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Judaizers

Law and Grace , by Lucas Cranach the Elder  , a Lutheran. Theleft (dark) side of the tree illustrates  law , while the right (bright)

side illustrates  grace.

Judaizers  is predominantly a   Christian   term, derivedfrom the Greek verb   ioudaïzō   (ἰουδαΐζω “live accord-ing to Jewish customs”, see Ioudaios). This term is mostwidely known from its single use in the Greek New Tes-tament (Galatians 2:14)[1] where Paul publicly challenges

Peter forcompelling gentile converts to Early Christianityto “judaize”,[2] also known as the Incident at Antioch.

This term also includes groups who claim the necessityof continued obedience to the  Law of Moses found inthe first five books of the Christian Old Testament,[3] al-though this is sometimes disputed by members of thesegroups, notably the  Seventh-day Adventist Church, be-cause the term Judaizers is typically used as a pejorative.

Most Christians believe that much of the Old Covenanthas been superseded, while some modern Protestants be-lieve it has been completely abrogated and replaced withthe Law of Christ. Thus, “one who has Judaized”, refers

to a Christian who has accepted the necessity of adher-ing to the Mosaic Laws or to specific laws that are be-lieved to be superseded, such as circumcision,   Sabbathobservance, or observation of the Passover. The ongo-ing Christian debate over Judaizing began in the lifetimeof the apostles, notably at the Council of Jerusalem andthe Incident at Antioch, and parallels the ongoing debateabout Paul the Apostle and Judaism, Protestant views ofthe Ten Commandments, and Christian ethics.

1 Distinct uses of the term “Ju-

daizers”

1.1 Adherence by Gentile Christians to the

Torah Laws given to the Israelites

That Gentile Christians should convert to Judaism andobey the Laws of Moses was the assumption of somein the Early Church, represented by Pharisees who hadbecome believers in Acts 15 (Acts 15:5). This was theJewish Christian version of the opinion within Judaismthat Gentiles should convert to Judaism in order to beright with God (see convert to Judaism). This opinion

is traced by some scholars to a faction within early Chris-tianity after the crucifixion of Jesus led by Jesus’ brotherJames the Just (though compare Acts 15:24). Paul op-posed this position, with a Jewish Christian version ofthe opposite opinion in Judaism that Gentiles did notneed to convert and obey the entire Law of Moses. Seealso  Hellenistic Judaism. This conflict between SaintPaul and his opponents was the reason for the  Councilof Jerusalem (see Acts 15:1–35). Here James, Paul, andthe other leaders of the early Christian movement agreedthat Gentile converts needed only to follow the “three ex-ceptions” (Acts 15:20,29; counted by some as four), lawsthat roughly coincide with Judaism’s Seven Laws of Noahsaid to be established by God for all humankind (see alsoGenesis 9:1–17). This Apostolic Decree, still observedby the Orthodox Church, is similar to that adopted byRabbinic Judaism, which teaches that Gentiles need onlyfollow the Noachide Laws to be assured of a place in theWorld to Come. See also Dual-covenant theology.

1.2 Adherence by Gentile Christians to

Torah Laws intended for Gentiles

The “three exceptions” resolved by the Council of Acts15 indicate that the apostles accepted that those por-tions of the Law of Moses (the Torah) intended for Gen-tiles (later known as the Laws of Noah) would apply toGentile Christians. Extra-Biblical evidence shows that,at least in some areas (especially in the East), this in-cluded observances beyond the three exceptions, such asa Christianized form of Passover, Day of Atonement, andSabbath. But other Gentile Christian communities (espe-cially in the West), evolved in an increasingly anti-Jewishdirection that interpreted Paul’s teaching to mean that allTorah Laws are redundant “now that Salvation by Faithis available through Jesus’ atoning death". From this lat-

ter point of view, any practice associated with Judaismcame to be seen as a rejection of God’s salvific gift, eventhe prohibition of blood which is listed among the “three

1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taboo_food_and_drink#Bloodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersessionismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersessionismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Sabbathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_observances_of_Yom_Kippurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover_(Christian_holiday)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-covenant_theologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olam_Habahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Decreehttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Genesis&verse=9:1%E2%80%9317&src=!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noahhttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Acts&verse=15:1%E2%80%9335&src=!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaismhttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Acts&verse=15:24&src=!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_the_Justhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Christianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phariseeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_ethicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments#Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments#Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle_and_Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_at_Antiochhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Agehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Agehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover_(Christian_holiday)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbath_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbath_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_controversy_in_early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Christhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrogation_of_Old_Covenant_lawshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersessionismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_views_on_the_old_covenanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pejorativehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church#Culture_and_practiceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Moseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_at_Antiochhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentilehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Apostlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Testamentum_Graecehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Testamentum_Graecehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioudaioshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Moseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder

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2   3 ORIGIN OF THE WORD 

exceptions” in Acts 15 (though the prohibition of bloodwas only rejected in the Western Church and not until theMiddle Ages). While Acts 15 gives an example of whatnew Believers were subject to when entering the houseof God, verse 21 states that the Gentiles would learn theways of Moses the way it’s been done. The prohibitions

against fornication and idolatry are still observed by mostChristian denominations even though they originated asJewish law. See also Antinomianism and Marcionism andThe Law of Christ.

