judicial remedies in public law - gbvlitigation library judicial remedies in public law by clive...

LITIGATION LIBRARY

JUDICIAL REMEDIESIN PUBLIC LAW

by

Clive LewisBarrister, Middle Temple

WlTH A FOREWORD BY

THE RT. HON. LORD JUSTICE LAWS

LONDON

SWEET & MAXWELL

2000

CONTENTS

pageForeword viiForeword to First Edition ixPreface xiPreface to First Edition xiiiTable of Cases xxxvTable of Statutes cxvTable of Statutory Instruments cxxiiTable of Civil Procedure Rules cxxiiiTable of International and European Conventions and Treaties cxxvi

CHAPTER1INTRODUCTION

para

A. Public Law 1-001

B. The Application for Judicial Review 1-004

C. Significance of the Application for Judicial Review 1-007

D. Habeas Corpus 1-011

E. Statutory Mechanisms of Challenge 1-012

F. Damages 1-013

G. European Union law 1-016

CHAPTER2THE AVAILABILITY OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

A. Introducrion 2-001

B. Source of the Power 2-005Statute 2-005

Non-statutory bodies exercising statutory powers 2-007

xv

CONTENTS

Situations where judicial review is inappropriate 2-009Rationale for judicial review of statutory powers and

duties 2-010Statutory bodies performing a non-public function 2-011Statutory bodies and private law 2-013

Prerogative 2-017Availability of judicial review 2-017Definition of the prerogative 2-018Scope of judicial review 2-024Prerogative powers that may or may not be justiciable 2-025Prerogative powers that are reviewable 2-027Prerogative powers to regulate the civil Service 2-028Prerogative powers in foreign affairs 2-030The prerogative power to grant a pardon 2-034Prerogative power to consent to relator action 2-038Prerogative power to stop criminal proceedings 2-040Miscellaneous prerogative powers 2-041

European Union law 2-042Sporting bodies and other bodies deriving jurisdiction from

contract 2-047Domestic tribunals 2-047Judicial control of domestic tribunals 2-056Criticism of the existing position 2-057Public bodies acquiring jurisdiction by contract 2-058

C. Nature of the Function 2-063Bodies performing public functions 2-063Government or public authority involvement 2-066Statutory recognition 2-073The nature and importance of the function 2-080The absence of private law mechanisms of control 2-083Common law powers of certain bodies 2-084

D. Miscellaneous Bodies 2-087Chartered corporations 2-087The British Broadcasting Corporation 2-092Universities and Colleges 2-096The Inns of Court 2-101Parliament 2-102Charities 2-103Superior courts 2-104

E. Subject-matter of the Claim 2-110Contract 2-114

Power to contract 2-116Statutory restrictions on the power to contract 2-122

xvi

CONTENTS

Public law principles regulating the exercise of contractualpower 2-124

Contractual position of the Crown 2-128Judicial review and employment relationships 2-131

Tort 2-136Statutory duties 2-138

No, or no live, issue of public law raised 2-142

F. Declarations and Injunctions 2-145

G. Damages and Judicial Review 2-151

H. Power to Order Proceedings to Continue as if begun by Claim 2-152

CHAPTER 3CHOICE OF FORUM AND THE EXCLUSIVITY OF JUDICIALREVIEW PROCEEDINGS IN PUBLIC LAW

A. Introduction 3-001

B. The Rule in O'Reilly v. Mackman 3-003Rationale for the rule 3-005Effect of the rule 3-009Scope of the rule 3-012Cases raising only public law issues 3-018Cases involving only private law issues 3-020Cases involving both private and public law 3-021

Decisions affecting private law rights 3-021Public and private law claims arising 3-026

Public law decision a precondition to the creation of aprivate law right 3-034

Cases involving enforcement of a private law right where acollateral issue of public law arises 3-040

Consent 3-041

C. Defences 3-042Defences in civil proceedings 3-042Defences based on the invalidity of the decision to Institute

proceedings 3—046Defence to criminal proceedings 3-049Decisions to institute criminal charges 3-054Consequences of a successful defence in criminal cases 3-055

