototal CI.

Fig. 3. Cultural importance index (CI) of the top-15 species and their contribution to the medicinal use-categories.






(hierba lobera/hoja de lobo, wolfs herb/wolfs leave). We only foundthe use of Teucrium scorodonia in the border regions of Cantabria(Pardo-de-Santayana, 2004) and in Madrid (Aceituno-Mata, 2010).All these medicinal uses show the singularity of the area.

3.2. Parts used and preparation and administration methods

In order of importance, the plant organs most commonly usedwere leaves (27.7% of the UR), aerial parts (20.7%), flowers andinflorescences (14.5%), fruits and seeds (9.5%), and bulbs (6.3%).Water infusions (32.5%) were the most common preparationmethod. Fresh plants (19.6%) without any preparation were alsovery commonly used. The percentage of internal (50.8%) andexternal (49.2%) uses were similar. The principal mode of admin-istration was oral as a drink (40.0%), followed by direct applicationof the raw or heated plant on the skin (17.2%), poultices (11.5%) andskin ointments (5.3%). In sum, the most common way of usingmedicinal plants in the area was drinking the infusion of leaves oraerial parts.

3.3. Medicinal use-categories

Table 3 shows the cultural importance (CI), number of species,and PR of the different medicinal use-categories considered. MostUR documented (70%) deal with skin, digestive and respiratorydisorders. These categories are also the most cited in many otherethnobotanical studies worldwide (e.g., Spain: Bonet et al., 1999;González-Tejero, 1989; Mulet, 1991; Portugal: Camejo-Rodrigueset al., 2003; America: Heinrich et al., 1998; Macía et al., 2005; Asia:Aburjai et al., 2007; Libman et al., 2006). Skin disorders includethe highest number of UR, representing nearly 30% of the total.The incidence of dermatological diseases is probably due to thedifficulties associated to treating wounds and others skin diseasesin humid climates, such as the study area (e.g., Everest and Ozturk,2005). Other relevant remedies are those employed to curecirculatory (8.3% of the UR) and muscle‐skeletal conditions (7.2%).

Interestingly, we found a strong overlap among plants usedagainst both respiratory and circulatory problems. Some of thespecies reported to treat respiratory diseases such as colds orpneumonias (Urtica dioica, Coronopus didymus, Rhamnus alaternusL., Centaurium erythraea Rafn., Anagallis arvensis L.) were alsorecognised as “blood thinners”. Informants warned against theuse of these plants in high doses since they could “thin” the bloodor, in a modern terminology, reduce blood pressure. In fact, thesespecies have been used as a remedy for circulatory conditions.Barandiaran and Manterola (2004) had previously acknowledged

the centrality of blood-state in the folk medicine of the area.The importance of the blood-state, which is also found in theEuropean and Latin-American folk medicines, has been considereda legacy of the ancient Hippocratic humoral theory, widelypromoted by the Spanish official medicine of the 16th and 17thcenturies (Scarpa, 2000). This phenomenon reflects the capacity ofTK to assimilate remedies and theories from the official medicine,keeping them alive through centuries, despite having becomeobsolete in academic contexts (Díaz-Viana, 1999; Leonti et al.,2009).

A very high percentage of the MPU (56%) had less than threeUR. In fact, 135 of them were mentioned by only one informantwithin one use-category (Appendix A). It means that 24% of thespecies (33 species) were only cited once and for one use-category.The MPU reported by few informants may reflect a process of lossof knowledge in the last century (Parada et al., 2009). In fact, someplants widely used in the past are not used anymore. Once aspecific bit of knowledge is not actively used, its transmissiondecreases, as it only remains in the memory of few people until itdefinitely disappears. An alternative explanation for the predomi-nance of scarcely shared MPU could be the existence of specialistswho accumulated more medicinal plants knowledge. For instance,healers may know specific MPU that are unknown for the rest ofthe people, as it seems the case of one of our informants, who wasthe only one to mention the use of 45 species, being ten of themonly referred by her. Unshared knowledge may also be due todifferences in the availability of the plants as some of them onlygrow or are cultivated in certain areas. Finally lack of communica-tion among valleys also difficults knowledge sharing. However, inour case study, we think that erosion of knowledge is the mostplausible explanation for the prevalence of scarcely shared MPUs.

