juxtaposing ubuntu values, indigenous knowledge …jbs-re.com/journals/jbs-02062017(1).pdf · ·...
TRANSCRIPT
25
Author: Elliot Kasu
Juxtaposing Ubuntu Values, Indigenous Knowledge Systems, and Entrepreneurship:
Antecedents Underpinning Ubuntupreneurship in Communal Wealth Generation
Elliot Kasu
Da Vinci Institute of Technology and Innovation, South Africa
ABSTRACT
There is a long-standing consensus in most developing countries particularly of Southern Africa
that Ubuntu values and indigenous knowledge systems are important tools which influence
entrepreneurship in communal wealth generation. With the majority of people in these developing
countries such as Zimbabwe, living in rural areas, the conventional wisdom is that juxtaposing
entrepreneurship, Ubuntu values, and indigenous knowledge systems forms predators
underpinning Ubuntupreneurship in communal wealth generation. Notwithstanding the increasing
awareness and importance of these antecedents to Ubuntupreneurship, indigenous knowledge
systems have largely remained implicit and scant. Therefore the primary objective of this study is
to fill this void by examining the influence of these predators to Ubuntupreneurship. Four
hypotheses were posited and data from seventy families from the Tangwena community in Nyanga,
Zimbabwe were collected to empirically test the hypothesis. The results showed that ubuntu values,
indigenous knowledge systems and entrepreneurship influences Ubuntupreneurship which has a
potential for increased community wealth generation. Implications of the findings are discussed,
whilst limitations and future research direction are indicated.
KEYWORDS: Entrepreneurship, Ubuntu values, Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS),
Ubuntupreneurship, Communal wealth generation.
Address Correspondence to: Elliot Kasu – Department of Academic Development and Research,
Da Vinci Institute of Technology and Innovation. Email: [email protected]
Journal of Business Sciences (JBS)
Volume 1, Issue 1, pp. 25-42
(ISSN: 2521-5302)
June 2017
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
26
1.0. INTRODUCTION
The role of entrepreneurship has long been acknowledged (Schumpeter, 1947) which is
characterised by an innovative drive. The enthusiasm of a growing multidisciplinary field,
entrepreneurship has generated a profusion of research practices associated with understanding
and fostering entrepreneurial drive (Fayolle & Riot, 2016). The challenge concerns the problem of
navigating the complex landscape of entrepreneurship research output (Murphy, 2011). (Ramose,
1996) argues that the prevailing role of the community in entrepreneurship differs from the
predominantly individualistic thinking of the West contrary to Africa where civilisation is
characterised by solidarity, communitarianism, traditionalism, and participation. (Bhengu, 2010)
envisions a new economic system transcending the division by integrating economic, social,
environmental goals with African oriented practices premised on Ubuntu to create communal
wealth. African humanism is capable of inspiring a wider world by giving a new and profound
meaning of global business (Bhengu, 2010).
An inquiry on entrepreneurship poses an opportunity of the possibility of combining multiple
perspectives in new and innovative ways. Minimum attention has been given to the wealth of
innovations that occur outside mainstream entrepreneurship (Gupta, 2003) making
entrepreneurship a controversial topic in economic theorisation hence justifying the need for this
research. Research that investigate the antecedents of Ubuntupreneurship in communal wealth
generation in the context of developing countries have largely been neglected, hence the need for
this current research.
It is acknowledged that entrepreneurship research output continues to be regarded as a fragmented
and ‘heterogeneous’ multidisciplinary ‘jigsaw’ (Shane & Venkatarama, 2000). Entrepreneurship
research output is an obstacle to the exploitation of theory development opportunities (Fayolle &
Riot, 2016). Socio-political context within a country foster certain conditions which generate only
the opportunities for entrepreneurs and in particular the skills and motivations (Reynolds et al,
2000). He concluded by saying “Indigenous entrepreneurial development is a key factor to fight
unemployment, poverty and prepare societies for globalisation.
Against the backdrop, the purpose of this current study is to fill the void in modern
entrepreneurship framework by exploring the moderating role created by Ubuntu values and IKS
in the entrepreneurship development. This is achieved by fusing Ubuntu values and indigenous
knowledge systems into modern entrepreneurship, ultimately producing Ubuntupreneurship to
achieve communal wealth generation. Furthermore, the study is expected to bring a strong
theoretical and practical contribution to the existing entrepreneurship literature and practice as a
contribution to entrepreneurship development. On the whole, the findings of the study are intended
to contribute new knowledge to the existing entrepreneurial knowledge.
27
Author: Elliot Kasu
The article consists of sections representing literature review, research methodology which
includes data collection and measurement, data analysis and results, research findings, conclusion
together with limitations to study and suggestions for future study.
2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW
In spite the differences in entrepreneurship types, there are some common aspects which enrich
the characteristics of Ubuntupreneurship. (Pinchot, 2000) argues that enterprises interested in
developing and preserving entrepreneurship should strive to create an environment in which those
who believe in attractiveness feel encouraged to pursue it. This prompts the need to constantly
carry out research to remain relevant in order to increase communal wealth.
