karl marx as religious eschatologist

8/10/2019 Karl Marx as Religious Eschatologist

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Karl Marx as Religious Eschatologist

Mises Daily: Friday, October 09, 2009 by Murray N. Rothbard

Article Comments Also by Murray N. Rothbard

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Mar as Millennial Communist Reabsor!tion "heolo#y $e#el as %antheist Reabsor!tionist Communism as the &in#dom o' (od on )arth *

o From +oachim to M nt-er o "he "a eo/er o' M nster

"he Rea!!earance o' Communism in the French Re/olution "he ur#eonin# o' Communism in the 1 30s and 1 0s &arl Mar * A!ocaly!tic Reabsor!tionist Communist

Notes

Marx as Millennial Communist

"he ey to the intricate and massi/e system o' thou#ht created by &arl Mar is at bottom a sim!le one* Karl Marx was a communist .

A seemin#ly trite and banal statement set alon#side Mar ism4s myriad o' 5ar#on ridden conce!ts in!hiloso!hy, economics, and culture, yet Mar 4s de/otion to communism 7as his crucial 'ocus, 'ar morecentral than the class stru##le, the dialectic, the theory o' sur!lus /alue, and all the rest.

Communism 7as the #reat #oal, the /ision, the desideratum, the ultimate end that 7ould ma e thesu''erin#s o' man ind throu#hout history 7orth7hile. $istory 7as the history o' su''erin#, o' classstru##le, o' the e !loitation o' man by man. 8n the same 7ay as the return o' the Messiah, in Christiantheolo#y, 7ill !ut an end to history and establish a ne7 hea/en and a ne7 earth , so the establishment o'communism 7ould !ut an end to human history.

And 5ust as 'or !ostmillennial Christians, man, led by (od4s !ro!hets and saints, 7ill establish a&in#dom o' (od on )arth 'or !remillennials, +esus 7ill ha/e many human assistants in settin# u! sucha in#dom:, so, 'or Mar and other schools o' communists, man ind, led by a /an#uard o' secular saints,

7ill establish a seculari-ed &in#dom o' $ea/en on earth .

8n messianic reli#ious mo/ements, the millennium is in/ariably established by a mi#hty, /iolentu!hea/al, an Arma#eddon, a #reat a!ocaly!tic 7ar bet7een #ood and e/il. A'ter this titanic con'lict, amillennium, a ne7 a#e o' !eace and harmony, o' the rei#n o' 5ustice, 7ill be installed u!on the earth.

Mar em!hatically re5ected those uto!ian socialists 7ho sou#ht to arri/e at communism throu#h a#radual and e/olutionary !rocess, throu#h a steady ad/ancement o' the #ood. 8nstead, Mar har ed bac to the a!ocaly!tics, the !ostmillennial coerci/e (erman and ;utch Anaba!tists o' the 16th century, tothe millennial sects durin# the )n#lish Ci/il iolent, 7orld7idere/olution, in Mar 4s /ersion to be made by the o!!ressed !roletariat, 7ould be the ine/itableinstrument 'or the ad/ent o' his millennium, communism.

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8n 'act, Mar , li e the !re mils or ?millenarians?:, 7ent 'urther to hold that the rei#n o' e/il on earth 7ould reach a !ea 5ust be'ore the a!ocaly!se ?the dar ness be'ore the da7n?:. For Mar as 'or themillenarians, 7rites )rnest "u/eson,

"he e/il o' the 7orld must !roceed to its hei#ht be'ore, in one #reat com!lete root and branch u!hea/al,it 7ould be s7e!t a7ay.@

Millenarian !essimism about the !er'ectibility o' the e istin# 7orld is crossed by a su!reme o!timism.$istory, the millenarian belie/es, so o!erates that, 7hen e/il has reached its hei#ht, the ho!elesssituation 7ill be re/ersed. "he ori#inal, the true harmonious state o' society, in some ind o' e#alitarianorder, 7ill be re established. 1B

8n contrast to the /arious #rou!s o' uto!ian socialists, and in common 7ith reli#ious messianists, &arl Mar did not s etch the 'eatures o' his 'uture communism in any detail. 8t 7as not 'or Mar , 'ore am!le, to s!ell out the number o' !eo!le in his uto!ia, the sha!e and location o' their houses, or the!attern o' their cities. 8n the 'irst !lace, there is a uintessentially crac !otty air to uto!ias that arema!!ed by their creators in !recise detail. ut o' e ual im!ortance, s!ellin# out the details o' one4s idealsociety remo/es the crucial element o' a7e and mystery 'rom the alle#edly ine/itable 7orld o' the 'uture.

ut certain 'eatures are broadly ali e in all /isions o' communism. %ri/ate !ro!erty is eliminated,indi/idualism #oes by the board, indi/iduality is 'lattened, all !ro!erty is o7ned and controlledcommunally, and the indi/idual units o' the ne7 collecti/e or#anism are in some 7ay made ?e ual? toone another.

Mar ists and scholars o' Mar ism ha/e tended to o/erloo the centrality o' communism to the entireMar ian system . 2B 8n the ?o''icial? Mar ism o' the 1930s and 19 0s, communism 7as sli#hted in 'a/oro' an alle#edly ?scienti'ic? stress on the labor theory o' /alue, the class stru##le, or the materialistinter!retation o' history. And the Do/iet Enion, e/en be'ore (orbache/, #ra!!lin# 7ith the !ractical!roblems o' socialism, treated the #oal o' communism as more o' an embarrassment than anythin# else.

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Dimilarly, Dtalinists such as =ouis Althusser dismissed the !re 1 Mar 4s stress on ?humanism,?!hiloso!hy, and ?alienation,? as unscienti'ic and !re Mar ist. On the other hand, in the 1960s it became'ashionable 'or Ne7 =e't Mar ists such as $erbert Marcuse to dismiss the later ?scienti'ic economist?Mar as a rationalistic !relude to des!otism and a betrayal o' the earlier Mar 4s stress on humanism andhuman ?'reedom.?

8n contrast, 8 hold 7ith the #ro7in# consensus in Mar ist studies B that, at least since 1 and!ossibly earlier, there 7as only one Mar , and that Mar , the ?humanist,? established the #oal that he

7ould see 'or the remainder o' his li'e* the a!ocaly!tic trium!h o' re/olutionary communism. 8n this /ie7, Mar 4s e !loration later into the economics o' ca!italism 7as merely a uest 'or the mechanism,the ?la7 o' history,? that alle#edly ma es such a trium!h ine/itable.

ut in that case, it becomes /ital to in/esti#ate the nature o' this alle#edly humanistic #oal o'communism, 7hat the meanin# o' this ?'reedom? mi#ht be, and 7hether or not the #risly record o'Mar ist =eninist re#imes in the 20th century 7as im!licit in the basic Mar ian conce!tion o' 'reedom.

?"hat Mar , the 4humanist,4 established the #oal that he 7ould see 'or the remainder o' his li'e* thea!ocaly!tic trium!h o' re/olutionary communism.?

Marxism is a religious creed. "his statement has been common amon# critics o' Mar , and sinceMar ism is an e !licit enemy o' reli#ion, such a seemin# !arado 7ould o''end many Mar ists, since itclearly challen#ed the alle#edly hard headed scienti'ic materialism on 7hich Mar ism rested. 8n the!resent day, oddly enou#h, an a#e o' liberation theolo#y and other 'lirtations bet7een Mar ism and theChurch, Mar ists themsel/es are o'ten uic to ma e this same !roclamation.

Certainly, one ob/ious 7ay in 7hich Mar ism 'unctions as a reli#ion is the len#ths to 7hich Mar ists 7ill#o to !reser/e their system a#ainst ob/ious errors or 'allacies. "hus, 7hen Mar ian !redictions 'ail e/enthou#h they are alle#edly deri/ed 'rom scienti'ic la7s o' history, Mar ists #o to #reat len#ths to change the terms o' the ori#inal !rediction.

A notorious e am!le is Mar 4s la7 o' the im!o/erishment o' the 7or in# class under ca!italism.


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"he 'ly in the ointment 7as introduced by man4s disobedience to (od4s la7s, 'or 7hich sin he 7as castout o' )den. Out o' this Fall he can be redeemed by the 8ncarnation o' (od in human 'lesh and thesacri'ice o' +esus on the Cross. Note that the Fall 7as a moral one, and that creation itsel' remainsmeta!hysically #ood. Note, too, that in orthodo Christianity, each human indi/idual, made in the ima#eo' (od, is o' su!reme im!ortance, and each indi/idual4s sal/ation becomes o' critical concern.

?8t is the contention o' this article that the crucial #oal L communism L is an athei-ed /ersion o' acertain ty!e o' reli#ious eschatolo#y.?

Reabsor!tion theolo#y, ho7e/er, ori#inates in a /ery di''erent creatolo#y. One o' its crucial tenets is that,before creation, man L ob/iously the collecti/e s!ecies man and not each indi/idual L e isted in ha!!yunion, in some sort o' mi#hty cosmic blob, united 7ith (od and e/en 7ith nature. 8n the Christian /ie7,(od, unli e man, is !er'ect, and there'ore does not, li e man, !er'orm actions in order to im!ro/e hislot. ut 'or the reabsor!tionists, (od acts analo#ously 7ith humans* (od acts out o' 7hat Mises called?'elt uneasiness,? out o' dissatis'action 7ith his current lot. (od, in other 7ords, creates the uni/erse outo' loneliness, dissatis'action, or, #enerally, in order to de/elo! his unde/elo!ed 'aculties. (od creates theuni/erse out o' 'elt need.

8n the reabsor!tionist /ie7, creation, instead o' bein# 7ondrous and #ood, is essentially andmeta!hysically e/il. For it #enerates di/ersity, indi/iduality, and se!arateness, and thereby cuts o'' man

'rom his belo/ed cosmic union 7ith (od. Man is no7 !ermanently ?alienated? 'rom (od, the'undamental alienationH and also 'rom other men, and 'rom nature.