Besides this general trend of erosion, we found that thepercentage of scarcely and highly mentioned MPU was differentfor each category. In the case of the three most relevant categories(skin, digestive and respiratory), we found that between 34 and45% of the species were cited less than three times. Contrastingly,in the other categories more than 61% of species were citedless than three times. These differences may reflect that knowl-edge could have suffered stronger erosion in the less relevantcategories.

Informants referred that in the past there were no doctorsavailable and people could only trust on local healers or self-treatment. Nowadays, medicinal plants are mainly used for minorillnesses self-treated at home such as skin wounds, light respira-tory disorders, stomach-aches and indigestions, whereas mostpeople rely on the pharmaceuticals prescribed by the doctors for

Table 3Quantitative data for each use category.

Medicinal categories # UR (%) # of species (%) CI # of prevalent UR (preval. ratio %) UR/species # of specieso3 UR (%)

Skin 605 (29.3%) 71 (51.1%) 2.92 201 (33.2%) 8.52 32 (45.1%)Digestive 464 (22.5%) 51 (37.4%) 2.24 212 (45.7%) 8.92 18 (34.6%)Respiratory 401 (19.4%) 45 (33.1%) 1.94 110 (27.4%) 8.72 18 (39.1%)Circulatory 171 (8.3%) 39 (28.1%) 0.83 49 (28.7%) 4.38 24 (61.5%)Muscle–skeletal 148 (7.2%) 34 (24.5%) 0.71 49 (33.1%) 4.35 26 (76.5%)Undefined pain and illnesses 86 (4.2%) 28 (20.1%) 0.42 42 (48.8%) 3.07 21 (75.0%)Excretory 82 (4.0%) 17 (12.2%) 0.40 16 (19.5%) 4.82 13 (76.5%)Senses disorders 56 (2.7%) 10 (7.2%) 0.27 13 (23.2%) 5.60 7 (70.0%)Reproductive 31 (1.5%) 15 (10.1%) 0.15 4 (12.9%) 2.21 11 (78.6%)Nervous 18 (0.9%) 9 (6.5%) 0.09 11 (61.1%) 2.00 7 (77.8%)Endocrine 5 (0.2%) 5 (3.6%) 0.02 1 (20.0%) 1.00 5 (100%)

Total 2067 (100%) 139a 708 (34%) 14.9

# UR: number of use-reports; CI: cultural importance index.a This is the total number of medicinal plants mentioned, not the sum of the number of species of each category, which is 324, due to many of the species are used in

different categories.






more threatening illnesses. Skin, digestive and respiratory dis-orders, the systems with the highest number of UR, include mostof these mild-perceived illnesses. Meanwhile, questions referredto the excretory, circulatory, muscle‐skeletal or reproductivesystems tend to be considered serious and are usually consultedto health professionals. Consequently, it seems that TK hassuffered less erosion in those spaces reserved for self-treatmentbeyond the reach of the allopathic medicine. The interpretationdovetails with recent ethnobotanical field studies indicating thatthe erosion of TK is not homogeneous across different categoriesof knowledge, but rather more acute for those categories that areless active (Aceituno-Mata, 2010; Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2010;Reyes-García et al., 2013).

3.3.1. SkinAs shown in Table 3, skin is the most relevant category

according to its CI (2.92; 605 UR) and number of species employed(71). The species with the highest number of UR were Chelidoniummajus (89), Hylotelephium telephium (L.) H. Ohba (53), Allium cepa(41), Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Dandy (38) and Juncus sp. pl. (36).

The orange-yellow latex of Chelidonium majus is considered agood antiseptic, and it can be directly applied on the skin to curecuts and infected wounds. Its latex is used against warts too, ashappens with other lactiferous plants such as Euphorbia peplus L.or Ficus carica L.

Hylotelephium telephium and Umbilicus rupestris belong to theCrassulaceae, a family in which leaves are commonly used as avulnerary (Akerreta et al., 2007b; Aceituno-Mata, 2010; Gonzálezet al., 2010). In the study area, people used to heat the leaves in thestove or pan, peel the cuticle, and apply the leave on the skin.Other widespread remedy was onion poultice. The bulbs werefried with oil or lard, sometimes adding egg, wheat flour or wine.It was used against several skin problems but overall, for boils.