2.1. Entrepreneurship Forms
Entrepreneurship has a wide range of meanings and is a discipline with a wide knowledge base
theory. Entrepreneurship is a process of action an entrepreneur undertakes to establish his
enterprise with the ability to create and build something from practically nothing (Loss, &
Bascunan, 2011). Drucker (1985) has a view that entrepreneurship is a systematic innovation
which consists of a purposeful and organised search for changes and it is the systematic analysis
of the opportunities. (Schumpeter, 1934; Drucker, 1985; Loss & Bascunan, 2011) have all
endeavoured to add on to the literature on entrepreneurship. (Pinchot, 2000) described the
intrapreneurship the short for intra-corporate entrepreneurship. (Loss and Bascunan, 2011) said
the term social entrepreneurship first came into widespread use in the literature on social change
in the 1960s and 1970s. (Yunus, 2006) added his voice on social entrepreneurship by defining
social entrepreneurship as creating business models around low cost products and services to
resolve social inequalities. Furthermore (Brush & Hirsch, 1999) said that the topic of women
entrepreneurship has been neglected both in society in general and in social sciences. According
to (Loss & Bascunan, 2011) a consistent theory of entrepreneurship is missing, a theory that is
adequate to combine the various strands of literature to come up with an empirically testable
model. A modern approach should also contain theories such as human capital (Schultz, 1975),
social networks (Granovetter, 1985), indigenous knowledge systems and African Humanism
(Bhengu, 2010).
2.2. Ubuntu Values
Africans have a thing called Ubuntu, which is the essence of being human and is part of the gift
that Africa is going to give the world (Tutu, 1995) as such he believes that a person is a person
through other persons. Accordingly, Khoza, (2012) said Ubuntu (in Zulu), botho (in Lesotho),
vhuntu (in Venda), vumunhu (in Xitsanga) and unhu (in Shona) means humanism encompassing
values such as the universal brotherhood of Africans, sharing, treating and respecting other people
as human beings. Nussbaum, (2003) views Ubuntu as a simple big idea which is regarded by many
as the foundation for human relations. Equally Bhengu, (2010) views African humanism as an
alternative which has already been applied in the peripheral context of African villages and is
capable of inspiring a wider world by giving a new and profound meaning to global business. He
also visualises African economic humanism establishing a crucible in which a new economic
system is being forged, one that transcends the division between first and second world, one that
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
28
integrates social and environmental goals, one that balances shareholder return and one that brings
the heart and soul in the workplace. Khoza, (2012) believes that African humanism overcomes the
deficiency in Western individualistic rationalism but inculcates a collective spirit in business
activities. The all-pervading disease in the modern world is the total imbalance between city and
countryside and imbalances in terms of wealth, power and hope (Kumar, 2013). In Ubuntu we find
elements of entrepreneurship and leadership philosophies that could be applied universally.
Therefore the philosophy of African humanism and related IKS offers a special contribution to the
conduct of business (Bhengu, 2010) and more specifically entrepreneurship.
2.3. Indigenous Knowledge Systems
The concept of Integral Dynamics by Schieffer & Lessem, (2012) advocates that communities
have many aspects that are dynamic but are integral parts of the whole. The world is comprised of
many aspects such as nature, culture, and spirituality that evolve independently of each other
becoming integral and dynamic parts of the whole. There is a large body of literature showing that
indigenous entrepreneurs applied local knowledge resulting in grassroots innovations which hold
great potential for solving contemporary problems such as well as delivering sustainable
development (Gupta, 2003).
Indigenous people view themselves as collective groups that work closely together, being knit
together by common ancestors, history, language, culture, spirituality even tradition (Hindle, &
Lansdowne, 2005). The indigenous people acquire local knowledge systems through the
accumulation of experiences, informal experiments and intimate understanding of the environment
(Rajasekaran, 1993). Hindle, & Lansdowne, (2005) defined indigenous entrepreneurship as the
management and development of initiatives carried out by indigenous people for the benefit of
their communities. The innovations are cost effective, ecosystem friendly and sustainable due to
intimate knowledge of the ecosystem in the locality (Gupta, 2003). Indigenous entrepreneurial
development is a key factor to fight against unemployment, poverty and prepare societies for
globalisation (Reynolds, 1997) and cultural renaissance determines politico-socio-economic
transformation (Steiner, 1999). As such indigenous entrepreneurs use indigenous knowledge to
generate grass root innovations that are need based, simple and cost effective to achieve communal
wealth generation through Ubuntupreneurship.
2.4. Ubuntupreneurship
There is a need to integrate traditional and contemporary management approaches and apply them
in the face of unique challenges (Smit. et al, 2011). African business environment can only be
answered from management perspectives that are rooted solidly a mind-set that is uniquely African
(Visser, 1997). The incongruence of the application of Western principles on the African
environment has resulted in some uniquely African challenges (Smit et al, 2011). By celebrating
diversity and reflecting the fullness of the human being, in the business sphere, a truly unified
society might emanate (Lessem & Nussbaum, 1996). African entrepreneurship is original, has no
limits like the Western one which is survival of the fittest (Kadenge, 2013). African economic
29
Author: Elliot Kasu
humanism establishes a crucible in which new entrepreneurial and economic systems are forged
transcending the division first and second worlds (Bhengu, 2010).
Ubuntupreneurship has a strong base in the humanistic values of Ubuntu that brings forth images
of supportiveness, cooperation, self-reliance, solidarity and communalisation. (Khoza, 2012)
purports that Ubuntu emphasises dignity and regards all people as members of the global
community, overcoming the deficiency in Western individualistic entrepreneurship. At the same
time, entrepreneurship like other human endeavours takes place within a cultural context.