8t is this cosmic meta!hysical se!arateness that lies at the heart o' the Mar ian conce!t o' ?alienation,?and not, as 7e mi#ht no7 thin , !ersonal #ri!in# about not controllin# the o!eration o' one4s 'actory, orabout lac o' access to 7ealth or !olitical !o7er. Alienation is a cosmic condition and not a !sycholo#icalcom!laint. For the reabsor!tionists, the crucial !roblems o' the 7orld come not 'rom moral 'ailure but'rom the essential nature o' creation itsel'.

uddhism and /arious !antheistic reli#ions, as 7ell as many mystics, o''er one !artial 7ay out 'or thiscosmic alienation. "o such !antheists, (od Man and Nature are and continue to be one, and indi/idualmen can reca!ture that desired unity by /arious 'orms o' trainin# until Nir/ana nothin#ness: has beenachie/ed and the indi/idual e#o has been L at least tem!orarily L obliterated. 9B

ut the 7ay out o''ered by the reabsor!tionists is di''erent. First, it is a 7ay o''ered only to man ass!ecies and not to any !articular indi/idualH and second, the 7ay is a reli#iously determined andine/itable la7 o' history. For there is one #ood as!ect o' creation 'or the reabsor!tionists* that (od andman each #et to 'ul'ill their 'aculties and e !and their res!ecti/e !otentials throu#h history. 8n 'act,history is a !rocess by 7hich these !otentials are 'ul'illed, in 7hich (od and man both !er'ectthemsel/es.

"hen, 'inally L and here 7e come to eschatology, the science o' the =ast ;ays L there 7ill e/entually bea mi#hty reunion, a reabsor!tion, in 7hich man and (od are at last not only reunited, but reunited on ahi#her, on a !er'ected le/el. "he t7o cosmic blobs L (od and man and !resumably nature too: L no7meet and mer#e on a more e alted le/el. "he !ain'ul state o' creation is no7 o/er, alienation is at lastended, and man returns $ome to be on a hi#her, !ostcreation le/el. $istory, and the 7orld, ha/e cometo an end.

A crucial 'eature o' reabsor!tion is that all this ?!er'ectin#? and ?reunitin#? ob/iously ta es !lace only ona s!ecies collecti/ist le/el. "he indi/idual man is nothin#, a mere cell in the #reat, collecti/e or#anismmanH only in that 7ay can 7e say that ?man? !ro#resses or 'ul'ills ?himsel'? o/er the centuries, su''ersalienation 'rom ?his? !recreation state, and 'inally ?returns? to unity 7ith (od on a hi#her le/el. "herelation to the Mar ian #oal o' communism is already becomin# clearH the ?alienation? eliminated by theine/itable communist end o' history is that o' the collecti/e s!ecies man, each man bein# 'inally united

7ith other men and 7ith nature 7hich, 'or Mar , 7as ?created? by the collecti/e s!ecies man, 7hothereby re!laces (od as the creator:.

8 shall deal later 7ith communism as the #oal o' history. $ere 7e 'ocus on the process by 7hich all thesee/ents must ta e !lace, and necessarily ta e !lace. First, there is the !recreation cosmic blob. Out o' this

blob there then arises a /ery di''erent state o' a''airs* a created uni/erse, 7ith (od, indi/idual men, andnature each e istin#.

$ere are the ori#ins o' the ma#ical $e#elian Mar ian ?dialectic?* one state o' a''airs someho7 gives riseto a contrastin# state. 8n the (erman lan#ua#e, $e#el, the master o' the conce!t o' the dialectic, used the

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crucial term aufhebung, a ?li'tin# u!,? 7hich is ambi#uous enou#h to encom!ass this sudden shi't into a /ery di''erent state, this li'tin# u! 7hich is at one and the same time a !reser/in#, a transcendin#, and acreatin# a star contrast to, the ori#inal condition. "he standard )n#lish translation 'or this !rocess in$e#el and Mar is ?ne#atin#,? but such translation ma es the theory e/en more absurd than it really isL !robably ?transcendin#? 7ould be a better term. 10B

"hus, as usual, the dialectic consists o' three sta#es. Dta#e One is the ori#inal state o' the !recreationcosmic blob, 7ith man and (od in ha!!y and harmonious unity, but each rather unde/elo!ed. "hen, thema#ic dialectic does its 7or , Dta#e "7o occurs, and (od creates man and the uni/erse. ut then, 'inally,

7hen the de/elo!ment o' man and (od is com!leted, Dta#e "7o creates its o7n aufhebung, itstranscendence into its o!!osite or ne#ation* in short, Dta#e "hree, the reunion o' (od and man in an?ecstasy o' union,? and the end o' history.

"he dialectical !rocess by 7hich one state o' a''airs #i/es rise to a /ery di''erent state, i' not its o!!osite,is, 'or the reabsor!tionists, a mystical thou#h ine/itable de/elo!ment. "here 7as no need 'or them toe !lain the mechanism. 8ndeed, !articularly in'luential 'or $e#el and later reabsor!tionist thin ers 7asone o' the later Christian mystics in this tradition* the early 1Jth century (erman cobbler +a ob

oehme. %anthei-in# the dialectic, oehme declared that it 7as not (od4s 7ill but some !rimal 'orcethat launched the cosmic dialectic o' creation and history.

?8n orthodo Christianity, each human indi/idual, made in the ima#e o' (od, is o' su!reme im!ortance,and each indi/idual4s sal/ation becomes o' critical concern.?

$o7, oehme as ed, did the 7orld o' !recreation transcend itsel' into creationK e'ore creation, heans7ered, there 7as a !rimal source, an eternal unity, an undi''erentiated, indistinct, literal Nothin#

[ ngrund!. Oddly enou#h, this Nothin# !ossessed 7ithin itsel' an inner stri/in#, a nisus, a dri/e 'or sel'reali-ation. "hat dri/e, oehme asserted, #a/e rise to its o!!osite, the


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)/eryone no7s that Mar 7as essentially a $e#elian in !hiloso!hy, but the !recise sco!e o' $e#el4sin'luence on Mar is less 7ell understood. $e#el4s dubious accom!lishment 7as to com!letely !anthei-ereabsor!tion theolo#y. 8t is little reali-ed that $e#el 7as only one, althou#h the most elaborate andhy!ertro!hic, o' a host o' 7riters 7ho constituted the hi#hly in'luential Romantic mo/ement in(ermany and )n#land at the end o' the 1 th and durin# the 'irst hal' o' the 19th centuries. 1GB

$e#el 7as a theolo#y student at the Eni/ersity o' " bin#en, and many o' his 'ello7 Romantics, 'riendsand collea#ues, such as Dchellin#, Dchiller, $olderlin, and Fichte, be#an as theolo#y students, many o'them at " bin#en. 16B

"he Romantic t7ist to the reabsor!tion story 7as to !roclaim that (od is in reality man. Man, or ratherthe Man (od, created the uni/erse. ut man4s im!er'ection, his 'la7, lay in his 'ailure to reali-e that heis (od. "he Man (od be#ins his li'e in history unconscious o' the /ital 'act that he is (od. $e isalienated, cut o'' 'rom the crucial no7led#e that he and (od are one, that he created, and continues toem!o7er, the uni/erse.

$istory, then, is the ine/itable !rocess by 7hich the Man (od de/elo!s his 'aculties, 'ul'ills his !otential,and ad/ances his no7led#e, until that bliss'ul day 7hen man ac uires Absolute &no7led#e, that is, the'ull no7led#e and reali-ation that he is (od. At that !oint, the Man (od 'inally reaches his !otential,

becomes an in'inite bein# 7ithout bounds, and thereby !uts an end to history. "he dialectic o' history

occurs, a#ain, in three 'undamental sta#es* the !recreation sta#eH the !ostcreation sta#e o' de/elo!ment 7ith alienationH and the 'inal reabsor!tion into the state o' in'inity and absolute sel' no7led#e, 7hichculminates, and !uts an end to, the historical !rocess.


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"hus, at a time 7hen most !atriotic %russians 7ere reactin# /iolently a#ainst Na!oleon4s im!erialcon uests, and mobili-in# their 'orces a#ainst him, $e#el 7rote to a 'riend in ecstasy about ha/in# seenNa!oleon, ?the )m!eror L this 7orld soul,? ridin# do7n the streetH 'or Na!oleon, e/en i' unconsciously,

7as !ursuin# the 7orld historical mission o' brin#in# a stron# %russian Dtate into bein#. 1 B

8t is interestin# that $e#el #ot his idea o' the ?cunnin# o' Reason,? o' #reat indi/iduals actin# asunconscious a#ents o' the 7orld soul throu#h history, by !erusin# the 7or s o' the Re/. Adam Fer#uson,

7hose !hrase about e/ents bein# ?the !roduct o' human action but not o' human desi#n,? has been soin'luential in the thou#ht o' F. A. $aye and his disci!les. 19B 8n the economic realm, as 7ell, $e#ellearned o' the alle#ed misery o' alienation in se!aration L that is, s!eciali-ation and the di/ision o' laborL 'rom Fer#uson himsel' throu#h Friedrich Dchiller and 'rom Fer#uson4s #ood 'riend, Adam Dmith, inhis Wealth of (ations . [)*!

8t is easy to see ho7 the reabsor!tionist $e#elian doctrine o' unity #ood, se!aration bad hel!ed 'ormthe Mar ian #oal o' communism, the end state o' history in 7hich the indi/idual is totally absorbed intothe collecti/e, thus attainin# the state o' true collecti/e man ?'reedom.? ut there are also more!articular in'luences. "hus, the Mar ian idea o' early or !rimiti/e communism, ha!!y and inte#ratedthou#h unde/elo!ed, and then burst a!art by ra!acious, alienatin# i' de/elo!in# ca!italism, 7as!re'i#ured by $e#el4s historical outloo .