Finally, a magic ritual against warts was conducted using Juncuseffusus L., Juncus inflexus L. and Juncus conglomeratus L. The ritualconsisted in the transference of the illness from the person to theJuncus stem by touching the person with the stem. Then, the stemwas hidden and the sick person should wait until it rotten. Asimilar ritual has been reported in the present study with otherplants, animal or objects, including apples, a non-fixed combina-tion of three different herbs, Juniperus communis L. pseudofruits,Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn., Fraxinus excelsior L., Laurus nobilis L.,Plantago lanceolata, Rubus ulmifolius Schott. and Urtica dioicaleaves, bread, wheat, menstruation blood, lard, toads, coins, snailsor a key. Magic and ritual seem to be prominent in the folkmedicine of the area for curing warts, likely because this ailmenthas a strong psychological factor, in which the meaning responseis very important (Bartoli et al., 1997; Barandiaran and Manterola,2004).

3.3.2. Digestive systemThe second most important category is the digestive system

with a CI of 2.24. Stomach disorders, diarrhoea and intestinalworms are among the most relevant diseases. Chamaemelumnobile is the species most commonly used for stomach-aches anddigestive pains and disorders (158 UR). The inflorescences aretaken in a tisane after meals and it is one of the most valuedmedicinal plants in the area. In fact, Chamaemelum nobile infusionsrepresent 34% of the digestive UR and 8% of all UR. Nowadaysmany people continue harvesting camomile every summer.

The principal herb employed against intestinal worms wasHelleborus viridis (44 UR). The juice or infusion of its leaves wascommonly given to children in the morning before breakfast.Garlic (26) was also profusely used in several applications to treatintestinal parasites. Garlic applications varied from eaten raw,

drink the infusion, milk decoction, alcohol or the olive oil macera-tion. It was also taken against diarrhoea. Finally, rice (23) andLythrum salicaria L. flowers (17) were common remedies fordiarrhoea.

3.3.3. Respiratory systemAs said before, respiratory complaints are among the top three

medicinal categories with a CI of 1.93. The main species employedto treat respiratory problems were Eucalyptus globulus (57 UR),Verbena officinalis (56), Urtica dioica (43), and Coronopus didymus(34). Steams of Eucalyptus globulus leaves and Urtica dioica rub-bings were widely used to cure mild colds. More serious coldswere treated with an infusion of Coronopus didymus, called“pulmoni bedarra” (pneumonia herb). Coronopus didymus wasconsidered to have a strong effect and lower blood pressure,which explains why people used the plant sparsely, only againststrong colds, bronchitis or pneumonias, and in low doses.

Another widespread remedy was to apply in the forehead averbena omelette (poultice made with eggs and Verbena officinalisleaves) to cure sinusitis. This remedy is not only used for respiratorydiseases but also for skin problems like infected wounds.

3.3.4. Circulatory systemAs stated above, the circulatory system, specifically the state of

the blood is very important in the folk medicine of the study area.Nowadays, some informants have adopted the biomedical con-cepts and use terms such as cholesterol or blood pressure, butmost of them still employ the concepts of thick and thin blood.

The most important species used to cure circulatory problemswere Urtica dioica (48 UR) and Rhamnus alaternus (21). An infusionof Urtica dioica roots or leaves was taken, while in the caseof Rhamnus alaternus the decoction of wood chips or twigs wasdrunk. Other remedies related with the circulatory system arethose against haemorrhoids. As it happens with the warts, many ofthose remedies are magical. The most important plants used werePotentilla reptans L. (6) and Aesculus hippocastanum L. (5), but therehave been recorded up to 19 different plants used in remediesagainst haemorrhoids, with more or less magical component. Inmost of them, the part of the plant (fruits or leaves) was stored inthe pocket until the haemorrhoids disappeared.