(Hofstede, 1991) holds that culture is always a collective phenomenon, as it is shared between
people who live in the same social setting or context. As such entrepreneurship has to pay attention
to renewal of indigenous cultures and moral values (Mbigi, 1997). The observance of cultural
values in Ubuntupreneurship brings forth good manners, respect, understanding of the good and
an appreciation of the way in which we serve each other (De Pree, 1989).The interconnectedness
of indigenous and exogenous entrepreneurship forms enables people to get out of poverty circles
(Nussbaum & Lessem, 2005), increasing the ability for all to create communal wealth. It is viewed
that Ubuntupreneurship bridges the gap between modern entrepreneurship and the potential of the
opposite paradigm based on Ubuntu and IKS. Therefore Ubuntupreneurship begins in the everyday
life of the local people and grown through the diversity of local projects (Ledwith, 2005).
2.5. Communal Wealth Generation
The dream of African people is to have the disadvantaged becoming Ubuntupreneurs and active
partners in communal wealth generation. Ubuntu certainly rejects the rugged individualism,
(Khoza, 2012), that seems to be encouraged by Western entrepreneurial systems and ideological
persuasion. In Africa, things are quite otherwise, civilization is characterized above all by
solidarity, communitarianism, traditionalism, and participation. Gbadegesin, (1991) urged that a
person’s influence and personality is dependent on the community. Therefore the meaning of one’s
life is measured by one’s commitment to the social ideals and communal existence. Adamson,
(2003) asserts that everything we do is geared towards helping our communities to achieve control
over their entrepreneurial processes, cultural rights and intellectual property. Escobar, (2008)
visualizes the emergence of a new entrepreneurship rooted in the community, cultural tradition,
human psyche, indigenous institutions and models that embody the structure and function of
modernity. He believes that communities offer a reservoir of possibilities and the key development
is to unleash the innovative potential that has in it “vitality of place”. Therefore,
Ubuntupreneurship begins in the everyday life of the local people and grown through the diversity
of local projects (Ledwith, 2005). Development of the community and its entrepreneurs is need
based and achieved through engagement, (Mulgon, 2005) and needs to be seen as a whole life
project rather than merely focussing on economic aspects (Escobar, 2008). In the African context,
all institutions and individuals cooperate within unified societal entity to produce a person, the
community or entity that they will ultimately be proud of. Resultantly, Ubuntupreneurship
promotes collective action where people joins together to tackle problems of common interest
(Coppock & Desta, 2013) to achieve communal wealth generation. The incorporation of
collectivism is a key African humanism, socio-economic and cultural renewal which promotes
workplace democracy. Ubuntupreneurship brings that workplace democracy together with the
rights of the people, their spirituality based on respect for humanity and the harmonising of the
workplace. Most stories of entrepreneurship emanate from individualism with collective wealth
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
30
generation seldom recognized as an entrepreneurial activity (Champbell et al, 2006) hence the
development of the unique Ubuntupreneurship model.
3.0. CONCEPTUAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT
In order to integrate modern entrepreneurship, Ubuntu values, and IKS as predators of
Ubuntupreneurship in creating communal wealth, a conceptual model is developed premised on
Ubuntupreneurship to accommodate the dream of African people to have the disadvantaged
becoming Ubuntupreneurs and active partners in community wealth generation. Ubuntu certainly
rejects the rugged individualism, (Khoza, 2012), that seems to be encouraged by some
entrepreneurial systems and ideological persuasion. Everything we do is geared towards helping
our communities to achieve control over their entrepreneurial processes, cultural rights and
intellectual property (Adamson, 2003). Escobar, (2008) visualizes the emergence of a new
entrepreneurship rooted in the community, cultural tradition, human psyche, indigenous
institutions and models that embody the structure and function of modernity hence the emergence
of Ubuntupreneurship. Development of the community and its entrepreneurs is need-based and
achieved through engagement, (Mulgan, 2005) and needs to be seen as a whole life project rather
than merely focussing on economic aspects (Escobar, 2008). Entrepreneurship emanates from
individualism with collective wealth generation seldom recognized as an entrepreneurial activity
(Steyaert & Hjorth, 2006) hence the development of the unique Ubuntupreneurship model. As
such, Ubuntupreneurship promotes collective action where people joins together to tackle
problems of common interest (Coppock & Desta, 2013) to achieve community wealth generation.
The model is segmented into four integral Southern, Eastern, Northern and Western worlds, with
their relationships discussed thereafter. Figure 1 depicts the conceptualized research model used.
31
Author: Elliot Kasu
Figure 1: The Ubuntupreneurship Conceptual Model
3.1. Southern Ubuntu values and ubuntupreneurship
Conventional entrepreneurship wisdom is a narrow base drawn from the West (Lessem &
Schieffer, 2010). A dynamic system has to evolve grounded through continuity of traditional
knowledge and contemporary innovations (Hoppers, 2002). The African tree of knowledge stems
from African humanism, traditional democracy and nature which are the wellspring following with
African ontology and epistemology (Ramose, 1994). It is grounded in humanness, traditional
democracy, cooperative production, cultural identity, social relations, self-reliance, cooperation,
solidarity, forgiveness and reconciliation (Khoza, 2012) assumed to drive the Ubuntupreneurship
process. Ubuntu has the capacity to express compassion, reciprocity, dignity, harmony and
humanity into the business environment (Nussbaum, 2003). As such, Ubuntupreneurship
derivation from Ubuntu values and conventional entrepreneurship pillars bring personhood and
relationships (Khoza, 2012). Ubuntupreneurship may become an economic philosophy that
appreciates human needs, dignity and based on the principles of complimentary and solidarity
(Bhengu, 2010) and recognises its harmony with nature for the global economy to be sustained.
The purpose of business lies in the society becoming an organ of the society (Drucker, 1985)
calling for community activation to address their burning desire and issue, as a healing component
to restore relational fabric (Mwamuka, et al; 2014) to release participation potential of the
community (Schieffer, & Lessem, 2014) emerging through IKS.