Follo7in# his 'riend and mentor the Romantic 7riter Friedrich Dchiller, $e#el, in an article 7ritten in1J9G, lauded the alle#ed homo#eneity, harmony, and unity o' ancient (reece, su!!osedly 'ree o' thealienatin# di/ision o' labor. "he conse uent aufhebung, thou#h leadin# to the #ro7th o' commerce,li/in# standards, and indi/idualism, also destroyed the 7onder'ul unity o' (reece, and radically'ra#mented man. "o $e#el, the ne t ine/itable sta#e o' history 7ould reinte#rate man and the Dtate.

?8n short, $e#el4s !hiloso!hy constitutes soli!sistic me#alomania on a #rand and cosmic scale.?

"he Dtate 7as critical 'or $e#el. A#ain 'oreshado7in# Mar , it is no7 !articularly im!ortant 'or man Lthe collecti/e or#anism L to surmount unconscious, blind 'ate, and ?consciously? ta e control o' it bymeans o' the Dtate.

$e#el 7as uite insistent that, in order 'or the Dtate to 'ul'ill its /ital 'unction it must be #uided by acom!rehensi/e !hiloso!hy, and indeed by a (reat %hiloso!her, to #i/e its mi#hty rule the necessarycoherence. Other7ise, as %ro'essor %lant e !lains, ?such a state, de/oid o' !hiloso!hical com!rehension,

7ould a!!ear as a merely arbitrary and o!!ressi/e im!osition o' the 'reedom o' indi/iduals.? ut, on thecontrary, i' armed 7ith $e#elian !hiloso!hy and 7ith $e#el himsel' as its #reat leader, ?this alien as!ecto' the !ro#ressi/e modern state 7ould disa!!ear and 7ould be seen not as an im!osition but ade/elo!ment o' sel' consciousness.? 21B

Armed, then, 7ith such a !hiloso!hy and such a !hiloso!her, the modern, es!ecially the modern%russian, Dtate could ta e its di/inely a!!ointed stand at the a!e o' human history and ci/ili-ation, as(od on earth. "hus, ?"he modern Dtate @ 7hen com!rehended !hiloso!hically, could there'ore be seenas the hi#hest articulation o' D!irit, or (od in the contem!orary 7orld.? "he Dtate, then, is ?a su!rememani'estation o' the acti/ity o' (od in the 7orld?H ?"he Dtate is the ;i/ine 8dea as it e ists on earth?H?"he Dtate is the march o' (od throu#h the 7orld?H ?"he Dtate is the actually e istin#, reali-ed moralli'e?H the ?Dtate is the reality o' the in#dom o' hea/en.? And 'inally, ?"he Dtate is (od4s


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And isn4t the #reat creator o' the crucial !hiloso!hy about man and the uni/erse in a dee! sense #reaterthan the !hiloso!hy itsel'K And there'ore, i' the s!ecies man is (od, isn4t he, the #reat $e#el, in a!ro'ound sense (od o' (odsK 2 B

Finally, as luc and the dialectic 7ould ha/e it, $e#el 7as 5ust in time to ta e his !lace as the (reat%hiloso!her in the #reatest, the noblest, and most de/elo!ed authoritarian Dtate in the history o' the

7orld* the e istin# %russian monarchy o' &in# Friedrich


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on earth only in the s!iritual sense. "he material reali-ation o' the &in#dom o' (od 7ill only arri/e u!onthe ;ay o' +ud#ment and is there'ore to be con'ined to hea/en alone.

Orthodo Christians ha/e al7ays 7arned that ta in# the &() literally, 7hat the late orthodo Christiantheorist )rich >oe#elin called ?immanenti-in# the eschaton? L brin#in# the eschaton do7n to earth L is

bound to create #ra/e social !roblems.

For one thin#, most /ersions o' ho7 the &() 7ill come into bein# are a!ocaly!tic. "he &() is to be!receded by a mi#hty Arma#eddon, a titanic 7ar o' #ood a#ainst e/il, in 7hich the #ood 7ill 'inally,thou#h ine/itably, trium!h.

?


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settled in Abraham and !erha!s some other !atriarchsH 'or the Ne7 "estament a#e, the 8ncarnation 7aso' course +esusH and no7, 'or the da7nin# A#e o' the $oly D!irit, the 8ncarnation 7ould emer#e amon#the /arious human bein#s themsel/es.

As mi#ht be e !ected, the Amaurian cadre !roclaimed themsel/es to be li/in# #ods, the 8ncarnation o'the $oly D!irit. Not that they 7ould al7ays remain a di/ine elite, amon# menH on the contrary, they 7eredestined to be the /an#uard, leadin# man ind to its uni/ersal 8ncarnation.

;urin# the 'ollo7in# century, a con#eries o' #rou!s throu#hout northern )uro!e no7n as the rethreno' the Free D!irit added another im!ortant in#redient to this bre7* the mystical dialectic o' the?reabsor!tion into (od.? ut the brethren added their o7n elitist t7ist* 7hile the reabsor!tion o' all menmust a7ait the end o' history, and the mass o' the ?crude in s!irit? must mean7hile meet theirindi/idual deaths, there 7as a #lorious minority, the ?subtle in s!irit,? 7ho could and did becomereabsorbed and there'ore li/in# #ods durin# their li'etime.

"his minority, o' course, 7as the cadre o' the rethren themsel/es, 7ho, by /irtue o' years o' trainin#,sel' torture, and /isions had become !er'ect #ods, more !er'ect and more #odli e than e/en Christhimsel'. Furthermore, once this sta#e o' mystical union 7as reached, it 7as to be !ermanent and eternal."hese ne7 #ods, in 'act, o'ten !roclaimed themsel/es #reater than (od himsel'.

ein# li/in# #ods on earth brou#ht a lot o' #ood thin#s in its 7a e. 8n the 'irst !lace, it led directly to ane treme 'orm o' the antinomian heresyH that is, i' !eo!le are #ods, then it is im!ossible 'or them to sin.


11/37

For all sinners are enemies o' Christ, and ?accursed be the man 7ho 7ithholds his s7ord 'rom sheddin#the blood o' the enemies o' Christ. )/ery belie/er must 7ash his hands in that blood.? "his destruction

7as o' course not to sto! short o' intellectual eradication.


12/37

Finally, in October 1 21, i- a sent a 'orce o' 00 trained soldiers to besie#e the Adamite island, soono/er7helmin# the commune and massacrin# e/ery last Adamite. One more hellish &in#dom o' (od on)arth had been !ut to the s7ord.

"he moderate "aborite army 7as, in turn, crushed by the $ussites at the attle o' =i!an in 1 3 , and'rom then on, "aborism declined and 7ent under#round. ut "aborite and millennialist ideas continuedto !o! u!, not only amon# the C-echs, but also in a/aria and in other (erman lands borderin#

ohemia.

Dometimes Martin =uther must ha/e 'elt that he had loosed the 7hirl7ind, e/en o!ened the (ates o'$ell. Dhortly a'ter =uther launched the Re'ormation, Anaba!tist sects a!!eared and s!read throu#hout(ermany. Anaba!tists belie/ed that they 7ere the )lect, and that the si#n o' that election 7as anemotional, mystical con/ersion e !erience, the !rocess o' bein# ?born a#ain,? or ba!ti-ed in the $olyD!irit.

For #rou!s o' the Anaba!tist )lect 'indin# themsel/es 7ithin a corru!t and sin'ul society, there 7ere t7oroutes to ta e. One, the /oluntary Anaba!tists, such as the Amish or Mennonites, became /irtualanarchists, stri/in# to se!arate themsel/es as much as !ossible 'rom a sin'ul Dtate and society. "he other

7in#, the theocratic Anaba!tists, sou#ht to sei-e !o7er in the Dtate and to sha!e u! society by e tremecoercion.

As Monsi#nor &no has !ointed out, this ultratheocratic a!!roach must be distin#uished 'rom the sorto' theocracy 7hat has recently been called theonomy 0 the rule o' (od4s =a7: im!osed by Cal/in in(ene/a or by the Cal/inistic %uritans in 1Jth century North America. =uther and Cal/in, in &no 4sterminolo#y, did not !retend to be ?!ro!hets? en5oyin# continuin# !ersonal di/ine re/elationH they 7ereonly ?!undits,? scholarly e !erts in inter!retin# the ible, and in a!!lyin# iblical la7 to man. 29B utthe coerci/e Anaba!tists 7ere led by men claimin# mystical illumination and re/elation and deser/in#there'ore o' absolute !o7er.

"he 7a/e o' theocratic Anaba!tism that s7e!t o/er (ermany and $olland 7ith hurricane 'orce may becalled the ?M nt-er M nster era,? since it 7as launched by "homas M nt-er in 1G20, and ended in aholocaust at the city o' M nster 1G years later. A learned youn# theolo#ian and #raduate o' theEni/ersities o' =ei!-i# and Fran 'urt, M nt-er 7as selected by =uther to become a =utheran !astor inthe city o' 7ic au.

?8' communism is the !er'ect society, somebody must be able to en5oy its 'ruitsH and 7ho better than themessiah and his courtiersK?

7ic au, ho7e/er, 7as near the ohemian border, and there M nt-er 7as con/erted by the 7ea/er andade!t Ni las Dtorch, 7ho had li/ed in ohemia, to the old "aborite creed* in !articular, continuin#!ersonal di/ine re/elation to the !ro!het o' the cult, and the necessity 'or the )lect to sei-e !o7er andim!ose a society o' theocratic communism by brutal 'orce o' arms. 8n addition, there 7as to becommunism o' 7omen* marria#e 7as to be !rohibited, and each man 7as to be able to ha/e any 7omanat 7ill.