D. Relator Actions 3-058

E. Habeas Corpus 3-059

xvii

CONTENTS

F. Declarations against the Crown 3-060

G. Specific Provision for Ordinary Claims 3-061

H. Appeal Procedures and Original Jurisdiction of Tribunals 3-062

I. Assessment of the Rule in O'Reilly v. Mackman 3-064

CHAPTER4ACTS AND OMISSIONS IN RESPECT OF WHICH JUDICIALREVIEW IS AVAILABLE


B. Acts Affecting Individuais 4-004Decisions and dererminations 4-004

Decisions affecting rights 4-005Decisions imposing legal sanctions 4-007Decisions affecting personal liberty 4-009Decisions affecting livelihood and office 4-010Decisions affecting legitimate expectations 4-011Exercises of discretionary power 4-012Decisions having factual consequences for individuals 4-014Procedural decisions 4-015Preliminary decisions 4-018Decisions on whether or not to institute proceedings 4-019Recommendations 4-024Managerial decisions 4-026

Reports 4-028Advice and guidance 4-033Conduct or action other than decisions affecting an

individual 4-043

C. Acts by one Public Body Affecting Another Public Body 4-048Central—local government relations 4-050

Decisions 4-050Default powers 4—051Fiscal controls 4-052Determining the allocation of authority 4-053Protection of procedural rights 4-054Challenges by central government 4-055

Relations between local authorities 4-056Relations between other public bodies 4-058

D. Measures of General Application 4-059Acts of Parliament 4-060

Acts of Parliament and European Union law 4—062

xviii

Proposed legislation and European lawDelegated legislationPoliciesOther measures of general application

E. Failure to ActFailure to perform a public law dutyFailure to exercise jurisdiction or discretion

F. Non-Justiciable Acts and OmissionsMeaning of justiciabilitySecurity issuesPolice decisionsIssues of judgmentQualifications on the concept of justiciability

CONTENTS

4-0644-0654-0684-070

4-0714-0714-074

4-0774-0774-0794-0804-0814-083

CHAPTER5INVALIDITY, PARTIAL INVALIDITY AND SEVERANCE


B. The Ultra Vires Principle 5-002Basis of the ultra vires principle 5-003Exception to the ultra vires principle—errors of law within

jurisdiction 5-004

C. The Meaning of Null and Void in Administrative Law 5-006Introduction 5-006Need to establish invalidity 5-009Methods of establishing invalidity 5-011Situations where the courts will refuse to intervene 5-012Consequences when the courts do intervene 5-016Consequences in contract and restitution 5-017Consequences in tort 5-020Void and voidable 5-026

D. Prospective Declarations

E. Partial Invalidity and SeveranceMeasures only partially invalidThe test for severance or partial invalidity

Textual severability

5-029

5-0335-0335-0355-038

xix

CONTENTS

Substantial severability 5-040Measures other than delegated legislation 5-043

CHAPTER6THE PREROGATIVE REMEDIES: CERTIORARI, PROHIBITIONAND MANDAMUS


B. Certiorari 6-002The control of ultra vires acts 6-002The scope of certiorari 6-003Non-binding acts 6-006Certiorari and nullities 6-007Certiorari and subordinate legislation 6-008Refusals or failure to act 6-010Threatened unlawful acts 6-011Restrictions on the availability of certiorari 6-012The effect of certiorari 6-016Power to remit 6-019Variation of sentences 6-021Severance or partial invalidity 6-022Standing and discretion 6-023Interim relief—stay of proceedings 6-024Principles governing the grant of a stay 6-028Consequences of a breach of a stay 6-029Errors of law on the face of the record 6-030

Definition of the record 6-031Definition of error of law 6-032

Effect of certiorari 6-033

C. Prohibition 6-034Purpose of prohibition 6-034Prevention of unlawful action 6-035Conditional prohibition 6-038Restrictions on prohibition 6-039Premature applications for prohibition 6-041Interim relief, Standing and the discretionary refusal of

prohibition 6-042Failure to comply with an order of prohibition 6-043

xx

D. MandamusDuty to exercise jurisdiction or discretionDuty to perform a specific actDuties derived from European Union lawDuties to provide ServicesDuty to comply with order or directionsRestrictions on the availability of mandamus

Superior courtThe CrownMatters of military lawTechnical restrictions

Effect of mandamusInterim reliefStanding and discretion to refuse a remedy

CHAPTER 7DECLARATIONS

CONTENTS

6-0446-0456-0486-0536-0546-0576-0586-0586-0596-0626-0636-0656-0666-067


B. Historical OutlinePre-1978 positionPosition from 1978 onwards

7-0027-0057-007

C. Uses of the Declaration in Public Law 7-009To establish whether a decision, order, conduct or other act

is ultra vires 7-012To establish the invalidity of subordinate legislation 7-014To specify the consequences of a finding of invalidity 7-016To determine the extent of the powers of a public body 7-017To determine the existence and extent of public duties 7-019To determine rights 7-021To determine questions of European Union law 7-026Declarations under the Human Rights Act 1998 7-031To determine questions of law 7-032