P1: Grounding in Southern Ubuntu values drives Ubuntupreneurship
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
32
3.2. Indigenous knowledge systems and the Bridge to prosperity
Little is known about how culture evolves throughout the different stages of life cycle and how
evolution affects these companies’ ability to nature entrepreneurship (Loss & Bascunan, 2011).
Spirituality may elevate and ennoble, degrade and debase and the undiscovered or neglected
indeed despised terrain of African spirituality may hold some answers to some of the material the
world is facing (Soyinka, 2012). Schaffer, (2014) maintained that little consideration has been
given to the role of culture in opening the doors for spirituality. Future research should explore
cultural differences across life cycle stages (Bill & Gasick, 1997) and the role their differences
play in influencing entrepreneurship. Researchers need also to document how beliefs and values
influence employee attitudes and permanent and as a result, entrepreneurship (Rogoff & Heck,
2003).
The perceived inadequacies have given rise to the emergence of Ubuntupreneurship which proffers
an opportunity for entrepreneurship to engage with the dynamics of Ubuntu values, culture, nature,
spirituality and other IKS becoming important for catalysing integral development. The local
knowledge systems help to generate sustainable entrepreneurial solutions delivered from
traditional knowledge systems with the potential to solve contemporary problems. Cultural force
is probably the most revolutionary aspect which demonstrates how indigenous knowledge systems
and an understanding of one’s cultural and societal context as well as that of the other provides for
a sustainable and integrated organisation (Lessem & Schieffer, 2010). The observation of cultural
values ultimately brought back good manners, respect, understanding of understanding of the good
and an appreciation of the way in which we serve each other (De Pree, 1989). Therefore cultural
renaissance or renewal alongside other indigenous knowledge systems may be a foundation that
determines the quality of socio-economic transformation (Steiner, 1999). As such, the
transformation of entrepreneurship to Ubuntupreneurship means that enterprises will carry out
entrepreneurial activities in a manner that is more or less defined by others for the betterment of
communities.
P2: Emerging through indigenous knowledge systems is related to the bridge to prosperity
3.3. Increased level of entrepreneurship (intrapreneurship) and Ubuntupreneurship
In spite of the differences in the definitions and types of entrepreneurship, there are some common
aspects such as risk taking, creativity, innovation, independence, and rewards. Notably most
available studies have focussed on modern entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship and
intrapreneurship and partially on women entrepreneurship. New research is required for successful
entrepreneurship to prevail (Loss & Bascunan, 2011). Locating entrepreneurship in public domain,
where community goals are achieved through engaging in social processes is paramount (Steyaert
& Hjorth, 2006). The current entrepreneurial paradigm has neglected Ubuntu and related IKS as
engines for economic growth. The private entrepreneur is dedicated to profit maximisation, a
33
Author: Elliot Kasu
theory which suffers from a conceptual failure to capture the essence of what is human (Yunus,
2006). Using the indigenous economic and social systems produces more output (Bhengu, 2010).
Businesses need to move to the heart of sustainable development to the benefit of both itself and
also the community within which it operates (Lessem & Schieffer, 2009). This suggests that the
discipline of entrepreneurship is in a stage of flux and in transition.
It can be observed that, today’s entrepreneurship seems to be much rooted in a mechanistic and
individualistic world views strongly influenced by Western viewpoint which neglects the African
viewpoint. In view of the identified gap, the objective of the research is to integrate Ubuntu values
and IKS to influence the entrepreneurial process, resulting in the emergence of Ubuntupreneurship
to co-create with modern entrepreneurship. Then Ubuntupreneurship ultimately engages and
embraces with the dynamics of culture, community, spirituality, nature and related IKS evolving
a new futuristic entrepreneurial approach to creating community wealth.
P3: Increased level of entrepreneurship (intrapreneurship) has positive effects on
Ubuntupreneurship
3.4. Community wealth generation and Ubuntupreneurship
Charity is rooted in the basic human concern for other humans (Yunus, 2006), thus the spirit of
Ubuntu or people-centricity, has survived the constant barrage of individualistic emerging values
dedicating lives to the betterment of communities (Biko, 2013). Furthermore, Hindle and
Lansdowne, (2005) defines indigenous entrepreneurship as the management and development of
initiatives for the benefit of the community. As such Lietaer, (2010) also argued that we need to
collectively and contextually leverage our human wealth earned through our energy and creativity
to achieve individual, family community, society and international integrity. Interconnectedness
in community is a key characteristic of the African way of thinking as the community is reflected
in a binding network of relationships Lessem and Nussbaum, (1996) to create wealth. The purpose
of business must, in fact, lie in society, since a business enterprise is an organ of society (Drucker,
1985). Ubuntu reflects the strong interdependence of human beings as we say a person is a person
through other persons (Mbigi, 1997). The economy is to be embedded in the community and seen
in its interdependent relationship with society and supporting institutions (Polanyi, 2001). An
emergent process rooted in the ground of each community’s history, culture, tradition indigenous
institutions and models embody the structures and functions of modernity (Escobar, 2008).
Community offers a reservoir of possibilities that are the key to Ubuntupreneurship to unleash the
innovative potential that lies in it (Gudeman (2001). Every entrepreneurial effort is geared towards
helping the community achieve control over their own assets (Adamson, 2003). All institutions
and individuals cooperate within a unified societal entity to produce an organisation that they will
be proud of through collectivism (Mbigi, 2000).