1.3 Adherence by Gentile Christians to

Torah Laws *and* Talmud for Gen-

tiles

“Probably the best description of Judaizers is in Acts15:1: “And certain men came down from Judea and

taught the brethren, and said, 'Unless you are circum-cised according to the custom of Moses, you cannot besaved.'… Circumcision performed for the purpose of be-ing “saved” meant a full, formal conversion to Judaism,complete with a baptism into Judaism and an embracingof the rabbis’ entire Oral Law (probably the law that Pe-ter had in mind when he referred to “a yoke...which nei-ther our fathers nor we were able to bear)...The Judaiz-ers believed that this conversion process would turn theGentile believer into a full-fledged Jew, and that withoutthis the Gentile could not be saved. Without a complete,formal conversion to Judaism, the Gentile believer couldnot become a full-fledged member of the saved MessianicCommunity, the Judaizers said...No Scripture-loving Jewcould describe the written Torah as an unbearable yoke.See Psalm 19 and Psalm 119.”  [4]

1.4 Continuance of observance of Torah

by Jews who have converted to Chris-

tianity

This behavior was particularly persecuted between 1300and 1800 under the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions,using as a basis the many references in the Pauline epis-

tles regarding the “Law as a curse” and the futility of rely-ing on the Law for attaining salvation, known as legalism.Thus, in spite of Paul’s agreement at the Council ofJerusalem, Gentile Christianity came to understand thatany Torah Laws (with the exception of the  Ten Com-mandments  and  Natural Law) were anathema, not onlyto Gentile Christians but even to Christians of Jewish ex-traction. Under the Inquisition, the penalty to a convertedJew for “Judaizing” was usually death by burning.

2 References over time

Judaizing was also used particularly after the 3rd centuryof the Christian Era, to describe Jewish Christian groups

like the Ebionites and Nazarenes.

The Latin verb   iudaizare   is used once in the  Vulgatewhere the Greek verb ioudaizein occurs at Galatians 2:14,and this was used by  Augustine in his   Commentary onGalatians , describing Paul’s opposition in Galatia as those

qui gentes cogebant iudaizare - “who thought to make theGentiles live in accordance with Jewish customs.”[5]

The Spanish verbal participle   Judaizante   was appliedboth to Jewish   conversos  to Catholicism who practicedJudaism secretly and sometimes to Jews who had notconverted,[6] in Spain and the New World at the time ofthe Spanish Inquisition.[7]

In our current day, the term can be used also to describea subset of Messianic Jews who believe that Gentiles andJews must follow the entire Sinai Law in addition to ac-cepting Jesus as messiah. This approach is reminiscent ofthe original position of James, recorded in Acts (although

James subsequently rectified this approach, per his deci-sion of Acts 15:1–35). There are two possible rationalesfor this approach: (a) either it is understood that Gentilesand Jews are commanded by the Torah and  New Testa-ment to follow the entire Sinai Law, or (b) it is understoodthat in coming to Jesus all Gentiles become part of Israeland therefore must follow the entire Sinai Law.

3 Origin of the word

The word Judaizer  or  Judaize is seldom used in English

Bible translations, however, an exception is the  Young’sLiteral Translation for Galatians 2:14:[8]

But when I saw that they are not walkinguprightly to the truth of the good news, I saidto Peter before all, `If thou, being a Jew, in themanner of the nations dost live, and not in themanner of the Jews, how the nations dost thoucompel to Judaize?