D. Restrictions on the Grant of Declaratory Relief 7-035Non-legal claims 7-036Matters outside the jurisdiction of municipal courts 7-037Validity of Acts of Parliament 7-038Internal proceedings of Parliament 7-041Intra vires errors of law 7-042Hypothetical and academic disputes 7-043

xxi

CONTENTS

E. Declarations and the Criminal Law 7-046

F. Declarations against the Crown 7-054

G. Standing 7-057

H. Discretion 7-059

I. Severance or Partial Invalidity 7-060

J. Interim Relief 7-061

K. Effect of Granting Declaratory Relief 7-065

L. Prospective Declarations 7-066

M. Declaratory Relief outside Order 53 7-073

N. Relator Actions 7-074

CHAPTER 8INJUNCTIONS

A. Introduction 8-001Position prior to 1978 8-003Position from 1978 onwards 8-005

B. Uses of the Injunction in Public Law 8-006Restraining public bodies from acting unlawfully 8-006Restraining implementation of unlawful decisions 8-007Enforcing public duties 8-008Injunctions in the nature of quo warranto 8-011

C. Injunctions against the Crown 8-012

D. Injunctions and Legislation 8-015European Union law and legislation 8-018Injunctions and subordinate legislation 8-021Injunctions and Parliament 8-023

E. Interim Relief 8-024Serious issue to be determined 8-027Balance of convenience: relevance of damages 8-030Balance of convenience: the wider public interest 8-032Cases involving European Union law 8-035

xxii

CONTENTS

Procedure for applying for interim relief in judicial reviewapplications 8-037

F. Injunctions outside the Judicial Review Procedure 8-039Injunctions in aid of the criminal law 8-039Criteria for determining whether to grant an injunction 8-040

Conduct of the defendant 8-042Adequacy of the criminal penalties 8-043Other considerations 8-044

Interlocutory injunctions 8-046Defences to the action 8-048Defences under the European Union law 8-050Procedure 8-052Injunctions in public law cases 8-055Injunctions to enforce a public right 8-056Statutory provision for injunctions 8-057Injunctions and chartered bodies 8-058

CHAPTER 9MACHINERY OF JUDICIAL REVIEW


B. Applications for Permission 9-002Procedure for applying for permission 9-002The Form 86a 9-003Need to specify relief sought 9-004Need to specify grounds on which relief sought 9-005Amendments 9-008Written evidence in support of application 9-009Applications to be made in London or Cardiff 9-010Consideration of the initial application for permission 9-011Test for granting permission 9-014

Arguable case 9-015Standing 9-016Delay 9-017Alternative remedies 9-018Discretion to refuse relief 9-019

Scope of the grant of permission 9-020Time-limits for applying for permission and delay 9-025Date from which time begins to run where certiorari is

sought 9-031Two-tier decision-making processes 9-035Alternative administrative remedies 9-038

xxüi

CONTENTS

Date from which time runs where relief other than certiorariis sought

Duties and mandamusPower to reconsider decisionsGood reason for extending the time-limitRefusal of permission or relief due to substantial hardshipNotificationDistinction between criminal and non-criminal or civil

mattersRenewal of application for permission in a civil matterRenewal of application in a criminal cause or matterChallenging the grant of permission

Application to set aside the grant of permissionAppealStriking out

Challenging a decision to set aside the grant of permissionInterim reliefSpecial directions

Expedited hearingsFamily casesMode of trialBail

Costs at the permission stage

C. Application for Judicial ReviewIssuing of the claim formService of the claim form and Form 86a on persons directly

affectedWritten evidence of ServiceEntering the applicationCopy of orderRespondent's written evidenceDuty on applicant to reconsider applicationExchange of written evidenceFurther written evidenceAmendmentInterlocutory applicationsDisclosureCircumstances when disclosure may be orderedPublic interest immunity and privilegeFurther informationCross-examinationOrders disposing of proceedingsListing of casesCases ready to be heard

9-0399-0409-0419-0429-0489-049

9-0509-0539-0589-0599-0609-0639-0649-0659-0669-0699-0709-0719-0729-0739-076

9-0799-080

9-0819-0879-0889-0909-0919-0939-0949-0959-0969-0989-1009-1029-1089-1109-1119-1139-1159-116