Reynolds, (1997) concluded by saying indigenous entrepreneurship has been found to yield
significant economic benefits through social legitimacy of entrepreneurial efforts. In terms of
Ubuntupreneurship, the community concept perceives the business organisation as an integral
community which the individual belongs to, while the whole organisation is a member of the
extended family which is a special contribution to the conduct of business and more specifically
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
34
entrepreneurship. The activation process requires the community to revisit nature, spirituality,
African Humanism and the role of indigenous entrepreneurs to unearth IKS to yield community
wealth generation, sustainable development, and knowledge creation.
P4: Community wealth generation is achieved through fostering Ubuntupreneurship
4.0. RESEARCH DESIGN
The research was underpinned by the tenets of Integral Research propounded by Lessem and
Schieffer, (2010) and their refinement on the alternating rhythms comprised of the 4Cs (Call,
Context, Co-creation, and Contribution). The guiding theme of Call was to interlink the
Researcher’s calling with the real life community burning issues. The guiding theme underlying
Context was to uncover areas of imbalance and disintegration in the entrepreneurial context. The
purpose of Co-creation was to interweave research path and knowledge following the southern
relational path (Lessem & Schieffer, 2010) which allowed the researcher to passionately involve
his total self with the community. Under Co-creation we adopted the Southern Relational Path,
segmented into the descriptive method, which was used to get in touch with the burning issues,
desire and the context, Phenomenology helped to lay the foundation for new theory, feminism
helped to challenge the short comings of the existing entrepreneurship frameworks and finally
Ubuntupreneurship was tested in practice through Participatory Action Research (PAR) together
with the community. PAR emphasised collective inquiry and experiences of all parties throughout
the whole research process which combined participatory research and action research. The
contribution was meant to distil and share our integral development with the community and
society aiming to transform local and global entrepreneurship frameworks.
The research was a four-fold transformation process which Lessem and Schieffer (2010) coined
Grounding, Emergence, Navigation and effecting (GENE Concept) which illustrated how the
GENE-ius of a social organisation can be realised (Lessem & Schieffer 2009). The integral social
and economic transformation advocated for the integration of all knowledge systems from the four
worlds, the South, East, North and West which help communities to build open societies, alleviate
poverty ultimately renewing societies (Lessem & Schieffer, 2010). We travelled along the path
towards healing the burning issues and desires of the Tangwena community by moving from the
formative to the transformative and origination to transformation to discover the cultural historical
roots and Ubuntu values being essential elements for entrepreneurship.
4.1. Sampling and Data Collection
The social research was based on the real life of the Tangwena community in the Nyanga district
of Zimbabwe. The population was the collection of about two thousand families in the Tangwena
community which the conclusions were drawn from. A sample composed of twelve households
per in each of the seven clusters judgementally selected from the population, totalling eighty four
families, possessing relative characteristics formed part of the research team. Judgement sampling
35
Author: Elliot Kasu
based on the traditional leaders’ expertise about the population was used to select the sample. Data
was collected from all relevant groups including men, women, youths and the disabled from
various income levels, race, education, and neighbourhood. Knowledge of past trends and
experiences enabled us to come up with the conclusions. The burning issue of the population
stemmed from the unusual economic environment where everyone was at varying levels of
economic progress with significant gaps amongst the people due to the prevailing entrepreneurial
environment. The burning desire of the researcher was to liberate the community from the bondage
of poverty and suffering. As such the research linked the community around the burning issue and
desire, linking diverse research ontological perspectives, linking academia and practitioners
linking indigenous wisdom and global external knowledge.
Most strategic initiatives fall short because of lack of effective ecosystems (Lessem & Schieffer
2009). In light of their experiences and knowledge grounded towards social history, a dynamic
and interconnected ecosystem was designed to co-creatively support the transformation data
collection and analysis process. As a community, we accepted that we are highly interdependent
and connected like an extended family. The ecosystem comprised a rich cast of characters grouped
into stewards, facilitators, educators, and catalysts. The stewards included the local Member of
Parliament, councillor, traditional leaders and the eighty-four households. This helped to dig deep
into the cultural, traditional and spiritual grounds of the community and nature. This researcher
assisted by other three fellow researchers who strongly believed in the power of African culture,
spirituality and tradition in building a new form of entrepreneurship performed the catalytic role.
Catalysation helped to dig into the cultural and spiritual grounds of the community. Navigating
knowledge through the community was the role of educators. Da Vinci Institute, Business Training
Development (BTD), and Trans4m based in Geneva were the educators who distributed and
explained explicit knowledge documented through theoretical frameworks and models and
integrated with indigenous knowledge system. The facilitators comprised of Agriculture Extension
Officers (AREX), other government departments and Nyanga Potato Seed Association. They
contributed towards instilling the ‘Ubuntupreneurial spirit of agriculture’ to solve the communal
poverty issues. The ubuntupreneurial spirit of the projects was anchored on traditional agricultural
practices (group work, offering services to another among others) culminating into the emergency
of the Tangwena Traders Association which became a hub centre for trade and communication.