The meaning of the verb Judaize,[9] from which the noun

Judaizer  is derived, can only be derived from its varioushistorical uses. Its Biblical meaning must also be inferredand is not clearly defined beyond its obvious relationshipto the word "Jew.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary, for ex-ample, says: “The clear implication is that gentiles arebeing compelled to live according to Jewish customs.”[10]

The Koine Greek word Ιουδαϊζω being translated hereoccurs once in the Septuagint, in Esther 8:16–17 writtenaround 200 BC in Susa, Persia:

And the Jews had light and gladness, inevery city and province wherever the ordi-

nance was published: wherever the proclama-tion took place, the Jews had joy and gladness,feasting and mirth: and many of the Gentiles

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuaginthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchor_Bible_Dictionaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Galatianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%2527s_Literal_Translationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%2527s_Literal_Translationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Bible_translationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Bible_translationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_Israelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messianic_Jewshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Inquisitionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazarene_(sect)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebioniteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Christianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Erahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_at_the_stakehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandmentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandmentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_(theology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisitionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_Lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Law_of_Christhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcionismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinomianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_denominationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idolatryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornicationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church

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3

were circumcised, and became Jews, for fearof the Jews. (Brenton Translation).[11]

It occurs once in the New Testament, in Galatians 2:14(part of the Incident at Antioch) written around the year50:

But when I saw that they were not actingconsistently with the truth of the gospel, I saidto Cephas before them all, “If you, though aJew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, howcan you compel the Gentiles to live like Jews?"(NRSV)

It occurs once in Josephus’ Jewish War 2.18.2, referringto the Great Jewish Revolt   (66-73), written around theyear 75:

...when the Syrians thought they had ruinedthe Jews, they had the Judaizers in suspicionalso (Whiston Translation).[12][13]

It occurs once in Plutarch on Cicero 7.6 written in about75:

When a man named Caecilius, one of thefreed slaves, who was said to be given to Jew-ish practices, would have put by the Sicilians,and undertaken the prosecution of Verres him-self, Cicero asked, “What has a Jew to do withswine?" verres being the Roman word for aboar. (Dryden Translation).[14]

The Romans may have considered all Christians to beJudaizers. According to Suetonius, during the reign ofDomitian (81-96):

Besides other taxes, that on the Jews [A taxof two drachmas a head, imposed by Titus inreturn for free permission to practice their reli-gion; see Josephus, Bell. Jud. 7.6.6] was leviedwith the utmost rigor, and those were pros-

ecuted who, without publicly acknowledgingthat faith, yet lived as Jews, as well as those whoconcealed their origin and did not pay the trib-ute levied upon their people [These may havebeen Christians, whom the Romans commonlyassumed were Jews]. I recall being present inmy youth when the person of a man ninetyyears old was examined before the procura-tor and a very crowded court, to see whetherhe was circumcised. (Suetonius on Domitian12.2, Rolfe Translation).[15]

It occurs once in the Apostolic Fathers collection, in Ig-natius’s letter to the Magnesians 10:3 written around theyear 100:

It is absurd to profess Christ Jesus, andto Judaize. For  Christianity did not embraceJudaism, but Judaism Christianity, that so ev-ery tongue which believeth might be gath-ered together to God. (Roberts-DonaldsonTranslation).[16]

There are several direct interpolations by a later forger re-garding anti-Judaizing in Ignatius’s epistles that are con-sidered authentic, it can be assumed the redactor was ei-ther trying to build upon Ignatius’ positions or responsi-ble for what is perceived as Ignatius’ anti-Judaizing alto-gether.

It occurs once in the Acts of Pilate, chapter 2, roughlydated from 150 to 400:

And Pilate, summoning the Jews, says tothem: You know that my wife is a worshipperof God, and prefers to adhere to the Jewish reli-gion along with you... Annas and Caiaphas sayto Pilate: All the multitude of us cry out thathe [Jesus] was born of fornication, and are notbelieved; these [who disagree] are  proselytes,and his disciples. And Pilate, calling Annasand Caiaphas, says to them: What are pros-elytes? They say to him: They are by birthchildren of the Greeks, and have now becomeJews. (Roberts-Donaldson Translation).[17]

The Synod of Elvira[18] of around 306 prohibited Chris-

tians from marrying, worshipping with, or publicly eatingwith Jews, Pagans and Heretics.

The Council of Laodicea of around 365 decreed 59 laws,#29:

Christians must not judaize by resting onthe Sabbath, but must work on that day, ratherhonouring the Lord’s Day; and, if they can,resting then as Christians. But if any shall befound to be judaizers, let them be   anathemafrom Christ. (Percival Translation).[19]

4 In the Early Church

See also: Early Christianity

It is widely held that Paul accused Judaizers of teachingthat observance of the  Abrahamic ritual was necessaryto be justified and hence saved, i.e.   Legalism, (see alsoCircumcision controversy in early Christianity and for acounterview, see New Perspective on Paul). The relation-ship of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism is still disputed to-

day. These groups taught that Gentile followers of Jesusneeded to become Jewish proselytes and by so doing alsoobserve the various requirements of the written Torah.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proselyteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentilehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus_and_Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Perspective_on_Paulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_controversy_in_early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_(theology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification_(theology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_covenanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anathemahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-day_Sabbathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Laodiceahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Elvirahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proselyteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Pilatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscus_Iudaicushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscus_Iudaicushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domitianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lives_of_the_Twelve_Caesarshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicilyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicerohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Jewish_Revolthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wars_of_the_Jewshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_at_Antiochhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians+2%253A14&version=NRSVhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_in_the_Bible