"homas M nt-er no7 claimed to be the di/inely chosen !ro!het, destined to 7a#e a 7ar o' blood ande termination by the )lect a#ainst the sinners. M nt-er claimed that the ?li/in# Christ? had!ermanently entered his o7n soul. )ndo7ed thereby 7ith !er'ect insi#ht into the di/ine 7ill, he assertedhimsel' to be uni uely uali'ied to 'ul'ill the di/ine mission. $e e/en s!o e o' himsel' as ?becomin#(od.? $a/in# #raduated 'rom the 7orld o' learnin#, M nt-er 7as no7 ready 'or the 7orld o' action.

M nt-er 7andered around central (ermany 'or se/eral years, #ainin# ade!ts and ins!irin# u!risin#sthat 7ere uic ly su!!ressed. (ainin# a ministerial !ost in the small "hurin#ian to7n o' Allstedt,M nt-er #ained a 7ide !o!ular 'ollo7in# by !reachin# in the /ernacular, attractin# a lar#e number o'uneducated miners, 7hom he 'ormed into a re/olutionary or#ani-ation called ?"he =ea#ue o' the )lect.?

A turnin# !oint in M nt-er4s career came in 1G2 , 7hen ;u e +ohn, brother o' the )lector o' Da ony anda =utheran, came to to7n and as ed M nt-er to !reach him a sermon. Dei-in# his o!!ortunity, M nt-erlaid it on the line* the Da on !rinces must ta e their stand as either ser/ants o' (od or o' the ;e/il. 8'they 7ould do the 'ormer, they must ?lay on 7ith the s7ord? to ?e terminate? all the ?#odless? and ?e/ildoers,? es!ecially includin# !riests, mon s, and #odless rulers. 8' the Da on !rinces 'ailed in this tas ,

M nt-er 7arned, ?the s7ord shall be ta en 'rom them. 8' they the !rincesB resist, let them beslau#htered 7ithout mercy. Duch e termination, !er'ormed by the !rinces and #uided by M nt-er, 7ould usher in a thousand year rule by the )lect.

12
http://mises.org/daily/3769#note29http://mises.org/daily/3769#note29http://mises.org/daily/3769#note29


13/37

;u e +ohn4s reaction to this 'iery ultimatum 7as sur!risin#ly blasP. ut, 7arned re!eatedly by =utherthat M nt-er 7as becomin# dan#erous, the ;u e 'inally ordered M nt-er to re'rain 'rom any!ro/ocati/e !reachin# until his case 7as decided by the )lector.

"his reaction by the Da on !rinces, ho7e/er mild, 7as enou#h to set "homas M nt-er onto his 'inalre/olutionary road. "he !rinces had !ro/ed themsel/es untrust7orthy* it 7as no7 u! to the mass o' the!oor to ma e the re/olution. "he !oor, the )lect, 7ould establish a rule o' com!ulsory e#alitariancommunism, 7here all thin#s 7ould be o7ned in common by all, 7here e/eryone 7ould be e ual in allthin#s, and each !erson 7ould recei/e accordin# to his need.

ut not yet. For e/en the !oor must 'irst be bro en o' 7orldly desires and 'ri/olous en5oyments, and they must reco#ni-e the leadershi! o' a ne7 ?ser/ant o' (od? 7ho ?must stand 'orth in the s!irit o' )li5ah @and set thin#s in motion.? 8t 7as not di''icult to #uess 7ho that =eader 7as su!!osed to be.

Deein# Allstedt as inhos!itable, M nt-er mo/ed to the "hurin#ian city o' Muhlhausen, 7here he 'ound a'riendly home in a land in !olitical turmoil. Ender M nt-er4s ins!iration, a re/olutionary #rou! tooo/er Muhlhausen in February 1G2G, and M nt-er and his allies !roceeded to im!ose a communistre#ime u!on that city.

"he monasteries o' Muhlhausen 7ere sei-ed, and all !ro!erty 7as declared to be in commonH as aconse uence, a contem!orary obser/er noted, the re#ime ?so a''ected the 'ol that no one 7anted to

7or .? As under the "aborites, the re#ime o' communism and lo/e soon became, in !ractice, a systemice cuse 'or the't*

7hen anyone needed 'ood or clothin# he 7ent to a rich man and demanded it o' him in Christ4s name,'or Christ had commanded that all should share 7ith the needy. And 7hat 7as not #i/en 'reely 7as ta en

by 'orce. Many acted thus.@ "homas M nt-erB instituted this bri#anda#e and multi!lied it e/ery day.30B

At that !oint, the #reat %easants4


14/37

North7estern (ermany 7as dotted by a number o' small ecclesiastical states, each run by a !rince bisho! bisho!s 7ho 7ere secular aristocratic lords not ordained as !riests:. "he rulin# cler#y o' thestate e em!ted themsel/es 'rom ta ation, 7hile im!osin# hea/y ta es on the rest o' the !o!ulace.(enerally, the ca!ital cities o' each state 7ere run by an oli#archy o' #uilds 7ho carteli-ed their cra'ts,and 7ho battled the state cler#y 'or a de#ree o' autonomy.

"he lar#est o' these ecclesiastical states in north7est (ermany 7as the bisho!ric o' M nsterH its ca!italcity o' M nster, a to7n o' some 10,000 !eo!le, 7as run by the to7n #uilds. ;urin# and a'ter the%easants4


15/37

A crucial !art o' the Anaba!tist rei#n o' terror 7as their decision, a#ain !re'i#urin# that o' the &hmerRou#e re#ime in Cambodia, to abolish all !ri/ate o7nershi! o' money.


16/37

"he only as!ect o' li'e !re/iously le't untouched 7as se , and this de'iciency 7as no7 made u!. "he onlyse ual relation no7 !ermitted by the oc elson re#ime 7as marria#e bet7een t7o Anaba!tists. De inany other 'orm, includin# marria#e 7ith one o' the ?#odless,? 7as a ca!ital crime.

ut soon oc elson 7ent beyond this rather old 'ashioned credo, and decided to en'orce com!ulsory!oly#amy in M nster. Dince many o' the e !ellees had le't their 7i/es and dau#hters behind, M nsterno7 had three times as many marria#eable 7omen as men, so that !oly#amy had become technically'easible. oc elson con/inced the other, rather startled !reachers by citin# !oly#amy amon# the!atriarchs o' 8srael, rein'orcin# this method o' !ersuasion by threatenin# any dissenters 7ith death.

Com!ulsory !oly#amy 7as a bit much 'or many o' the M nsterites, 7ho launched a rebellion in !rotest."he rebellion, ho7e/er, 7as uic ly crushed and most o' the rebels !ut to death. And so, by Au#ust 1GG ,!oly#amy had been coerci/ely established in M nster. As one mi#ht e !ect, youn# oc elson too aninstant li in# to the ne7 re#ime, and be'ore lon# he had amassed a harem o' 1G 7i/es, includin# ;i/ara,the beauti'ul youn# 7ido7 o' +an Matthys.

"he rest o' the male !o!ulation also be#an to ta e enthusiastically to the ne7 decree. Many o' the 7omen reacted di''erently, ho7e/er, and so the )lders !assed a la7 orderin# com!ulsory marria#e 'ore/ery 7oman under and !resumably also o/er: a certain a#e, 7hich usually meant becomin# acom!ulsory third or 'ourth 7i'e.

Dince marria#e amon# the #odless 7as not only in/alid but also ille#al, the 7i/es o' the e !ellees became'air #ame, and they 7ere 'orced to ?marry? #ood Anaba!tists. Re'usal o' the 7omen to com!ly 7ith thene7 la7 7as !unishable, o' course, 7ith death, and a number o' 7omen 7ere actually e ecuted as aresult. "hose ?old? 7i/es 7ho resented the ne7 com!etitors in their households 7ere also crac ed do7non, and their uarrellin# 7as made a ca!ital crimeH many 7omen 7ere thereu!on e ecuted 'or

uarrellin#.

oc elsonian des!otism could only reach so 'ar, ho7e/er, and #eneral resistance 'orced the re#ime torelent and !ermit di/orce. 8n an about 'ace, not only 7as di/orce no7 !ermitted, but all marria#e 7asno7 outla7ed totally, and di/orce made /ery easy. As a result, M nster no7 became a re#ime o' 7hatamounted to com!ulsory 'ree lo/e. "hus, 7ithin the s!ace o' a 'e7 months, a ri#id !uritanism had beentransmuted into a system o' com!ulsory !romiscuity.

oc elson !ro/ed to be an e cellent or#ani-er o' a besie#ed city. Com!ulsory labor 7as strictly en'orced,and he 7as also able to induce many o' the isho!4s !oorly !aid mercenaries to uit by o''erin# themre#ular !ay L 7ith money, o' course, that had been con'iscated 'rom the citi-ens o' M nster.


17/37

"he ne7, lu urious court included t7o hundred !eo!le housed in 'ine, re uisitioned mansions. &in#oc elson 7ould hold court on a throne dra!ed 7ith a cloth o' #old in the !ublic s uare, 7earin# a

cro7n and carryin# a sce!ter. Also #arbed in 'inery 7ere oc elson4s loyal aides, includin#&ni!!erdollinc as chie' minister, and Rothmann as royal orator.

8' communism is the !er'ect society, somebody must be able to en5oy its 'ruitsH and 7ho better than themessiah and his courtiersK "hou#h !ri/ate !ro!erty in money 7as abolished, the con'iscated #old andsil/er 7as no7 minted into ornamental coins in honor o' the ne7 in#. All horses 7ere con'iscated 'orthe in#4s armed s uadron. Names in re/olutionary M nster 7ere also trans'ormedH all the streets 7ererenamedH Dundays and 'east days 7ere abolishedH and all ne7born children 7ere named !ersonally bythe in# in accordance 7ith a s!ecial !attern.