4.2. Measurement Instrument
The hypothesis testing began with the assumption made by the population parameter that Ubuntu
values, IKS, and entrepreneurship are predators of Ubuntupreneurship which result in community
wealth generation (H0). We then collected data, produced sample information to decide how likely
it is that the hypothesised population parameter is correct. The research adopted explanatory
interviews, action research, participation observation, brain storming (Dandaro Theory in the
Shona Language), surveys and correlation of indigenous and exogenous knowledge systems which
afforded an opportunity to experience for real the emotions of the community. These were more
useful to acquire in-depth information about people’s history or perspectives on
ubuntupreneurship. In a bid to become successful Ubuntuneurs the project members established
model households through Ubuntupreneurship activities to combat poverty and achieve
sustainable livelihood through implementing Ubuntu values and IKS which required a
combination of goodwill, determination, honesty and hard work. The community had implicit
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
36
Knowledge and expertise predating colonial times, spanning the fields of management,
entrepreneurship, governance, philosophy, religion, agriculture, health, health and so on. The
research revealed that a variety of African knowledge systems are of great relevance to
Ubuntupreneurship towards community wealth generation. Almost seventy percent of the project
members achieved the targets they set for themselves at the beginning of the research.
4.3. Validation Measurement
Here we are trying to determine the reliability and validity of the research outcomes. In accordance
with integral research (Lessem & Schieffer, 2010) the two-step research procedure combine
participatory research and action research to confirm the outcomes. PAR is an approach to research
that emphasises participation and action based on reflection, data collection and action through
involving people, emphasising collective inquiry and experience grounded in expertise and social
history. The research sought to understand entrepreneurship by attempting to change it
collaboratively and the following reflection. When participants and researchers are regarded as
partners, the result focus and results can be more relevant (Lock, et al 2007). The research process
encouraged equal participation from researchers and participants who are regarded as experts due
to their lived experiences (Jacobson et al 2005; Lock et al 2007). Power sharing eliminated
inequalities as such research members made collaborative decisions and made changes desired by
the group (Danley et al 1999; Rempfer & Knott2001). The process involves selecting research
outcomes related to dependency, oppression and other inequalities in need of evaluation (Khanlou
& Peter 2005). Ubuntupreneurial characteristics were evaluated and action is taken eventually
achieving social change (Danley, et al 2007; Lock, et al 2007). By involving the participants in the
study, desired changes are achieved by the group (Danley et al 1999; Rempfer & Knott 2001). The
ultimate goal was achieved by using the research results and findings to witness improvement
within the community which resulted in community wealth generation through Ubuntupreneurship
activities. The evaluation was a process rather than a stage in itself since the decisions made during
the preliminary stages impacted the later stages in the process.
4.4. Proposition Evaluations
Hypothesis testing attempts to determine when it is reasonable to conclude from the analysis of a
sample that the population parameter shares the same viewpoint (Levin, 1984) that Ubuntu values,
IKS and entrepreneurship, in particular, intrapreneurship are predators of Ubuntupreneurship. To
test the validity of our assumption, we gathered a sample and embarked on PAR to determine the
hypothesised gathered data and the outcomes. Hypothesis 1 predicts that grounding in Ubuntu
values drives Ubuntupreneurship. PAR supported and demonstrated the view that rooting
Ubuntupreneurship in Ubuntu values and IKS made transformation an immediate driver for
motivating the community. The approach fused the values of solidarity, communitarianism and
participation together with other forms of entrepreneurship. Hypothesis 2 predicts that emerging
through IKS is the bridge to prosperity. Advancing collective desire of the community became a
legacy every Ubuntupreneur thrived to achieve by taking cognisance of traditional value context
37
Author: Elliot Kasu
drawn from nature, spirituality, and culture to emphasise awareness of the needs of others. PAR
promoted oneness and inspired the participants to share their Ubuntupreneurship successes and/or
failures together in a culturally resonate manner. Prolonged reflection was achieved through
“Dandaro Intervention” to brainstorm key strategic issues accompanied by dancing and singing in
promoting the spirit of togetherness. Hypothesis 3 predicts that increased levels of
entrepreneurship (intrapreneurship) have positive effects on Ubuntupreneurship. Economists
generally agree that it is a crucial factor in the diffusion of new technologies, competitiveness and
the creation of new innovations. However entrepreneurial agents are almost invisible in economic
theories embedded in African Economic Humanism. Intrapreneurship gives rise to
Ubuntupreneurship through the intra-organisation innovations to foster economic growth.
However to adequately fuse intrapreneurship into Ubuntupreneurship, requires the organisation to
provide the time, space and resources to turn their ideas into reality. Hypothesis 3 predicts that
community wealth generation is achieved through fostering Ubuntupreneurship. In
Ubuntupreneurship, all institutions and individuals cooperate to produce a person, the community
or organisation. Through community consciousness based on collectivism, a tight network of
interdependent relationship is established. The community becomes the candle of the individual
and his obligations towards the collective are of primary importance. Collectivism stresses the
importance of social units in wealth generation to the point of depersonalising the individual.
Ubuntupreneurship respects the individual and places the importance of working for a common
goal as an integral member in community wealth generation. The creation of Ubuntupreneurship
closes the gap between indigenous entrepreneurship and conventional entrepreneurship.
5.0. RESEARCH FINDINGS
Indeed it was the experience of the community which had strong effects on the research outcomes.
The research enlivened various Ubuntu values, and IKS as a way to achieve Ubuntupreneurship in
community wealth generation. There was no substitute for our cultural roots which were necessary
anchors for ideas from our cultures. People valued their relationships/personhood and gave consent
to a person’s understanding of proper behaviour towards others, ultimately witnessing a
community characterised by a vibrant network of relationships. As such we could not succeed on
our own but needed each other to form an eternal bond of reciprocity/social relations between us.