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4   4 IN THE EARLY CHURCH 

According to   Eusebius'   History of the Church  4.5.3-4:the first 15 Bishops of Jerusalem were “of the circum-cision”, although this in all likelihood is simply statingthat they were Jewish Christians (as opposed to GentileChristians), and that they observed Biblical circumcisionand thus likely the rest of Torah as well.[20]

The issue was an early source of controversy in the churchof and came to a head during the  Council of Jerusalem.According to the account given in Acts 15, it was deter-mined that Gentile converts to Christianity did not haveto go through circumcision to secure a place in the  Worldto Come; but in addressing the second question as towhether or not they should obey the Torah they encour-aged the Gentiles to “abstain from   things sacrificed toidols, and from blood, and from things strangled, andfrom fornication,”

Paul also addressed this question in his  Epistle to the

Galatians in which he condemned those who insisted thatcircumcision had to be followed for justification as “falsebelievers” (Galatians 2:4):

But even Titus, who was with me, was notcompelled to be circumcised, though he was aGreek. But because of false believers secretlybrought in, who slipped in to spy on the free-dom we have in Christ Jesus, so that they mightenslave us – we did not submit to them evenfor a moment, so that the truth of the gospelmight always remain with you. And from thosewho were supposed to be acknowledged lead-

ers (what they actually were makes no differ-ence to me; God shows no partiality) – thoseleaders contributed nothing to me. On the con-trary, when they saw that I had been entrustedwith the gospel for the uncircumcised, just asPeter had been entrusted with the gospel for thecircumcised (for he who worked through Petermaking him an apostle to the circumcised alsoworked through me in sending me to the Gen-tiles), and when James and Cephas and John,who were acknowledged pillars, recognized thegrace that had been given to me, they gave to

Barnabas and me the right hand of fellowship,agreeing that we should go to the Gentiles andthey to the circumcised. They asked only onething, that we remember the poor, which wasactually what I was eager to do. . . . We our-selves are Jews by birth and not Gentile sinners;yet we know that a person is justified not bythe works of the law but through faith in JesusChrist. And we have come to believe in ChristJesus, so that we might be justified by faith inChrist, and not by doing the works of the law,because no one will be justified by the worksof the law. (Galatians 2:3–10, 15-16 NRSV)

Also Paul warned the early Galatian church that GentileChristians who submit to circumcision will be alienated

from Christ: “2 Indeed I, Paul, say to you that if you be-come circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing. 3 And Itestify again to every man who becomes circumcised thathe is a debtor to keep the whole law. 4 You have becomeestranged from Christ, you who attempt to be justifiedby law; you have fallen from grace.” (Galatians 5:2–4).

The Epistle to Titus 1:11, often attributed to Paul, is, ac-cording to some Biblical scholars, also a condemnationof these practices. Paul is against only the practice of cir-cumcising oneself, and this is not actually a Law in theTorah, as the Law is to circumcise one’s son, hence iswhy he brings up the issue of Abraham. It is commonlymistaken that Paul is grouping all of Jewish Law with theunrequired self-circumcision that the “Circumcision Fac-tion” was attempting to press on fresh converts. But Paulclearly says that the Law is to be upheld. (Romans 2:13,3:31, Galatians 3:12).

The influence of the Judaizers in the church diminished

significantly after the destruction of Jerusalem, when theJewish-Christian community at Jerusalem was dispersedby the Romans during the Great Jewish Revolt.[21] TheRomans also dispersed the Jewish leadership in Jerusalemin 135 during the   Bar Kokhba Revolt. Traditionallyit is believed the   Jerusalem Christians   waited out theJewish–Roman wars in Pella in the Decapolis. These set-backs however didn't necessarily mean an end to JewishChristianity, any more than Valerian’s Massacre of 258,(when he killed all Christian bishops, presbyters, and dea-cons, including Pope Sixtus II and Antipope Novatian andCyprian of Carthage), meant an end to Roman Christian-

ity.Christian groups following Jewish practices never com-pletely vanished, although they had been designated asheretical  by the   5th century.   Old Testament  practicesare still adhered to among Gentiles to this day, includingcircumcision (see also Biblical law in Christianity). TheCoptic  churches continue to practice circumcision,.[22]

but critics charge this may reflect ancient Egyptian influ-ence or be a response to the culture of the  Islamic ma-jority (see also  Abrahamic religions  and  Circumcisioncontroversy in early Christianity). In Torah-submissiveChristian groups which include the  Ethiopian Orthodox

church, dietary laws and Saturday Sabbath are observedas well.[23]

Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentiles: Gentiles May Not BeTaught the Torah makes the following observation:

R. Emden   (), in a remarkable apologyfor Christianity contained in his appendix to“Seder 'Olam” (pp. 32b-34b, Hamburg, 1752),gives it as his opinion that the original intentionof Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to con-vert only the Gentiles to the seven moral lawsof Noah and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic

law— which explains the apparent contradic-tions in the New Testament regarding the lawsof Moses and the Sabbath.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Sabbathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_Commandmentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_Commandmentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentileshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Emdenhttp://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=G#543http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=G#543https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Sabbathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashruthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_controversy_in_early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_controversy_in_early_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_in_the_Biblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprian_of_Carthagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Novatianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decapolishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pella,_Jordanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_Revolthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Jewish_Revolthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_Titushttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Galatians&verse=5:2%E2%80%934&src=NKJVhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Perspective_on_Paul#Works_of_the_Lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_hand_of_fellowshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Galatianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Galatianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornicationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taboo_food_and_drink#Bloodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idolatryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idolatryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_to_Comehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_to_Comehttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Acts&verse=15&src=!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_in_the_Biblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem#Bishops_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius

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5

Circumcision of Jesus  , sculpture in the Cathedral of Chartres .

Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, continue to

practice male circumcision.

5 Marcion

In the 2nd century, Marcion opposed all  Judaizers . Ac-cording to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article onMarcion: “It was no mere school for the learned, dis-closed no mysteries for the privileged, but sought to laythe foundation of the Christian community on the puregospel, the authentic institutes of Christ. The pure gospel,however, Marcion found to be everywhere more or lesscorrupted and mutilated in the Christian circles of histime. His undertaking thus resolved itself into a refor-mation of Christendom. This reformation was to deliverChristendom from false Jewish doctrines by restoring thePauline conception of the gospel, Paul being, according toMarcion, the only apostle who had rightly understood thenew message of salvation as delivered by Christ. In Mar-cion’s own view, therefore, the founding of his church—to which he was first driven by opposition—amounts toa reformation of Christendom through a return to thegospel of Christ and to Paul; nothing was to be acceptedbeyond that. This of itself shows that it is a mistake to

reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. A dualist he cer-tainly was, but he was not a Gnostic.” But like the Gnos-tics, Marcion believed that the Jewish God Yahweh had

created the world, was lesser in status to the unreachablehigher God, and was evil, see also Dualism. Against thisview, Irenaeus of Lyons's Against Heresies 3.12 section 12ridiculed those who think they are wiser than the Apostlesbecause they were still under Jewish influence.

6 Judaizing teachers

The Judaizing teachers were a group of  Jewish Chris-tians who taught that converts to   Christianity must firstbe circumcised (i.e. become Jewish through the ritualof a proselyte) in order to observe the Law of Moses (aswell as the oral traditions of the authorities making theproselyte ritual mandatory for Gentiles to secure a placein the  World to Come) in order to be justified. Thisgroup was very active in the  church of the 1st century

AD prior to the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalemin the Great Jewish Revolt. Although such requirementsmay have made Christianity a much less appealing re-ligious choice for some Gentiles, the evidence affordedin Paul’s letter to the Galatians exhibits that a significantnumber of the Galactic Gentile converts appear readilydisposed to adopt these nomistic requirements; indeed,Paul strenuously labors throughout the letter (cf. Gal 5:4;4:21; 5:2,3)to dissuade them from doing so.

Paul saw these teachers as being both dangerous tothe spread of Christianity and propagators of grievousdoctrinal error. Many of his letters included in the  New

Testament (the Pauline epistles) contain considerable ma-terial disputing the view of this group and condemningits practitioners. In  2 Corinthians  11:5 and 12:11 hecalled his opponents super-apostles . Also, in 2 Corinthi-ans 11:13  −15 Paul refers the Judaizers as False Apostles .Paul publicly condemned Peter for his seemingly ambiva-lent reaction to the Judaizers, embracing them publicly inplaces where their concepts were popular while holdingthe private opinion that the teachings were erroneous, forexample 1 Cor 9:20–23.

The Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers notes: “Paul, onthe other hand, not only did not object to the observance

of the Mosaic Law, as long as it did not interfere with theliberty of the Gentiles, but he conformed to its prescrip-tions when occasion required (1 Corinthians 9:20). Thushe shortly after circumcised Timothy (Acts 16:1–3), andhe was in the very act of observing the Mosaic ritual whenhe was arrested at Jerusalem (21:26 sqq.).”