8n order that the in# and his nobles mi#ht li/e in hi#h lu ury, the sub5ect !o!ulation 7ere no7 robbedo' e/erythin# abo/e the bare minimumH clothin# and beddin# 7ere se/erely rationed, and all ?sur!lus?turned o/er to &in# oc elson on !ain o' death.

8t is not sur!risin# that the deluded masses o' M nster be#an to #rumble at bein# 'orced to li/e in ab5ect!o/erty 7hile &in# oc elson and his courtiers li/ed in #reat lu ury on the !roceeds o' their con'iscated

belon#in#s. oc elson res!onded by beamin# !ro!a#anda to 5usti'y the ne7 system.

"he 5usti'ication 7as this* it 7as alri#ht 'or oc elson to li/e in !om! and lu ury because he 7as already?dead? to the 7orld and the 'lesh. Dince he 7as dead to the 7orld, in a dee! sense his lu ury didn4t count.8n the style o' e/ery #uru 7ho has e/er li/ed in lu ury amon# his !oor, credulous 'ollo7ers, he e !lainedthat 'or him material ob5ects had no /alue.

More im!ortantly !erha!s, oc elson assured his sub5ects that he and his court 7ere only the ad/ance#uard o' the ne7 orderH soon, they too 7ould be li/in# in the same millennial lu ury. Ender their ne7order the !eo!le o' M nster 7ould soon 'or#e out7ard, armed 7ith (od4s 7ill, and con uer the entire

7orld, e terminatin# the unri#hteous, a'ter 7hich +esus 7ould return and they 7ould li/e in lu ury and!er'ection. ) ual communism 7ith #reat lu ury 'or all 7ould then be achie/ed.

(reater dissent meant, o' course, escalated terror, and &in# oc elson4s rei#n o' ?lo/e? and deathintensi'ied its course o' intimidation and slau#hter. As soon as he !roclaimed the monarchy, the !ro!het;usentschur announced a ne7 di/ine re/elation* that all 7ho !ersisted in disa#reein# 7ith or disobeyin#&in# oc elson shall be !ut to death, and their /ery memory e tir!ated 'ore/er. Many o' the /ictimse ecuted 7ere 7omen, 7ho 7ere illed 'or denyin# their husbands4 marital ri#hts, insultin# a !reacher,or darin# to !ractice !oly#yny L7hich 7as considered to be a solely male !ri/ile#e.

"he isho! 7as be#innin# to resume his sie#e, but oc elson 7as able to use much o' the e !ro!riated#old and sil/er to send a!ostles and !am!hlets out to surroundin# areas, attem!tin# to rouse the massesto Anaba!tist re/olution. "he !ro!a#anda had considerable e''ect, leadin# to mass u!risin#s throu#hout$olland and north7estern (ermany durin# +anuary 1G3G.

A thousand armed Anaba!tists #athered under the leadershi! o' someone 7ho called himsel' Christ, Dono' (od. And serious Anaba!tist u!risin#s too !lace in


18/37

$e then !romised that (od 7ould chan#e the cobblestones to bread, and this o' course did not ha!!eneither. Finally, oc elson, lon# 'ascinated by the theater, ordered his star/in# sub5ects to en#a#e in threedays o' dancin# and athletics. ;ramatic !er'ormances 7ere held, as 7ell as a lac Mass.

"he !oor, star/in# !eo!le o' M nster 7ere no7 doomed totally. "he isho! e!t 'irin# lea'lets into theto7n !romisin# a #eneral amnesty i' they 7ould only de!ose &in# oc elson and his court and handthem o/er to the !rincely 'orces. "o #uard a#ainst this threat, oc elson ste!!ed u! his rei#n o' terrorstill 'urther.

8n early May, oc elson di/ided the to7n into 12 sections, and !laced a ?du e? o/er each section 7ith anarmed 'orce o' 2 men. "he du es 7ere 'orei#ners li e himsel', and as ;utch immi#rants they 7ould bemore li ely to be loyal to &in# oc elson. )ach du e 7as strictly 'orbidden to lea/e his o7n section, andthey, in turn, !rohibited any meetin#s o' e/en a 'e7 !eo!le.

No one 7as allo7ed to lea/e to7n, and anyone cau#ht attem!tin# or !lottin# to lea/e, hel!in# anyoneelse to lea/e, or critici-in# the in#, 7as instantly beheaded L mainly by &in# oc elson himsel'. ymid +une such deeds 7ere occurrin# daily, 7ith the body o'ten uartered in sections and nailed u! as a

7arnin# to the M nster masses.

oc elson 7ould undoubtedly ha/e let the entire !o!ulation o' the city star/e to death rather thansurrenderH but t7o esca!ees betrayed 7ea s!ots in the to7n4s de'enses and on the ni#ht o' +une 2 ,1G3G, the ni#htmare Ne7 +erusalem o' communism and ?lo/e? at last came to a bloody end. "he lastse/eral hundred Anaba!tist 'i#hters surrendered under an amnesty and 7ere !rom!tly massacred, andQueen ;i/ara 7as beheaded. As 'or &in# oc elson, he 7as led about on a chain, and, the 'ollo7in#+anuary, he and &ni!!erdollinc 7ere !ublicly tortured to death, and their bodies sus!ended in ca#es'rom a church to7er.

"he old establishment o' M nster 7as duly restored and the city became Catholic once more. "he stars 7ere a#ain in their courses, and the e/ents o' 1G3 1G3G understandably led to an abidin# distrust o'mysticism and enthusiast mo/ements throu#hout %rotestant )uro!e.

8t is instructi/e to understand the attitude o' all Mar ist historians to7ard M nster and the othermillennialist mo/ements o' the early 16th century. "he Mar ists ha/e al7ays understandably laudedthese mo/ements and re#imes, a: 'or bein# communist, and b: 'or bein# re/olutionary mo/ements'rom belo7. Mar ists ha/e in/ariably hailed these mo/ements as 'orerunners o' their o7n.

8deas are notoriously di''icult to ill, and Anaba!tist communism 7as one such idea. One o' M nt-er4scollaborators $enry Niclaes, 7ho had been born in M nster, sur/i/ed to 'ound Familism, a !antheisticcreed claimin# that Man is (od, and callin# 'or the establishment o' the &in#dom o' (od on )arth as theonly !lace that it 7ould e/er e ist. A ey to that in#dom 7ould be a system in 7hich all !ro!erty 7ould

be held in common, and all men 7ould attain the !er'ection o' Christ.

Familist ideas 7ere carried to )n#land by a ;utch 5oiner, Christo!her >ittels, a disci!le o' Niclaes, andFamilism s!read in )n#land durin# the late 16th century. A center o' Familism in early 1Jth century)n#land 7as the (rindletonians, in (rindleton, Ior shire, led, in the decade a'ter 161G, by the curate,the Re/. Ro#er rearly. %art o' the attraction o' Familism 7as its antinomianism L the /ie7 that truly#odly !ersons, such as themsel/es, could ne/er, by de'inition, commit a sin L and antinomians usually'launted 7hat most !eo!le considered sins in order to demonstrate to one and all their #odly and sin'ree status.

;urin# the )n#lish Ci/il


19/37

ut the ne7 secular communist !ro!hets 'aced a #ra/e !roblem*


20/37

"o Morelly, man is e/ery7here #ood, altruistic, and dedicated to 7or H only institutions are de#radin#and corru!t, s!eci'ically the institution o' !ri/ate !ro!erty. Abolish that, and man4s natural #oodness

7ould easily trium!h. Query* 7here did these corru!t human institutions come 'rom, i' not 'rom manK:

Dimilarly, 'or Morelly, as 'or Mar and =enin a'ter him, the administration o' the communist uto!ia 7ould be absurdly easy as 7ell. Assi#nin# to e/ery !erson his tas in li'e, and decidin# 7hat material#oods and ser/ices 7ould 'ul'ill his needs, 7ould a!!arently be a tri/ial !roblem 'or a Ministry o' =aboror o' Consum!tion. For Morelly, all this is merely a matter o' tri/ial enumeration, listin# thin#s and!ersons.

And yet, someho7 thin#s are not #oin# to be that easy in the Morelly uto!ia.


21/37

"he third and 'inal A#e o' $istory, the A#e o' the $oly D!irit, 7as no7 at hand. "he illuminated )lectdestined to rule the ne7, communal 7orld order 7ere, 'airly ob/iously, the Rosicrucian Order, since thema5or e/idence 'or the da7n o' the "hird A#e bein# imminent 7as the ra!id s!read o' Martinism andRosicrucianism itsel'.

And these mo/ements 7ere indeed s!readin# durin# the 1J 0s and 1J90s. "he %russian &in# Frederic


22/37

built 'rom the rubble. As abeu' called out, at the conclusion o' his o7n -lebeian Manifesto, ?Maye/erythin# return to chaos, and out o' chaos may there emer#e a ne7 and re#enerated 7orld.? 36B 8ndeed, the -lebian Manifesto, !ublished sli#htly earlier than the Manifesto of 38uals in No/ember1J9G, 7as the 'irst in a line o' re/olutionary mani'estos that 7ould reach a clima in Mar 4s Communist

Manifesto a hal' century later.

"he t7o Mani'estos, the -lebeian and the 38uals, re/ealed an im!ortant di''erence bet7een abeu' andMarechal 7hich mi#ht ha/e caused a s!lit had not the ) uals been crushed soon a'ter7ard by !olicere!ression. For in his -lebeian Manifesto, abeu' had be#un to mo/e to7ard Christian messianism, notonly !ayin# tribute to Moses and +oshua, but also !articularly to +esus Christ as his, abeu'4s,?coathlete.? 8n !rison, 'urthermore, abeu' had 7ritten 9 (ew :istory of the 2ife of ;esus Christ. Mosto' the ) uals, ho7e/er, 7ere militant atheists, s!earheaded by Marechal, 7ho li ed to re'er to himsel'

7ith the #randiose acronym l4$D;, l1homme sans ieu the Man 7ithout (odB.