XXIV

Hearing datesBundles of documentsSkeleton arguments

D. The HearingPartiesForumBürden of proofFresh evidenceRemediesDamagesConversion to a claimAppeals to the Court of Appeal in non-criminal mattersApplications for permission to appealThe appealAppeals in criminal casesCostsThe general ruleTwo or more respondentsProceedings becoming academic

CHAPTER 10STANDING

CONTENTS

9-1179-1189-119

9-1209-1209-1239-1249-1259-1279-1299-1309-1319-1329-1339-1369-1379-1379-1399-140


indication of sufficient

B. A Uniform Test of Sufficient InterestTest for Standing at the permission stageTest at the hearing—meaning of sufficient interestScope of statutory power or dutyNature of the applicant's interestProcedural entitlement as an

interestPublic interest in challengeRepresentative bodiesPublic interest groupsStanding under the Human Rights Act 1998Challenges to local authority decisionsChallenges by public bodiesChallenges by local authoritiesNature of the breach

10-00510-00710-00810-01010-013

10-01710-01810-02010-02410-02710-02810-03210-03310-036

XXV

CONTENTS

C. Effect of a Finding of no Sufficient Interest 10-038

D. Capacity 10-039

E. Standing Outside CPR Schedule 1; Order 53 10-040

CHAPTER 11THE DISCRETION OF THE COURT TO REFUSE RELIEF AND THEEXCLUSION OF JUDICIAL REVIEW


B. Conduct of the Applicant 11-005Delay 11-009Prematurity 11-013

C. Relief of no Practical Use 11-019No injustice or prejudice suffered 11-022Decision would be the same irrespective of the error 11-026

D. Impact on Third Parties 11-033

E. Impact on Administration 11-035

F. Nature of Decision 11-040Nature of the error committed 11-041

G. Alternative Remedies 11-042Existence of alternative remedies 11-042Exhaustion of remedies 11-043Rationale for the principle 11-045Scope of the principle 11-046

Type of error 11-047Distinction between appeal and review 11-052Situations in which alternative remedy inadequate 11-053Appellate machinery inadequate to resolve dispute 11-057Urgency and speed 11-059Costs 11-061Need for authoritative judicial guidance 11-063Relevance of an ultimate right of appeal to a court 11-065Preliminary decisions 11-067Other exceptional circumstances 11-069No appeal available 11-070Permission to appeal required 11-072Stage at which existence of alternative remedies should be

considered 11-073

xxvi

CONTENTS

H. Implied Exclusion of Judicial Review 11-074Duties and default powers 11-075Early exceptions to Pasmore 11-076Current approach to alternative remedies and statutory

duties 11-077Enforcement of statutory right 11-079University visitors 11-083Judicial review of the visitor 11-085Academic employment 11-087

I. Statutory Exclusion and Restriction of Judicial Review 11-089Introduction 11-089Final and conclusive and similar clauses 11-092Shall not be questioned and similar clauses 11-095No certiorari and similar clauses 11-098Conclusive evidence and similar clauses 11-099Partial ouster clauses 11-104As if enacted clauses 11-107Statutory reform of ouster clauses 11-108Scope of section 12 11-110

Measures within section 12 11-110Types of ouster clauses within section 12 11-112Acts within section 12 11-117Remedies restored by section 12 11-118

Statutory applications to quash and time-limited ousterclauses 11-119

Possible exceptions 11-122Significance of the Tribunals and Inquiries Act 1992 11-123Ouster clauses and European law 11-124

CHAPTER 12HABEAS CORPUS


B. Scope of the Jurisdiction 12-002Nature of review on habeas corpus application 12-004

Questions of fact 12-004Questions of legal validity 12-009

Bürden and Standard of proof 12-014Discretion to refuse habeas corpus 12-016Habeas corpus and superior courts of record 12-019Habeas corpus and criminal appeals 12-020Habeas corpus and the Crown 12-021Committals by Parliament 12-022

xxvii

CONTENTS

Territorial scope of habeas corpus 12-023

C. Procedure 12-024Application for the writ 12-024Powers of the court on an application without notice 12-026Procedure at the hearing 12-028Power of the court at a hearing 12-029Issue of the writ 12-031Return of the writ and procedure at the hearing 12-032Costs 12-033Appeals 12-034Other writs of habeas corpus 12-036