Traditional values were constantly embraced through a combination of engagement, participatory
action, and local ownership to collectively deal with common problems. We developed our own
motivation to become passionate advocates of self-reliance, ultimately establishing an ethic of hard
work. Cooperation and solidarity were exhibited in the spirit of suffering, drawing strength from
collective spiritual and emotional solidarity. Language, cultural and religious values served to
define the community through a stronger cultural identity. Cultural expression was demonstrated
through Ubuntu values, music, dance, art, drama, and storytelling to support and affirm cultural
identity and team building. We were in the same sense bound by each other by drawing our being
from the collective spirit of humanity as a whole. Every activity was performed in the spirit of
forgiveness and reconciliation. To avoid conflicts, forgiveness became a fundamental precondition
for the creation of a fair and stable community.
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
38
In the context of this research, entrepreneurship centred on re-energising and enhancing the ability
to be creative and innovative. The major thrust being to develop entrepreneurial spirit within the
organisational boundaries which allows an atmosphere of innovation to prosper. Thus we
promoted innovation among members by giving careful attention to their individual attitudes,
values and behaviour orientations. We revisited IKS enabling the integration of indigenous
exogenous knowledge system to create a new form of Ubuntupreneurship. Despite the differences
between entrepreneurship and Ubuntupreneurship there are some common aspects such as, risk
taking, innovation, creativity, interdependence and rewards. These commonalities together with
Ubuntu values and IKS continue to be the driving forces behind Ubuntupreneurial activities. The
Ubuntupreneurial mentality manifest in the Ubuntupreneurs helped to overcome problems that
other people found insurmountable.
6.0. CONCLUSION
The purpose of the research was to examine the influence of Ubuntu values, IKS and
entrepreneurship on Ubuntupreneurship in communal wealth generation. In particular, four
hypotheses were postulated. To test the hypothesis, data were collected from the Tangwena
community of Nyanga in Zimbabwe. The empirical results supported all the postulated research
assumptions in a significant way. Important to this study is that the juxtaposition of Ubuntu values,
IKS and entrepreneurship have an influence on Ubuntupreneurship to generate communal wealth.
This implies that Ubuntupreneurship is a new form of entrepreneurship which attempts to close
the gap in entrepreneurship existing literature.
6.1. Implications to the study
IKS has the implicit knowledge and expertise predating colonial times spanning the fields of
management, philosophy, religion, agriculture, health, science technology and so on. Nevertheless,
IKS continues to be transmitted orally and retaining the hold on the life of the majority of Africans.
Indeed, it is logical in that Ubuntu values and IKS increase collectivism in communal wealth
generation and closes the gap between indigenous entrepreneurship and exogenous
entrepreneurship. Therefore this implies that Ubuntupreneurs need to prioritise Ubuntupreneurship
to foster improved communal wealth generation in their business ventures.
6.2. Limitations and future research direction
Although the study makes some significant contribution to both academia and practice, it was
limited to Ubuntupreneurship without analysing other fields of management. It revealed that a
variety of the implicit African knowledge still remain of great relevance in transforming
communities. Future studies can also extend to the current study framework by making IKS more
explicit through studying the effects of a larger set of variables. The further research which makes
IKS more explicit to support innovations and development in communities need to be
strengthened. This helps to reconnect with tradition and the aspects of culture and spirituality to
39
Author: Elliot Kasu
develop effective Ubuntupreneurship strategies in order to survive the challenging environment
and build sustainable livelihoods and transformative education in various communities. Further
research should explore the effects cultural differences across the entrepreneurial life cycle stages
and also document how beliefs and values influence employee attitudes. Subsequent research
should consider replicating this study in other developing countries. Above and beyond, this
investigation will contribute to literature to the existing body of knowledge on entrepreneurship,
leadership and management in developing countries such as Zimbabwe and globally.
7.0. REFERENCES
Bewanyi, J. A. I., & Ramose, M. B., (2003). The African ethic of Ubuntu/Botho: Implications of
research on morality. Journal of Moral Education, 39(3), 273-290
Bhengu, M. J. (2010). African economic humanism: The rise of an African economic philosophy.
Farnham: Grower.
Biko, H. (2013). The great African society: A plan for a nation gone astray. Jeppestown, Jonathan
Ball Publishers.
Bill, F. B., & Gasick, E. J., (1997). Social and cultural history. Texas, Kickapoo Journal: 2, 74-
81.
Brush, C., & Hisrich, R. D., (1999). Women owned businesses: Why do they matter? Boston MA,
Kluwer academic publisher.
Coppock, D. L., & Desta, S., (2013). Collective action, innovation and wealth generation among
settled pastoral women in northern Kenya: Rangeland ecology & management Journal
66(1), 95-105.
Danley, K., & Langer, E., (1999). A Handbook for participatory action researchers. Boston,
Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation.
De Pree, M. (1989). Leadership is an Art. New York, Dell Publishing.
Drucker, P. E. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship practice and principles: New York,
Harper & Row.
Escobar, A. (2008). Territories of difference: Place, movements, life, redes. Durham NC, Duke
University Press.
Fayolle, A., & Riot, P., (2016). Rethinking Entrepreneurship: Debating research orientations.
New York, NY, Rutledge.
Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic action and social structure: The problem of embeddedness.
Journal: 9(3), 829-845.
Gudeman, S. (2001). The anthropology of economy, community, market and culture. Oxford,
Blackwell.
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
40
Gupta, D. (2003). Meeting felt aspiration: Towards a new paradigm of development. New Delhi,
Journal of Labour Economics. 46.
Hindle, K., & Lansdowne, M., (2005). Brave spirits on new paths: Toward a globally relevant
paradigm of indigenous Entrepreneurship research, Journal of Small Business and
Entrepreneurship, 18(2), 131-141.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organisations: Software in mind. London, McGraw-Hill.