8n addition to the idea o' a cons!iratorial re/olution, abeu', 'ascinated by military matters, be#an tode/elo! the idea o' !eo!le4s #uerilla 7ar'are* o' the re/olution bein# 'ormed in se!arate ?!halan es? by!eo!le 7hose !ermanent occu!ation 7ould be ma in# re/olution L 7hom =enin 7ould later call?!ro'essional re/olutionaries.? $e also toyed 7ith the idea o' military !halan es securin# a #eo#ra!hical

base, and then 7or in# out7ard 'rom there.

A secret, cons!iratorial inner circle, a !halan o' !ro'essional re/olutionaries L ine/itably this meantthat abeu'4s strate#ic !ers!ecti/e 'or his re/olution embodied some 'ascinatin# !arado es. For in thename o' a #oal o' harmony and !er'ect e uality, the re/olutionaries 7ere to be led by a hierarchycommandin# total obedienceH the inner cadre 7ould 7or its 7ill o/er the mass. An absolute leader,headin# an all !o7er'ul cadre, 7ould, at the !ro!er moment, #i/e the si#nal to usher in a society o'!er'ect e uality. Re/olution 7ould be made to end all 'urther re/olutionsH an all !o7er'ul hierarchy

7ould be necessary, alle#edly to !ut an end to hierarchy 'ore/er.

ut o' course, there 7as no real !arado here because abeu' and his cadre harbored no real intention toeliminate hierarchy. "he !aeans to ?e uality? 7ere a 'limsy camou'la#e 'or the real ob5ecti/e L a!ermanently entrenched and absolute dictatorshi!.

A'ter su''erin# !olice re!ression at the end o' February, 1J96, the Cons!iracy o' the ) uals 7ent 'urtherunder#round, and, a month later, constituted themsel/es as the Decret ;irectory o' %ublic Da'ety. "he

se/en secret directors, meetin# e/ery e/enin#, reached collecti/e and anonymous decisions, and theneach member o' this central committee radiated acti/ity out7ard to 12 ?instructors,? each o' 7hommobili-ed a broader insurrectionary #rou! in one o' the 12 districts o' %aris.

8n this 7ay, the Cons!iracy mana#ed to mobili-e 1J,000 %arisians, but the #rou! 7as betrayed by theea#erness o' the secret directorate to recruit 7ithin the army. An in'ormer led to the arrest o' abeu' onMay 10, 'ollo7ed by the destruction o' the Cons!iracy o' the ) uals. abeu' 7as e ecuted the 'ollo7in#

year.

?No one 7as allo7ed to lea/e to7n, and anyone cau#ht attem!tin# or !lottin# to lea/e, hel!in# anyoneelse to lea/e, or critici-in# the in#, 7as instantly beheaded.?

%olice re!ression, ho7e/er, almost al7ays lea/es !oc ets o' dissidents to rise a#ain, and the ne7 carriero' the torch o' re/olutionary communism became a abou/ist 7ho 7as arrested 7ith the leader butmana#ed to a/oid e ecution. Fili!!o (uise!!e Maria =odo/ico uonarroti 7as the oldest son o' anaristocratic but im!o/erished Florentine 'amily, and a direct descendant o' the #reat Michelan#elo.Dtudyin# la7 at the Eni/ersity o' %isa in the early 1J 0s, uonarroti 7as con/erted by disci!les o'Morelly on the %isa 'aculty.

As a radical 5ournalist and editor, uonarroti then !artici!ated in battles 'or the French Re/olutiona#ainst 8talian troo!s. 8n the s!rin# o' 1J9 , he 7as !ut in char#e o' the French occu!ation in the 8talianto7n o' One#lia, 7here he announced to the !eo!le that all men must be e ual, and that any distinction

7hate/er amon# men is a /iolation o' natural la7. ac in %aris, uonarroti success'ully de'endedhimsel' in a trial a#ainst his use o' terror in One#lia, and 'inally !lun#ed into abeu'4s Cons!iracy o') uals. $is 'riendshi! 7ith Na!oleon allo7ed him to esca!e e ecution, and e/entually to be shi!!ed'rom a !rison cam! to e ile in (ene/a.

For the rest o' his li'e, uonarroti became 7hat his modern bio#ra!her calls ?"he First %ro'essionalRe/olutionist,? tryin# to set u! re/olutions and cons!iratorial or#ani-ations throu#hout )uro!e. e'orethe e ecution o' abeu' and others, uonarroti had !led#ed his comrades to 7rite their 'ull story, and he

22
http://mises.org/daily/3769#note36http://mises.org/daily/3769#note36http://mises.org/daily/3769#note36


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'ul'illed that !led#e 7hen, at the a#e o' 6J, he !ublished in el#ium 7he Conspiracy for 38uality of


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and hea/y industry,


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As 'or


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=utheranism in 1 16.


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For its marshal L blac est a#ony. GB

"he Datan theme is most e !licitly set 'orth in Mar 4s ?"he Fiddler,? dedicated to his 'ather.

Dee this s7ordK

"he !rince o' dar ness

Dold it to me.

and


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)ternally chained to this marble bloc o' ein#,

@ and 7e L


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un'inished 7or o' 1 , 6ur =ather $6>c#e nas#', Cies- o7s i maintained that the ne7 a#e o're/olutionary communism 7ould be a "hird A#e, an A#e o' the $oly D!irit shades o' +oachimism :, anera that 7ould be the &in#dom o' (od on earth ?as it is in hea/en.? "his 'inal &in#dom o' (od on earth

7ould reinte#rate all o' ?or#anic humanity,? and 7ould be #o/erned by a Central (o/ernment o' AllMan ind, headed by a Eni/ersal Council o' the %eo!le.

At that time, it 7as by no means clear 7hich strand o' re/olutionary communism, the reli#ious or theatheist, 7ould ultimately 7in out. "hus, Ale ander 8/ano/ich $er-en, a 'ounder o' the Russianre/olutionary tradition, 7as entranced by Cies- o7s i4s brand o' =e't $e#elianism, 7ritin# that ?the'uture society is to be the 7or not o' the heart, but o' the concrete. $e#el is the ne7 Christ brin#in# the

7ord o' truth to men.? B And soon, runo auer, 'riend and mentor o' &arl Mar and leader o' the o&tor&lub o' Ioun# $e#elians at the Eni/ersity o' erlin, hailed Cies- o7s i4s ne7 !hiloso!hy o'action in late 1 1 as ?"he "rum!et Call o' the =ast +ud#ment.?

ut the 7innin# strand in the )uro!ean socialist mo/ement, as 7e ha/e indicated, 7as e/entually to be&arl Mar 4s atheism. 8' $e#el !anthei-ed and elaborated the dialectic o' the Christian messianics, Marno7 ?stood $e#el on his head? by athei-in# the dialectic, and restin# it not on mysticism or reli#ion or?s!irit? or the Absolute 8dea or the


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?!ra is.? $e mentioned that in (ermany in the Middle A#es there e isted a secret tribunal called the4ehmgericht. $e then e !lained*

8' a red cross 7as seen mar ed on a house, !eo!le ne7 that its o7ner 7as doomed by the 4ehm. All thehouses o' )uro!e are no7 mar ed 7ith the mysterious red cross. $istory is the 5ud#e L its e ecutionerthe !roletarian. G1B

Mar , in 'act, 7as not satis'ied 7ith the !hiloso!hical communism to 7hich he and )n#els hadse!arately been con/erted by the sli#htly older =e't $e#elian Moses $ess in the early 1 0s. "o $ess4scommunism, Mar , by the end o' 1 3, added the crucial em!hasis on the proletariat, not sim!ly as aneconomic class, but as destined to become the ?uni/ersal class? 7hen communism 7as achie/ed.

8ronically, Mar ac uired his /ision o' the !roletariat as the ey to the communist re/olution 'rom anin'luential boo !ublished in 1 2 by a youth'ul enemy o' socialism, =oren- /on Dtein. Dtein inter!retedthe socialist and communist mo/ements o' the day as rationali-ations o' the class interests o' the!ro!ertyless !roletariat. Mar disco/ered in Dtein4s attac the ?scienti'ic? en#ine 'or the ine/itablecomin# o' the communist re/olution. G2B "he !roletariat, the most ?alienated? and alle#edly?!ro!ertyless? class, 7ould be the ey.


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ne#ationH and, in this case, by 7hich total e/il L 7hich turns out, interestin#ly enou#h, to be the!ostre/olutionary dictatorshi! o' the !roletariat and not !re/ious ca!italism L becomes trans'ormedinto total #ood, a ne/er ne/er land absent the di/ision o' labor and all other 'orms o' alienation.

?Dtein 'orecast that communism 7ould attem!t to en'orce e#alitarianism by 7ildly and 'erociouslye !ro!riatin# and destroyin# !ro!erty, con'iscatin# it, and coerci/ely communi-in# 7omen as 7ell asmaterial 7ealth. 8ndeed, Mar 4s e/aluation o' ra7 communism 7as e/en more ne#ati/e than Dtein4s.?

"he curious !oint is that 7hile Mar attem!ts to e !lain the dialectic mo/ement 'rom 'eudalism toca!italism and 'rom ca!italism to the 'irst sta#e o' communism in terms o' class stru##le and thematerial !roducti/e 'orces, both o' these dro! out once ra7 communism is achie/ed. "he alle#edlyine/itable trans'ormation 'rom the hell o' ra7 communism to the alle#ed hea/en o' hi#her communismis le't totally une !lainedH to rely on that crucial trans'ormation, 7e must 'all bac on !ure 'aith in themysti ue o' the dialectic.