Judaizing teachers are even more strongly condemned inthe Epistle of Barnabas. (Although it did not become partof the Christian Biblical canon, it was widely circulatedamong Christians in the first two centuries and is part ofthe Apostolic Fathers.) Whereas Paul acknowledged thatthe Law of Moses and its observance were good when

used correctly (“the law is good, if one uses it lawfully”,  1Tim 1:8), the Epistle of Barnabas condemns most Jewishpractices, claiming that Jews had grossly misunderstood

http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=1%2520Tim&verse=1:8&src=!http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=1%2520Tim&verse=1:8&src=!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Fathershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_Biblical_canonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabashttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Acts&verse=21:26&src=!http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Acts&verse=16:1%E2%80%933&src=!http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=1%2520Corinthians&verse=9:20&src=!http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htmhttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=1%2520Cor&verse=9:20%E2%80%9323&src=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Peterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Corinthianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Corinthianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Corinthianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Jewish_Revolthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_(building)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_to_Comehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proselyte#Rules_for_proselytes_in_the_Torahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/613_Mitzvothttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proselytehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_in_the_Biblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Christianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Christianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Apostleshttp://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-60.htm#P7525_2024213https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Detection_and_Overthrow_of_the_So-Called_Gnosishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus_of_Lyonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_apostleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christendomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospelhttp://encyclopedia.jrank.org/MAL_MAR/MARCION.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrean_Orthodoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Chartreshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_of_Christ

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6   9 REFERENCES 

and misapplied the Law of Moses.

7 Later effects of Judaizer contro-

versy

The eight homilies Adversus Judaeos (against the Judaiz-ers) of John Chrysostom (347 – 407) deal with the rela-tionship between Christians, Jews and Judaizers.

At various times since the second half of the 15th-century, the Russian Orthodox Church has described sev-eral related heretical groups as having a Judaizing charac-ter; the accuracy of this label – which was influenced bythe early Christian polemics against Judaizers – has beendisputed. (See Sect of Skhariya the Jew.)

The letter to the Galatians strongly influenced  Martin

Luther at the time of the Protestant Reformation becauseof its exposition of Justification by Grace. See also Lawand Gospel.

8 See also

•   Abrahamites

•  Herbert W. Armstrong

•   Armstrongism

•

 Black Hebrew Israelites•   British Israelism

•   Christian Identity

•   Christianity and antisemitism

•   Christianity and Judaism

•   John Chrysostom#Homilies

•  Circumcision in the Bible

•  Council of Jamnia

•   Early Bishops of Jerusalem

•  Expounding of the Law

•   Hebrew Roots

•   Hellenization

•   Heresy

•   Jehovah’s Witnesses

•  Judeo-Christian

•  Law and Gospel

•   Messianic Judaism

•   Millerites

•   Mormonism and Christianity

•   Noahidism

•   Philo-Semitism

•   Restorationism

•  Church of Christ With the Elijah Message

•   Sabbath in Christianity

•  Sabbath in seventh-day churches

•  Sacred Name Movement

•   Sect of Skhariya the Jew

•  Seventh-day Adventist Church

•  Seventh-day Adventist eschatology

•  Seventh-day Adventist worship

•   Shabbat

•   Subbotniks

•   Szekler Sabbatarians

•   Xueta

9 References

[1] Greek New Testament, Galatians 2:14 ἀλλ᾽ ὅτε εἶδον ὅτιοὐκ ὀρθοποδοῦσιν πρὸς τὴν ἀλήθειαν τοῦ εὐαγγελίουεἶπον τῷ Πέτρῳ ἔμπροσθεν πάντων Εἰ σὺ Ἰουδαῖοςὑπάρχων ἐθνικῶς ζῇς καὶ οὐκ Ἰουδαϊκῶς τί τὰ ἔθνηἀναγκάζεις Ἰουδαΐζειν.

[2] Michele Murray Playing a Jewish game: Gentile ChristianJudaizing in the first and Second Centuries CE   CanadianCorporation for Studies in Religion - 2004 p33 “FromPaul’s perspective, by withdrawing from Gentile table fel-lowship, Peter was sending a message to the Gentile be-lievers of Antioch. The message to Antiochene GentileChristians was that they were to judaize.”