3.3.5. Muscle–skeletal systemTraumatic lesions such as bruises, sprains, broken bones,

rheumatism and undefined muscular pains were common in thepast. A very interesting remedy to treat them was a widespreadritual called zantiritu (sprain in Basque). For this remedy, theleaves of Plantago sp. pl. (50 UR) were used in an empirical andmagical complex ritual that includes a massage, several prayers,and the application of Plantago leaves for dressing the affectedarea. It is one of the most well-known remedies in Gorbeialdea-North and it is normally carried out by a woman that has learned itfrom her mother or grandmother. Although the details of the ritualused to be secret in the past, all but one of our informants taughtus how to apply the remedy. Moreover many people do not say theprayer and only give the massage and the leaves. The loss of thesecrecy and not saying the prayers seem to be an influence ofbiomedical concepts that reject these components of the ritual forbeing considered magic. Urtica dioica rubbings are also a wide-spread remedy for undefined Muscle–skeletal pains (21).

3.3.6. Other medicinal categoriesFinally the categories with less UR were UPI, Excretory, Sensory,

Nervous, Reproductive and Endocrine disorders. The categoryUndefined Pains and Illnesses (UPI) includes symptoms thatcould not be associated in a specific system (CI 0.42). The most






common references in this category were to treat general malaiseand fever with Chamaemelum nobile infusions (30 UR) and rubs ofnettles (15).

Excretory system diseases like urine infections or kidneyproblems were also common. People used to take the infusion ofthe aerial parts of Equisetum telmateia (37) or of Zea maysstyles (18).

Regarding sensory disorders, the most important remedieswere Chamaemelum nobile inflorescences (23) and Sempervivumtectorum leaves (18). The infusion of the former was used to washached or infected eyes and the juice of the fleshy leaves of thelatter was applied directly into the ear for curing ear disordersand pains.

Lastly, the categories with the fewest reports were the repro-ductive, nervous and endocrine systems. The main abortive plantwas Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss. (9), but people did notremember or maybe hid us the way it was administered. Againstnervousness many people drink a tisane of Tilia platyphyllos Scop.flowers (8). Few UR (5) against endocrine system conditions werereported; three species were used for diabetes and two for uricacid (2 UR). The latter diseases have been only adopted in the folkmedicine of the area in the last decades and therefore the numberof species and UR expected is low.

3.4. Evolution of medicinal plant uses

As can be seen in Table 3, from 2067 URs, only 708 arementioned as still being practiced, being the general PR 34%. Thisrelatively low percentage indicates that Iberian traditional medicalpractices and knowledge are suffering strong erosion as it hasbeen previously stated (e.g., Aceituno-Mata, 2010; Parada et al.,2009).

Nevertheless, there are large differences among the PR ofdifferent species. Fig. 4 shows the CI of the 15 species currentlymost widely used, i.e. those with the highest prevalent-CI values.The figure includes their CI, indicating the prevalent and aban-doned addends. As can be seen in Fig. 4, 11 out of the 15 mostimportant species of Fig. 3 remain in the top 15. Equisetumtelmateia, Helleborus viridis, Triticum aestivum and Umbilicus rupes-tris are not among the top species anymore but new species asRubus ulmifolius, Anagallis arvensis, Ficus carica and Aloe maculataAll. appear.

Among the 15 species with the highest prevalent-CI, there arespecies with a very high PR such as Chamaemelum nobile (PR 71%),Verbena officinalis (69%), Anagallis arvensis (63%) and Aloe maculata

(82%). There are also taxa with medium PR such Chelidonium majus(41%), Plantago sp. pl. (41%), Sambucus nigra (42%) and Rubusulmifolius (50%). The remaining seven species have a PR lowerthan 34% (the average PR). Interestingly, there are also species thatwere important in the past but whose use is nearly abandonednowadays, such as Triticum aestivum (2%), Helleborus viridis (4%),Rhamnus alaternus (4%) and Zea mays (8%).

Regarding the medicinal use-categories, the PR of the mostimportant categories were around 30% and 45% (Table 3).

Fig. 5 presents the CI of the different preparation and admin-istration methods, indicating its two addends: prevalent andabandoned-CI. The most important preparation method continuesto be water infusions, although its PR is only 45%. Smallerdecreases have been found in other methods like ointments andomelettes that have PR higher than 70%. The rest have a ratioaround 30%.