;es!ite Mar 4s claim to be a ?scienti'ic socialist,? scornin# all other Docialists 7hom he dismissed asmoralistic and ?uto!ian,? it should be clear that Mar himsel' 7as e/en more in the messianic uto!iantradition than 7ere the com!etin# ?uto!ians.? For Mar not only sou#ht a desired 'uture society that

7ould !ut an end to history, he claimed to ha/e 'ound the !ath to7ard that uto!ia ine/itably determined by the ?la7s o' history.?

ut a uto!ian, and a 'ierce one, Mar certainly 7as. A hallmar o' e/ery uto!ia is a militant desire to !utan end to history, to 'ree-e man ind in a static state, to !ut an end to di/ersity and man4s 'ree 7ill, andto order e/eryone4s li'e in accordance 7ith the uto!ian4s totalitarian !lan. Many early communists andsocialists set 'orth their 'i ed uto!ias in #reat and absurd detail, determinin# the si-e o' e/eryone4s li/in#

uarters, the 'ood they 7ould eat, etc. Mar 7as not silly enou#h to do that, but his entire system, as%ro'essor "homas Molnar !oints out, is ?the search o' the uto!ian mind 'or the de'initi/e stabili-ation o' man ind or, in #nostic terms, its reabsor!tion into the timeless.?

For Mar , his uest 'or uto!ia 7as, as 7e ha/e seen, an e !licit attac on (od4s creation, and a 'erociousdesire to destroy it. "he idea o' crushin# the many, the di/erse 'acets o' creation, and o' returnin# to analle#edly lost unity 7ith (od be#an, as 7e ha/e seen, 7ith %lotinus. As Molnar summed u!,

8n this /ie7, e istence itsel' is aB 7ound on nonbein#. %hiloso!hers 'rom %lotinus to Fichte and beyondha/e held that the reabsor!tion o' the !olichrome uni/erse in the eternal One 7ould be !re'erable tocreation. Dhort o' this solution, they !ro!ose to arran#e a 7orld in 7hich chan#e is brou#ht undercontrol so as to !ut an end to a disturbin#ly 'ree 7ill and to society4s uncharted mo/es. "hey as!ire toreturn 'rom the linear $ebre7 Christian conce!t to the (reco $indu cycle L that is, to a chan#eless,timeless !ermanence.

"he trium!h o' unity o/er di/ersity means that, 'or the uto!ians, includin# Mar , ?ci/il society, 7ith itsdisturbin# di/ersity, can be abolished.? GGB

Dubstitutin# in Mar 'or (od4s 7ill or the $e#elian dialectic o' the 7orld s!irit or the Absolute 8dea, ismonist materialismH its central assum!tion, as Molnar !uts it, bein# ?that the uni/erse consists o' matter!lus some sort o' one dimensional la7 immanent in matter.? 8n that case, ?man himsel' is reduced to acom!le but mani!ulable material a##re#ate, li/in# in the com!any o' other a##re#ates, and 'ormin#increasin#ly com!le su!er a##re#ates called societies, !olitical bodies, churches.? "he alle#ed la7s o'history, then, are deri/ed by scienti'ic Mar ists as su!!osedly e/ident and immanent 7ithin this matteritsel'.

"he Mar ian !rocess to7ard uto!ia, then, is man ac uirin# insi#hts into his o7n true nature, and thenrearran#in# the 7orld to accord 7ith that nature. )n#els, in 'act, e !licitly !roclaimed the $e#elianconce!ts o' the Man (od*

$itherto the uestion has al7ays stood*


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8n this alle#edly ine/itable !rocess o' arri/in# at the !roletarian communist uto!ia a'ter the !roletarianclass becomes conscious o' its true nature, 7hat is su!!osed to be &arl Mar 4s o7n roleK 8n $e#eliantheory, $e#el himsel' is the 'inal and #reatest 7orld historical 'i#ure, the Man (od o' man #ods.Dimilarly, Mar in his o7n /ie7 stands at a 'ocal !oint o' history as the man 7ho brou#ht to the 7orldthe crucial no7led#e o' man4s true nature and o' the la7s o' history, thereby ser/in# as the ?mid7i'e? o' the !rocess that 7ould !ut an end to history. "hus Molnar 7rote,

=i e other uto!ian and #nostic 7riters, Mar is much less interested in the sta#es o' history u! to the!resent the e#otistic now o' all uto!ian 7riters: than the 'inal sta#es 7hen the stu'' o' time becomesmore concentrated, 7hen the drama a!!roaches its denouement. 8n 'act, the uto!ian 7riter concei/es o'history as a !rocess leadin# to himsel' since he, the ultimate comprehensor, stands in the center o'history. 8t is natural that thin#s accelerate durin# his o7n li'etime and come to a 7atershed* he loomslar#e bet7een the e'ore and the A'ter. GJB

"hus, in common 7ith other uto!ian socialists and communists, Mar sou#ht in communism thea!otheosis o' the collecti/e s!ecies L man ind as one ne7 su!erbein#, in 7hich the only meanin#!ossessed by the indi/idual is as a ne#li#ible !article o' that collecti/e or#anism. Many o' Mar 4snumerous e!i#ones carried out his uest.

One incisi/e !ortrayal o' Mar ian collecti/e or#anicism L 7hat amounts to a celebration o' the Ne7

Docialist Man to be created durin# the communi-in# !rocess L 7as that o' a to! olshe/i theoreticiano' the early 20th century, Ale ander Ale andro/ich o#dano/. o#dano/, too, s!o e o' ?three a#es? o'human history. First 7as a reli#ious, authoritarian society and a sel' su''icient economy.

Ne t came the ?second a#e,? an e chan#e economy, mar ed by di/ersity and the emer#ence o' the?autonomy? o' the ?indi/idual human !ersonality.? ut this indi/idualism, at 'irst !ro#ressi/e, later

becomes an obstacle to !ro#ress as it ham!ers and ?contradicts the uni'yin# tendencies o' the machinea#e.? ut then there 7ill arise the "hird A#e, the 'inal sta#e o' history* communism. "his last sta#e 7ill

be mar ed by a collecti/e, sel' su''icient economy, and by

the 'usion o' !ersonal li/es into one colossal 7hole, harmonious in the relations o' its !arts,systematically #rou!in# all elements 'or one common stru##le L stru##le a#ainst the endlesss!ontaneity o' nature.@ An enormous mass o' creati/e acti/ity @ is necessary in order to sol/e this tas .8t demands the 'orces not o' man but o' man ind L and only in 7or in# at this tas does man ind as

such emer#e . G B

Finally, at the a!e o' Mar ian messianic communism is a man 7ho 'uses all the tendencies and strandsanaly-ed thus 'ar. A blend o' Christian messianist and de/oted Mar ist =eninist Dtalinist, the 20thcentury (erman Mar ist )rnst loch set 'orth his /ision in his recently translated three /olume!hantasma#oria 7he -rinciple of :ope $ a# -rin#ip :offung'.

)arly in his career, loch 7rote a laudatory study o' the /ie7s and li'e o' the coerci/e, Anaba!tistcommunist, "homas M nt-er, 7hom he hailed as ma#ical, or ?theur#ic.? "he inner ?truth? o' thin#s,

7rote loch, 7ill only be disco/ered a'ter ?a com!lete trans'ormation o' the uni/erse, a #randa!ocaly!se, the descent o' the Messiah, a ne7 hea/en and a ne7 earth.?

"here is more than a hint in loch that disease, nay death itsel', 7ill be abolished u!on the ad/ent o'communism. G9B (od is de/elo!in#H ?(od himsel' is !art o' the Eto!ia, a 'inality that is still unreali-ed.?For loch, mystical ecstasies and the 7orshi! o' =enin and Dtalin 7ent hand in hand. As +. %. Dtern

7rites, loch4s -rinciple of :ope contains such remar able declarations as ? bi 2enin, ibi ;erusalem ?


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SG0 S J

=ater cha!ters 'ocus on the roots o' &arl Mar and the nature o' his doctrines.

8n the !erson o' )rnst loch, the old #rie/ous s!lit 7ithin the )uro!ean communist mo/ement o' the1 30s and 1 0s bet7een its Christian and atheist 7in#s 7as at last reconciled. Or, to !ut it another

7ay, in a 'inal bi-arre t7ist o' the dialectic o' history, the total con uest o' the Christian /ariants o'communism, at the hands o' the su!erior re/olutionary 7ill and or#ani-in# o' &arl Mar , 7as no7transcended and ne#ated.

"he messianic, eschatolo#ical /ision o' heretical reli#ious and Christian communism 7as no7 bac in'ull 'orce, 7ithin the su!!osed stron#hold o' atheistic communism, Mar ism itsel'. From )rnst loch tothe 'anatical cults o' !ersonality o' Dtalin and Mao to the #enocidal /ision and ruthlessness o' %ol %ot inCambodia and the Dhinin# %ath #uerrilla mo/ement in %eru, it seems that, 7ithin the body and soul o'Mar ism, "homas M nt-er had at last trium!hed conclusi/ely o/er Feuerbach.

Murray N. Rothbard 1926 199G: 7as dean o' the Austrian Dchool. $e 7as an economist, economichistorian, and libertarian !olitical !hiloso!her. Dee Murray N. Rothbard4s article archi/es . Comment onthe blo# .

Iou can subscribe to 'uture articles by Murray N. Rothbard /ia this RDD 'eed .

.otes

1B )rnest =. "u/eson, ?"he Millenarian Dtructure o' 7he Communist Manifesto ,? in C. %atrides and +.


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s i!!ed o/er.? =undamentals of Marxism+2eninism, 2nd re/. ed. Mosco7* Forei#n =an#ua#es%ublishin# $ouse, 1963:, !. 662. Also see ibid., !!. 6 G 6, 666 6J, and 6J JG.

B Dee the illuminatin# 7or o' Robert C. "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth in Karl Marx 19J0, Ne7 Ior *Cambrid#e Eni/ersity %ress, 1961:.