[3] JOHN BOWKER. “Judaizers.” The Concise Oxford Dic-tionary of World Religions. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 13Jul. 2013

[4] Daniel Botkin. 2001, March–April. Who Were the Ju-daizers? Gates of Eden. http://www.gatesofeden.org/pdf/GOE%20Volume%2007.pdf

[5] Eric Plumer Augustine’s Commentary on Galatians: Intro-duction, Text, Translation, and Notes p124 footnote “5 Lit-erally, 'who were compelling Gentiles to Judaize (Latin:iudaizare)'—in other words, '. . . to live in accordance

with Jewish customs’. In the Latin Bible the term oc-curs only at Gal. 2: 14, where it virtually transliteratesthe Greek ioudaizein"

http://www.gatesofeden.org/pdf/GOE%2520Volume%252007.pdfhttp://www.gatesofeden.org/pdf/GOE%2520Volume%252007.pdfhttp://www.encyclopedia.com/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuetahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szekler_Sabbatarianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbotnikshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_worshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_eschatologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jewhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Name_Movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbath_in_seventh-day_churcheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbath_in_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Christ_With_the_Elijah_Messagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restorationismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo-Semitismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noahidismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormonism_and_Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milleriteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messianic_Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_and_Gospelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Christianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah%2527s_Witnesseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_Rootshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expounding_of_the_Lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem#Bishops_of_Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Jamniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_in_the_Biblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chrysostom#Homilieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_antisemitismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Identityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Israelismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israeliteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrongismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_W._Armstronghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamiteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_and_Gospelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_and_Gospelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification_(theology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jewhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chrysostomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adversus_Judaeos

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[6] Seymour B. Liebman The inquisitors and the Jews in theNew World  1975 “The term Judaizante was applied toJewish apostates to Catholicism who practiced Judaismsecretly. In some instances the term was synonymous withJew.”

[7]   Zumárraga and the Mexican Inquisition, 1536-1543 “Thefirst activity of the Mexican Inquisition against Jews andJudaizantes came in 1523 with the ordinance againstheretics and Jews.”

[8]  Gal 2:14

[9] from the   Koine Greek   Ioudaizō   (Ιουδαϊζω); see alsoStrong’s G2450

[10] Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 3. “Judaizing.”

[11] Marsh, Ernest, C. (2011). “The Septuagint versus the Ma-soretic - Esther - Chapter 8”.   ECMarsh.com The CommonMan’s Prospective.

[12]   “Flavius Josephus. The Wars Of The Jews. Book II, chap-ter 8.14”

[13]   “Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews”, William Whis-ton, A.M., Ed., John E. Beardsley. 1895. Book II, Whis-ton Section 461.  Tufts.edu, Tufts University.

[14]   “The Internet Classics Archive | Cicero by Plutarch”.Classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 2011-09-16.

[15] Halsall, Paul (October 2000).  “Ancient History Source-book: Suetonius: De Vita Caesarum--Domitianus, c. 110C.E. Translated by J. C. Rolfe.”. Fordham University.

[16]   “St. Ignatius of Antioch to the Magnesians (Roberts-Donaldson translation)". Earlychristianwritings.com.2006-02-02. Retrieved 2011-09-16.

[17]   “Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. VIII”. Earlychristianwrit-ings.com. Retrieved 2011-09-16.

[18]   “A Short History of Canon Law from Apostolic Times to1917 - The Council of Elvira, ca. 306”. Ken Pennington,Ken, The Catholic University of America.

[19]  “NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | ChristianClassics Ethereal Library”. CCEL.org. 2005-06-01. Re-trieved 2011-09-16.

[20] McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction.  Black-well Publishing (2006). ISBN 1-4051-0899-1, page 174.

[21] Historical and Scriptural (NT) references to the originalJesus movement and its Jewish nature.  “Israelite Chris-tianity”. half-jewish.org

[22] Customary in some Coptic and other churches:

•  “The Coptic Christians in Egypt and the EthiopianOrthodox Christians—two of the oldest survivingforms of Christianity—retain many of the featuresof early Christianity, including male circumcision.Circumcision is not prescribed in other forms of

Christianity... Some Christian churches in SouthAfrica oppose the practice, viewing it as a paganritual, while others, including the Nomiya church

in Kenya, require circumcision for membership andparticipants in focus group discussions in Zambiaand Malawi mentioned similar beliefs that Chris-tians should practice circumcision since  Jesus wascircumcised and the Bible teaches the practice.”

•

  “The decision that Christians need not practice cir-cumcision is recorded in Acts 15; there was never,however, a prohibition of circumcision, and it ispracticed by Coptic Christians.”   “circumcision”,The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-05.