Hoppers, C. (2002). Indigenous Knowledge Systems. Cape Town, New Africa books.
Jacobson, N., Altenberg, R., Barnes, J., Cussion, R., Rowley, V., & Mckinon, B., (2005). Using
participatory action research to explore recovery with alternatives. Canada, Journal on
Community Mental Health, 24(2), 85-97.
Kadenge, L. (2013). African traditional religion. Zimbabwe, Methodist Theological College
Khanlou, N., & Peter E., (2005). Participatory action research: Consideration for ethical review,
Journal of Social Sciences and Medicine: 60(10), 2333-2340.
Khoza, R. J. (1994). African humanism on ubuntu as a philosophy of life and its potential
application. Johannesburg, Monograph Ekhaya promotions.
Khoza, R. J. (2012). Attuned leadership: African humanism as a compass. Johannesburg, Penguin
books.
Kumar, S. (2013). Soil, soul, society: A trinity for our time. Lewes, Leaping Hare press.
Ledwith, M. (2005). Community development: A critical approach. Bristol, The policy press.
Lessem, R., & Nussbaum, B., (1996). Sawubona Africa: Embracing four worlds in Southern
African management. South Africa, Zebra Press, Struik Publishers.
Lessem, R., & Schieffer, A., (2009). Transformation management towards the integral enterprise.
Farnham, Gower Publishing.
Lessem, R., & Schieffer, A., (2010). Integral research and innovation. Farnham, Gower
Publishing.
Levin, R. I. (1984). Statistics for Management. New Jersey, Prentice/Hall International.
Lietar, B. (2001). The Future of Money. London, Centuary.
Lock, M., Barber. R., Jones, A., & Lovell, J., (2007). Service users’ views of self-help strategies
and research. United Kingdom, Journal of Mental Health, 16(6), 85-97.
Loss, M., & Bascunan, F. L., (2011). Entrepreneurship development. New Delhi, Global village
publishing house.
41
Author: Elliot Kasu
Mbigi, L. (1997). Ubuntu, Johannesburg, Knowledge resources.
Mbigi, L. (1997). Ubuntu: The spirit of African transformation management. Johannesburg,
Knowledge resources.
Mulgan, G. A. (2005). A sense of community resurgence. Journal 172.
Murphy, P. J. (2011). A 2x2 conceptual foundation for entrepreneurial discovery theory:
EntrepreneurshipTheory and Practice Journal: 35(2), 359-374.
Mwamuka, E., Lessem, R., & Schieffer, A., (2014). Integral green Zimbabwe: An African phoenix
rising. Farnham, Gower Publishing.
Nussbaum, B. (2003). African culture and Ubuntu: Reflection on a South African in American
perspectives. World business academy Journal, 17(1).
Nussbaum, B., & Lessem, R., (2005). A South African social entrepreneur turns a new economic
vision into practice: Rekindling the human spirit in business. South Africa, Zebra press.
Pinchot, G. (2000). Intrapreneur ing: Why you don’t have to leave the corporation to become an
entrepreneur. San Francisco, Barrett Koehler.
Polanyi, K. (2001). The great transformation: The political and economic origins of our time.
Boston, MA Beacon.
Rajasekaran, B. (1993). A framework of incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into
agricultural and extension organisations for sustainable agricultural development. India,
Iowa University, paper 10180.
Ramose, M. B. (1996). Ubuntu and communalisation in African philosophy and art. Henk van
Den Heuvel, UNISA Rosenberg edition
Rempfer, M., & Knott, J., (2001). Participatory action research: A model for establishing
partnerships between mental and health researchers and persons with psychiatric
disabilities. Birmingham, Haworth Press, 151-165.
Reynolds, P. (1997). Participation in entrepreneurial process: Estimates of US households.
Wellesley, MA, Babson College, Entrepreneurial Research Consortium.
Rogoff, E. G., & Heck, R. K. Z., (2003). Evolving research in entrepreneurship and family
business: Recognising family as the oxygen that that feeds the fire on entrepreneurship.
Journal of Business Venturing, (18/5), 559-566.
Schafer, P. (2014). The age of culture. Oakville, Ontario, Rock Mills Press.
Schieffer, A., & Lessem, R., (2014). Integral development: Releasing the potential of individuals,
organisations and societies. Farnham, Gower publishing.
Schultz, T. W. (1975). Erratum to: Economics of the family: Marriage, children and human capital.
American Journal, 12(4), 679-679.
Schumpeter, J. (1934). The theory of economic development. Cambridge University press.
JOURNAL OF BUSINESS SCIENCES (JBS)
42
Schumpeter, J. (1947). The creative response in economic history. The Journal of Economic
History, Volume 2.
Shane, S., & Venkatarama, S., (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research.
Academy of management review Journal, 25(1).
Smit, P. J., Cronje, G. T., Brevis, T., & Vrba, M. J., (2011). Management principles: A
contemporary edition for Africa. Onizleme, Yok, Juta & company.
Soyinka, W. (2012). Indigenous African religion. Amazon Books.
Steiner, R. (1999). Towards social renewal. London, Steiner Press.
Steyaert, C., & Hjorth. D., (2006). Entrepreneurship and social change. Northants, Edward Elgar.
Tutu, D. (1995). The right of hope: Global problems, global vision. One World Art, NZDL.
Visser, W. (1997). Afrocentric business in Southern Africa. World Business Academy perspectives
Journal, 11(3).
Yunus, M. (2006). Creating a world without poverty. New York, Public Affairs.