In a similar study carried out in Madrid (Aceituno-Mata, 2010),the findings showed different trends in the prevalence of prepara-tion and administration of medicinal plant remedies. In Madridinfusions are widespread nowadays, and other methods likepoultices and smokes had been completely abandoned. However,we could not find any particular trend in the prevalence ofuse-categories or preparation and administration techniques inthe Basque Country. The only modes of preparation and adminis-tration methods with a high PR were ointments and omelettes.In fact, the prevalence of such preparation and administrationmethods seems to be linked to the high PR of particular remediessuch as Verbena officinalis omelettes for sinusitis, and ointments ofSambucus nigra, Verbena officinalis and Anagallis arvensis that areused against skin disorders.

3.5. Contemporary trends in the use of medicinal plants

Most ethnobotanical surveys only compile TK and do notdocument recently adopted practices, forgetting that TK isdynamic (Gómez-Baggethun and Reyes-García, 2013; Leonti andCasu, 2013; Maffi, 2002; Quave et al., 2012). In fact, traditionalpractices were modern in the past and modern practices may betraditional in the future.

In this study, besides the 139 species and 2067 UR consideredtraditional (Table 1 and Appendix A), there were 86 species, 145MPU and 312 UR regarded as modern. From all the speciesdocumented, 58 had both traditional and modern uses, 28 hadonly modern uses and 81 only traditional uses.

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20

Aloe maculata

Coronopus didymus

Ficus carica

Anagallis arvensis

Eucalyptus globulus

Allium cepa

Rubus ulmifolius

Hylotelephium telephium

Allium sativum

Urtica dioica

Sambucus nigra

Plantago sp.

Chelidonium majus

Verbena officinalis

Chamaemelum nobile

CI

Prevalent CI

Abandoned CI

Fig. 4. Cultural importance of the 15 species with the highest prevalent-CI,indicating also the other addend of the CI, the abandoned CI.

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50

Unknown

Boiled in wine

Cut

Heated

Macerated in alcohol

Juice

Crushed

Peeled

Heated in olive oil

Omelette

Decoction

Ointment

Fresh

Water infusion

CI

Prevalent CI

Abandoned CI

Fig. 5. Cultural importance of the preparation methods with the highest prevalent-CI, indicating also the other addend of the CI, the abandoned CI.






The 15 plants with the highest number of modern-UR areshown in Fig. 6, ranked by their modern-CI. If we comparemodern and traditional CI values of each species, we canobserve three general trends. First, there are species that didnot appear in the traditional pharmacopeia or traditionally hada very low CI (less than 0.02 or 4 UR), but that have becomepopular nowadays. It is the case of Aloe vera (L.) Burm. fil.,Matricaria recutita L., Calendula officinalis L. and Hypericumperforatum L. (Fig. 6). The popularity of these species can belinked to the fact that they appear in the most well-knownphytotherapy books (e.g., Bruneton, 2001; Font-Quer, 2010;Vanaclocha and Cañigueral, 2003) or in the internet.

Secondly, there are species with very different modern andtraditional uses. Fig. 7 shows the overlapping of modernand traditional URs for each taxon. For example, the modernand traditional MPU of Ruta chalepensis L. are completelydifferent and therefore the percentage of overlapping is null.This plant was traditionally used against digestive diseases,especially intestinal worms, whereas it is modernly used formenstrual disorders. In a similar way, Plantago lanceolata, iscurrently used mainly against skin and respiratory disordersand not for sprains like it was traditionally used in the area.Differences in traditional and modern use patterns are alsofound in the uses of Allium cepa, Equisetum telmateia and Urticadioica.

Finally, there are plants in which the modern use matcheswith the traditional one. It is the case of Anagallis arvensis,Chelidonium majus, Sambucus nigra and Verbena officinalis. Forinstance, some people referred that Verbena officinalis omel-ettes were traditionally used in the area against respiratorydisorders like sinusitis and that they have learnt the use fromthe traditional transmission of knowledge ways, i.e., neigh-bours, friends and relatives. However, other informants saidthat they had learnt it from the internet, books or courses andconsidered it a modern use. The same could be said forointments used for skin disorders made with Anagallis arvensis,Sambucus nigra or Verbena officinalis. As it can be seen in Fig. 7,there was a total overlap of modern and traditional use reportsin some species. Chelidonium majus was both traditionally andmodernly used to treat wounds, cuts and several skinproblems.