[23]

10 External links

•   Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers

•   Jewish Encyclopedia: Judaizers

•  Gentiles and Circumcision

http://www.gentiles-and-circumcision.info/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=148&letter=I&search=Judaizershttp://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htmhttp://www.bartleby.com/65/ci/circumci.htmlhttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Acts&verse=15&src=!https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_of_Jesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision_of_Jesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://www.half-jewish.org/israelite_christianity.shtmlhttp://www.half-jewish.org/israelite_christianity.shtmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1405108991http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.vii.iii.xxxiv.htmlhttp://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.vii.iii.xxxiv.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Catholic_University_of_Americahttp://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Canon%2520Law/ElviraCanons.htmhttp://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Canon%2520Law/ElviraCanons.htmhttp://earlychristianwritings.com/text/gospelnicodemus-roberts.htmlhttp://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-magnesians-roberts.htmlhttp://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-magnesians-roberts.htmlhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suet-domitian-rolfe.htmlhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suet-domitian-rolfe.htmlhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suet-domitian-rolfe.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cicero.htmlhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+BJ+2.461&fromdoc=Perseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0148http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+BJ+2.461&fromdoc=Perseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0148http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+BJ+2.461&fromdoc=Perseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0148http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/josephus/war-2.htmhttp://earlychristianwritings.com/text/josephus/war-2.htmhttp://www.ecmarsh.com/lxx-kjv/esther/est_008.htm?zoom_highlight=8:17%2520in%2520every%2520city%2520and%2520provincehttp://www.ecmarsh.com/lxx-kjv/esther/est_008.htm?zoom_highlight=8:17%2520in%2520every%2520city%2520and%2520provincehttp://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/words.pl?word=2450https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greekhttp://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Gal&verse=2:14&src=YLT

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8   11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text

•   Judaizers   Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizers?oldid=642257689   Contributors:  Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Ahoer-stemeier, Jonadab, Charles Matthews, RickK, Truthbomber, Psychonaut, Mirv, Babbage, Desmay, Flauto Dolce, Rursus, Wighson,Mboverload, Bobblewik, Alan Au, Loremaster, Starx, DanBlackham, Jayjg, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Kwamikagami, Lima, Viridi-tas, Hooperbloob, Robert Blair, Cromwellt, SteinbDJ, TShilo12, Weyes, Woohookitty, Lapsed Pacifist, KevinOKeeffe, GregorB, Rcham-berlain, BD2412, Search4Lancer, Koavf, Planetneutral, ScapegoatVandal, Bgwhite, Jadon, Kauffner, Chris Capoccia, Gaius Cornelius,Theelf29, Inigmatus, Mysid, SmackBot, Hmains, Grimhelm, Apeloverage, Cloj, Hongooi, Kendrick7, Mukadderat, Bjankuloski06, Ned-dyseagoon, Midnightblueowl, Hectorian, MikeWazowski, Briancua, MonkeeSage, CmdrObot, Drinibot, Todowd, Cydebot, Barticus88,24angels, Fayenatic london, AdoniCtistai, Westwind273, Bus stop, R'n'B, Johnbod, Alexb102072, Geekdiva, Richard New Forest, Lexein,Kyle the bot, Namikiw, Wassermann, StAnselm, Ptolemy Caesarion, Anchor Link Bot, Jobas, SlackerMom, Onlyjust, Ewawer, Joaopaulo-pontes, Muscovite99, John J. Bulten, DigitalAttorney, Catalographer, Editor2020, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley, EastTN, TFOWR, Addbot,SpBot, 1oddbins1, AnomieBOT, Benzipporah, LilHelpa, El Staplador, Tayloj, J04n, Lotje, NameIsRon, In ictu oculi, WildBot, Esoglou,Oncenawhile, Sabrefencer9, Create A Name, Helpful Pixie Bot, Marcocapelle, Durum, Donga2, Frozen Manitoban, Mikeprescott, Hmains-bot1, Belobogist, JudeccaXIII and Anonymous: 178

11.2 Images

•   File:20050921circoncisionB.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/20050921circoncisionB.jpg   License: 

CC BY-SA 2.5  Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?•  File:Ambox_important.svg   Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg  License:   Public do-

main  Contributors:  Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist:  Dsmurat (talk · contribs)

•  File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpgLicense:    Public domain   Contributors:    http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_Ycv0BE0wFr4/TU8WRXJmxYI/AAAAAAAAAgI/2QjVrd4bEHo/s1600/Sermon_on_the_Mount_Carl_Bloch.jpg and Carl Bloch, p. 313, ISBN 9788798746591  Original artist:  Carl Heinrich Bloch

•   File:Cranach_Gesetz_und_Gnade_Gotha.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Cranach_Gesetz_und_Gnade_Gotha.jpg License:  Public domain   Contributors:  scan 2008, user:Concord Original artist:  Lucas Cranach the Elder

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