GB What Marx /eally Meant 7as the title o' a sym!athetic 7or on Mar ism by (. ;. $. Cole =ondon,193 :.

6B Ale ander (ray, 7he %ocialist 7radition =ondon* =ou#mans (reen, 19 6:, !!. 321 22.

JB Another e am!le o' 7hat may be termed ?reli#ious? beha/ior by Mar ists is the insistence o' thin ers 7ho ha/e clearly abandoned almost all the essential tenets o' Mar ism on callin# themsel/es by thema#ical name ?Mar ist.? A recent case in !oint is the ritish ?analytical Mar ists,? such as +ohn Roemerand +on )lster. For a criti ue o' this school by an orthodo Mar ist, see Michael A. =ebo7it-, ?8s4Analytical Mar ism4 Mar ismK? %cience and %ociety , /ol. G2 Dummer 19 :* !!. 191 21 .

B =es-e &ola o7s i, Main Currents o' Marxism@ 5ts 6rigins, rowth and issolution , /ol. 1 O 'ord*O 'ord Eni/ersity %ress, 19 1: !!. 9 39.

9B "he #reat orthodo Christian a!olo#ist (. &. Chesterton brilliantly illuminated the di''erence bet7een Christian indi/idualism and !antheistic collecti/ism in the 'ollo7in# criti ue o' the uddhistMrs. Annie esant, one o' the 'ounders o' the Fabian Dociety, ?Accordin# to Mrs. esant the uni/ersalChurch is sim!ly the uni/ersal Del'. 8t is the doctrine that 7e are really all one !ersonH that there are noreal 7alls o' indi/iduality bet7een man and man.@ Dhe does not tell us to lo/e our nei#hborH she tells usto be our nei#hbors.@ "he intellectual abyss bet7een uddhism and Christianity is that, 'or the

uddhist or the theoso!hist, !ersonality is the 'all o' man, 'or the Christian it is the !ur!ose o' (od, the 7hole !oint o' $is cosmic idea.? (.&. Chesterton, 6rthodoxy Ne7 Ior , 192J:, !!. 2 G. Quoted in"homas Molnar, topia@ the -erennial :eresy Ne7 Ior * Dheed and


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16B $e#el 7as nominally a =utheran, but =utheranism in (ermany at that time 7as e/identlylatitudinarian enou#h to encom!ass !antheism.

1JB Robert C. "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth, !!. G3 G .

1 B Dee Raymond %lant, :egel loomin#ton 8ndiana Eni/ersity %ress, 19J3:, !. 120.

19B Fer#uson 'urthermore, used his !hrase in a 'ashion /ery similar to that o' $e#el, and 7as ori#inally'ar 'rom the $aye ian analysis o' the 'ree mar et. Fer#uson, as a youn# Cal/inist minister, enlisted inthe su!!ression o' the +acobite rebellion o' 1J G in Dcotland. A'ter the rebellion 7as at last !ut do7n,Fer#uson !reached a sermon in 7hich he tried to sol/e the #reat !u--le* 7hy did (od !ermit theCatholics to !ursue their e/il #oals and almost trium!hK $is ans7er 7as that the Catholics, e/en thou#hconsciously !ursuin# e/il ends, ser/ed as the unconscious a#ents o' (od4s #ood !ur!oseH i.e., rousin# the%resbyterian Church o' Dcotland out o' its alle#ed a!athy. $ence, a !rototy!e o' the ?cunnin# o' Reason?in history, e ce!t 'or theist rather than !antheist #oals. Dee Richard . Dher, Church and niversity inthe %cottish 3nlightenment %rinceton, %rinceton Eni/ersity %ress, 19 G:, !!. 0 .

20B As %aul Crai# Roberts has ri#htly em!hasi-ed, ?alienation? in Man is not sim!ly the ca!italist 7a#erelation but, more dee!ly, s!eciali-ation, the di/ision o' labor, and the money economy itsel'. ut as 7esee, alienation is e/en more rootedly the cosmic condition o' man4s state until the reabsor!tion o'collecti/e man and nature under communism. Dee %aul Crai# Roberts, 9lienation and the %oviet

3conomy Albu uer ue* Eni/ersity o' Ne7 Me ico, 19J1:H and Roberts and Matthe7 A. Dte!henson, Marx1s 7heory of 3xchange, 9lienation and Crisis, 2nd ed. Ne7 Ior * %rae#er, 19 3:.

21B %lant, :egel, ! . 96.

22B Dee %lant, :egel, !! . 122, 123, and 1 1. Also see &arl R. %o!!er, 7he 6pen %ociety and its 3nemies, /ol. 2 Ne7 Ior * $ar!er "orchboo s, 1963:, !. 31.

23B "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth, !! . G GG. ). F. Carritt !oints out that, 'or $e#el, ?'reedom? is?desirin# abo/e all thin#s to ser/e the success and #lory o' their Dtate. 8n desirin# this they are desirin#that the 7ill o' (od should be done.? 8' an indi/idual thin s he should do somethin# 7hich is not 'or thesuccess and #lory o' the Dtate, then, 'or $e#el, ?he should be 4'orced to be 'ree.4? $o7 does a !erson

&now 7hat action 7ill redound to the #lory o' the DtateK "o $e#el, the ans7er 7as easy.


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30B Quoted in 8#or Dha'are/ich, 7he %ocialist -henomenon Ne7 Ior * $ar!er and Ro7, 19 0:, !. GJ.

31B (ray, %ocialist 7radition, !!. 90 91.

32B (ray, %ocialist 7radition, !!. 62 63.

33B Dee the re/ealin# article by %aul (ott'ried, ?Eto!ianism o' the Ri#ht* Maistre and Dchle#el,? Modern 9ge , /ol. 2 D!rin# 19 0:* !!. 1G0 60.

3 B +ames $. illin#ton, Fire in the Minds o' Men* Ori#ins o' the Re/olutionary Faith Ne7 Ior * asicoo s, 19 0:, !. J3.

3GB For this !hrase and other translated uotes 'rom the Manifesto, see Dha'are/ich, 7he %ocialist -henomenon, !!. 121 2 . Also see (ray, %ocialist 7radition, !. 10J.

36B illin#ton, =ire in the Minds, !. JG. Also see (ray, %ocialist 7radition, ! 10Gn. As (ray comments,?7hat is desired is the annihilation o' all thin#s, trustin# that out o' the dust o' destruction a 'air citymay arise. And buoyed by such a ho!e, ho7 blithely 7ould abeu' bide the stour.? 8bid. , ! 10G.

3JB Cabet had been a distin#uished French la7yer and attorney #eneral o' Corsica, but he 7as ousted'or radical attitudes to7ard the French #o/ernment. A'ter 'oundin# a 5ournal, Cabet 'led into e ile in=ondon durin# the 1 30s and initially became an O7enite. ;es!ite Cabet4s nationality, the boo 7asori#inally 7ritten and !ublished in )n#lish, and a French translation 7as !ublished the 'ollo7in# year. A !eace'ul communist rather than a re/olutionary, Cabet tried to establish uto!ian communes in /arious'ailed !ro5ects in the Enited Dtates, 'rom 1 until his death years later.

3 B illin#ton, =ire in the Minds, !. 2 3.

39B illin#ton, =ire in the Minds, !. 2GJ.

0B illin#ton, =ire in the Minds, !. 2G1.

1B Dee the standard bio#ra!hy o' Mar by ;a/id Mc=ellan, Karl Marx@ :is 2ife and 7hought Ne7 Ior * $ar!er and Ro7, 19J3:, !. 11 .

2B Dee +. =. "almon, -olitical Messianism@ 7he /omantic -hase Ne7 Ior * %rae#er, 1960:, !. 1GJ.

3B Friedrich )n#els 7as the son o' a leadin# industrialist and cotton manu'acturer, 7ho 7as also astaunch %ietist 'rom the armen area o' the Rhineland in (ermany. armen 7as one o' the ma5orcenters o' %ietism in (ermany, and )n#els recei/ed a strict %ietist u!brin#in#. An atheist and then a$e#elian by 1 39, )n#els 7ound u! at the Eni/ersity o' erlin and the Ioun# $e#elians by 1 1, andmo/ed in the same circles as Mar , becomin# 'ast 'riends in 1 .

B "he !oems 7ere lar#ely 7ritten in 1 36 and 1 3J, in Mar 4s 'irst months in erlin. "7o o' the!oems constituted Mar 4s 'irst !ublished 7ritin#s, in the


37/37

B illin#ton, =ire in the Minds, !. 22G.

9B "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth, !. 101.

G0B "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth, !. 10G. 8t is both ironic and 'ascinatin# that the dominantintellectuals in contem!orary $un#ary 7ho are leadin# the dri/e a7ay 'rom socialism and to7ard

'reedom are honorin# the Mar ian conce!t o' ?ci/il society? as 7hat they are mo/in# to7ard 7hile #oin#a7ay 'rom the collecti/e and the communal.

G1B "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth, !. 1G.

G2B Dtein 7as a conser/ati/e $e#elian monarchist, 7ho had been assi#ned by the %russian #o/ernmentto study the unsettlin# ne7 doctrines o' socialism and communism becomin# ram!ant in France. Mardis!layed a ?minute te tual 'amiliarity? 7ith Dtein4s boo , =oren- /on Dtein, er %ocialismus undCommunismus des heutigen =ran&reichs =ie!-i#, 1 2:, a boo that remains untranslated. Dtein s!enthis mature years as !ro'essor o' !ublic 'inance and !ublic administration at the Eni/ersity o' >ienna.Dee "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth, !!. 11 1J.

G3B Quoted in "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth, !. 1GG. 8talics are Mar 4s.

G B "uc er, -hilosophy and Myth, !!. 1GG G6.

GGB "homas Molnar, ?Mar ism and the Eto!ian "heme,? Marxist -erspectives

karl marx as religious eschatologist

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