Interestingly, despite a general trend of erosion of TK, somespecies seem to have entered into the local pharmacopeia bymodern ways and their medicinal uses show a healthy vitality. Infact, if we analyse the PR of the total modern UR, it is remarkablyhigher than for the traditional remedies. The PR is 79% versus 34%for the traditional UR.

4. Conclusions

The current study shows that the traditional medicinal knowl-edge in the area is not as rich as in other regions of the IberianPeninsula. However, it is richer than expected for an area indus-trialised earlier than many other Iberian regions. The local phar-macopeia includes a number of species that are commonly used inother European areas, but also some locally specific remedies.

Furthermore, although we only conducted a preliminary asses-ment of the adoption of new plant remedies into the studied folkpharmacopoeia, our study suggests the hybridised nature of thelocal pharmacopeia. Thus, the prevalence of some traditionalremedies, the introduction of new species and plant-based reme-dies, and the adoption of new ways of transmission of knowledge,suggest the ability of the traditional system to hybridise with thenew social trends in the use of herbal remedies. Globalisation isaccelerating the interchange between local and global pharmaco-poeias, at the same time that biomedical knowledge is beingintroduced into local pharmacopoeias (Leonti and Casu, 2013).In fact, allopathic medicine is gaining an hegemonic position inmany cases as the study area.

We derive two practical implications of those findings. On theone side, the fact that people continue to rely on folk medicinalsystems – together with other complementary and alternativesystems and with allopathic medicine (Calvet-Mir et al. 2008;Fabrega 1997; Giovannini et al., 2011) – suggest that Europeanofficial Health Systems could benefit from adopting a culturallysensitive attitude towards local medical systems. Folk medicine,heir of peasant tradition, has been commonly considered an oldpractice that should be abolished and has therefore been oftenrejected (Haro, 2000). An appropiate consideration of this medicalsystem would – at least – prevent health risks due to an impropercombination of herbal and pharmaceutical remedies (Vallejo et al.,2009). On the other side, the pluralistic nature of local medicalsystems suggests that field ethnopharmacological surveys shouldpay more attention to the new remedies that enter into the folksystem. This would improve our understanding of how thesesystems work and how ethnobotany can better serve to improvepeople0s health.

More importantly, while acknowledging the dynamic nature oftraditional ethnopharmacopeias, continuously changing, evolving,and adapting to new species and remedies (see also Gómez-Baggethun and Reyes-García, 2013; Reyes-García, in press), thisstudy highlights that the use of herbal remedies, although stillimportant, has decreased in comparison with some decades ago.The overall low prevalence of medicinal uses of plants (includingboth traditional and new plant remedies) suggests an overallattitudinal change towards plant medicines in favour of allopathic

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80

Ruta chalepensisHypericum perforatum

Allium cepaEquisetum telmateia

Citrus limonCalendula officinalis

Urtica dioicaTaraxacum officinale

Chelidonium majusAnagallis arvensis

Plantago sp.Sambucus nigra

Chamomilla recutitaAloe barbadensis

Verbena officinalis

CI

Modern CI

Traditional CI

Fig. 6. Cultural importance of the 15 species with the highest modern-CI usespecies indicating its two addends: traditional-CI and modern-CI.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Not overlapping UR (%)

Overlapping UR (%)

Fig. 7. Percentage of overlapping among traditional and modern UR.






medicines. A dynamic system of medicinal plant knowledge is arelevant part of our cultural heritage and policy makers should domore to promote and maintain it following the commitments ofinternational conventions such as the Convention of BiologicalDiversity (CBD).

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the people from Gorbeialdea, Aramaioand Carranza who shared their time and knowledge with us. We alsothank Ramón Morales, Alejandro Quintanar and Santos Cirujano whohelped us identifying some plants. Ramón Morales also read themanuscript and made very useful comments. Research was funded bythe Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (CSO2011-27565) anda PhD studentship from the Basque Country Autonomous Communityto Menendez-Baceta.

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found inthe online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.12.038.

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