CHAPTER 13APPEALS AND STATUTORY APPLICATIONS


B. Appeal by way of Case StatedGeneral

13-00213-002

C. Appeals by Case Stated from the Crown CourtJurisdiction to State a caseInterlocutory decisions by the Crown CourtProcedure for stating a caseLodging the appealListing of casesProcedure on appealAppeals

13-00313-00313-00613-00813-01013-01113-01213-013

D. Appeals by Case Stated from a Magistrates' CourtJurisdiction to State a caseInterlocutory decisions of magistrates' courtsProcedure for stating a caseForm of the caseLodging the appealListing of casesProcedure on appealAmendmentPowers of the courtCostsAppeal

13-01513-01513-01713-02013-02413-02513-02613-02713-02813-02913-03113-032

xxvni

CONTENTS

Relationship between appeal by case stated and otherremedies 13-034

E. Appeals by Case Stated by Other Public Bodies to theHigh Court 13-038

Jurisdiction to hear appeals by case stated 13-038Application 13-039Interlocutory decisions 13-040Procedure for stating a case 13-041Proceedings for determination of a case 13-043Amendment 13-044Appeals by case stated in tax cases 13-045

F. Appeal by Case Stated to the Court of Appeal 13-051Appeal by case stated from the Lands Tribunal 13-051Appeal by case stated from other tribunals 13-052Proceedings on case stated 13-054

G. Appeal to the High Court 13-055Jurisdiction to hear appeals 13-055Procedure for appealing 13-060Serving and entering the appeal 13-061Amendment 13-063Listing of cases 13-064Procedure at the hearing 13-065Powers of the High Court 13-069Planning appeals 13-070Appeals 13-073

H. Appeal to the Court of Appeal 13-074

I. Appeal to the Privy Council 13-076

J. Statutory Applications to Quash 13-077

Jurisdiction to hear applications 13-077Standing 13-080Time-limits 13-082Procedure for applying 13-083Witness Statements and affidavits 13-084Interim relief 13-085Hearing of the application 13-086Powers 13-087Costs 13-089Relationship with other remedies 13-091Miscellaneous 13-092

xx ix

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 14DAMAGES AND THE PRINCIPLES GOVERNING PUBLICAUTHORITY LIABILITY


B. Tortious Liability 14-002Negligence 14-002

Introduction 14-002Duty 14-005Purpose for which a statutory power is conferred 14-010Nature of the function 14-013Practical consequences of imposing liability 14-021Non-justiciable decisions, discretion and the operational-

policy decision 14-023Relevance of alternative remedies 14-029Kind of härm 14-031Omissions and failure to exercise a power 14-034Liability for acts of third parties 14-037Negligent misstatement 14-040Breach, causation and loss 14-044Striking out 14-045

Nuisance 14-047The rule in Rylands v. Fletcher 14-051Breach of statutory duty 14-054

Introduction 14-054Relevance of alternative remedies 14-057Default powers and administrative remedies 14-058Availability of judicial review 14-061Obligations imposed for a defined class of persons 14-064Non-feasance and highways 14-069Conditions of liability 14-070Breach of European Union Law 14-072

Trespass 14-073False imprisonment 14-075Other torts relevant to the criminal justice System 14-080

Mode of trial 14-081General considerations governing tortious liability in the

criminal justice field 14-082Liability of the police 14-082Exemplary damages 14-083Miscellaneous torts 14-086Misfeasance in a public office 14—087

Meaning of public office 14-088Malice or knowledge of ultra vires and foresight of

härm 14-090Causation, proximity and damages 14—093

XXX

CONTENTS

Relationship with other torts 14-097Immunities 14-098

Judicial immunity 14-098Specific statutory immunities 14-103

C. Contract 14-104Whether contract exists 14-105Contract and public sector employment 14-106Public law principles and contract 14-107

D. Restitution 14-110Possible defences 14-113Recovery of money paid by a public body 14-115Procedure 14-116Statutory provision for recovery and set-off 14-119Charges levied contrary to European Union law 14-120

E. Relevance of remedial discretion of the courts to private

law claims 14-122

F. Statutory compensation 14-123

G. Crown ProceedingsIntroductionLiability in tortImmunities

Judicial functionsArmed forcesPersonal liability of the SovereignActs not done in respect of the government of the United

KingdomDefinition of the CrownLiability in contractPersonal liability of the SovereignProcedureDisclosure, further information and evidenceRemedies and execution

14-12414-12414-12514-12814-12814-12914-130

14-13114-13214-13414-13814-13914-14214-143

CHAPTER 15REMEDIES FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF EUROPEAN UNIONLAW IN NATIONAL COURTS

A. The Significance of the Law of the European Union

B. Direct Effect—The Position Under European LawTreaty provisionsTest for direct effect

15-001

15-00415-00415-005

XXXI

CONTENTS

Partial direct effect 15-011Prospective direct effect 15-012Regulations 15-015Directives 15-017Definition of emanation of the State 15-019Test for direct effect 15-024Decisions 15-025Agreements between the European Union and non-Member

states 15-027

C. Supremacy of European Law—The Position under European

Law 15-029

D. Duty of Construction 15-031

E. The Obligation to Achieve Füll and Effective Protection 15-032

F. State Liability in Damages for Violation of European Law 15-033G. European Law in the United Kingdom 15-034

Direct effect 15-034Implementation of Community obligations 15-037Supremacy of European law before United Kingdom

courts 15-040Duty of uniform interpretation 15-045

H. Remedies for Breaches of European Law 15-049Principles laid down by the European Court on remedies 15-049The need to ensure füll and effective protection 15-051The current approach: effectiveness and equivalence 15-052Meaning of equivalence 15-054The principle of füll and effective protection: specific

requirements 15-056Breach of European law: appropriate remedies 15-056

State liability in damages 15-058The decision in Francovich 15-058Conditions for State liability 15-061Substantive and procedural conditions governing State

liability in damages 15-067Restitutionary claims 15-069

Other specific remedies 15-070Right to a judicial remedy 15-071Courts having jurisdiction 15-072Availability of interim relief 15-073Time limits 15-074Interest 15-076Ancillary procedural conditions 15-077Additional restrictions on national law 15-078

xxxii

I. Remedies in English lawPublic law remedies

Decisions contrary to European lawPublic law powers and European lawPowers and duties derived from European lawPrimary legislation and Eurpoean lawSubordinate legislation and European lawInterim relief in public lawRole of courtHabeas corpusAppeals

Private law remediesDamages against a public authorityRemedies against private individuals

Private law causes of action: damages for breach ofstatutory duty

InjunctionsDeclarationsNegligenceEconomic tortsMiscellaneous tortsInnominate tort

Statutory remedies for discrimination in employmentEqual paySex discrimination

Restitutionary remediesEuropean law as a defence

Civil actionsCriminal law

CONTENTS

15-07915-08015-08115-08215-08315-08415-08615-08815-09115-09315-09415-09615-09715-104

15-10515-10715-10915-11015-11115-11215-11315-11415-11615-11715-11815-12215-12215-123

CHAPTER 16REFERENCES TO THE EUROPEAN COURT FOR A PRELIMINARYRULING UNDER ARTICLE 234 (ex Article 177)


B. Questions that may be Referred 16-003

C. Questions of Fact and National Law 16-004

D. Need for a Genuine Dispute 16-005

E. Courts and Tribunals which may Refer under Article 234(2) (exArticle 177(2)) 16-006Arbitration tribunals 16-012U.K. courts and tribunals 16-013

xxxiii

CONTENTS

F. Courts and Tribunals which are Obliged to Refer under Article234(3) (ex Article 177(3)) 16-014The House of Lords and the Court of Appeal 16-016The Divisional Court in Criminal Cases 16-019Administrative tribunals 16-021

G. Exceptions to the Obligation to Refer in Article 234(3) (ex Article177(3)) 16-023

H. Discretion to Refer under Article 234(2) (ex Article 177(2)) 16-027

I.

J-

K.

Approach of the U.K. CourtsDecision on question of European law must be

necessaryGeneral approach to the exercise of discretionNeed to determine the factsNeed to formulate questionsNeed to determine questions of national lawPrevious ruling of the European CourtActe clairAdvantages enjoyed by the European CourtDelay and costDifficulty of point of lawPosition of the court in the judicial hierarchyDesire not to overburden the European CourtWishes of the partiesThe presence of similar actions before the European

CourtStage at which the reference is sought

Procedure before National Courts or TribunalsHigh Court and Court of AppealOther courts and tribunalsCosts and legal aidAppeals against decisions to refer or refusals to referWithdrawal of references

Procedure before the European CourtEffect of a preliminary ruling on questions of validityEffect of a preliminary ruling on a question

interpretationof

Index

16-029

16-03016-03316-03416-03716-03816-03916-04016-04216-04316-04516-04716-04816-049

16-05016-051

16-05316-05316-05516-05616-05716-059

16-06016-064

16-065

567

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