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de Vries, Leslie (2014) The Authentic Person as Ideal for the Late Ming Dynasty Physician:Daoist Inner Alchemy in Zhang Jiebin’s Commentary on the Huangdi neijing. Synthesis Philosophica,29 (1). pp. 63-82. ISSN 0352-7875.
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OriginalPaperUDC[133.5:221.3]:61(510)“15/16”ReceivedJanuary7th,2013
Leslie de VriesUniversityofWestminster,EASTmedicine,RoomN3.110,CoplandBuilding115,NewCavendishStreet,
UK–W1W6UWLondon
The Authentic Person as Ideal for the Late
Ming Dynasty Physician
Daoist Inner Alchemy in Zhang Jiebin’s Commentary on the
Huangdi neijing1
Abstract
At the end of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Daoist inner alchemy had a significant influ-ence on the medical theories of some of the most prominent scholar physicians in Jiangnan China. In this article, I zoom in on Zhang Jiebin’s (1563–1640) commentary on the Huangdi neijing (Inner Classic of the Yellow Emperor), the foundational text of Chinese medicine. In the first chapter of this text, four exemplary types of human beings are described. I analyse how Zhang Jiebin elaborates on one of them, the Authentic Person (zhenren). Abundantly referring to inner alchemical sources, his focus is on the essential constituents of the body: essence (jing), qi, and spirit (shen). I further show how Zhang emphasizes strong connec-tions between medicine and inner alchemy in a discussion on concrete practices, which could not only dispel disorders but also lead to the Daoist ideal of becoming a zhenren.
Keywords
ZhangJiebin,Chinesemedicine,Mingdynasty,inneralchemy,qi,soteriology
Introduction
JosephNeedham,thegreathistorianofChinesescience,consideredDaoismtobe themaincatalyst for thedevelopmentofscience inChina.HestatedthatDaoists (daojia), “whose speculations about, and insight into,Nature,fullyequaledpre-AristotelianGreekthought,[lie]atthebasisofallChinesescience.”2NathanSivinstronglydisagreeswiththispointofview,andarguesthatNeedhamhadmisinterpretedtheterm“Daoist.”AccordingtoSivin,thereisnoevidencethatthemajorityofimportantfiguresinthehistoryofscience,includingphysicians,wereconnectedtoDaoism.3
1
MygratitudegoestoBartDessein,ElisabethHsu, and Dan Vercammen who commentedon previous versions of this article. I alsowishtothankthereviewersandtheguestedi-torofthisspecialissue,IvanaBuljan,fortheircorrections and suggestions.
2
JosephNeedham,Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versityPress,1956),1.
3
Nathan Sivin, “On the Word ‘Taoist’ as aSourceofPerplexity:WithSpecialReferenceto the Relations of Science and Religion inTraditionalChina,”History of Religions 17,no. 3–4 (1978); and Nathan Sivin, “Taoismand Science,” in Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections(Aldershot:Ashgate,1995).
SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA 57(1/2014)pp.(63–82)
L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician64
As thismaybe,DaoismundeniablyinfluencedChinesescience.Inthemedi-caltraditionforinstance,thisinfluenceisapparentinthefirsttwochaptersof theSuwen (PlainQuestions, hereafter SW)part of theHuangdi neijing (InnerClassicof theYellowEmperor), themost important textofChinesemedicine.4Theexplanationsonlifestyleanddiseasepreventioninthesechap-tersshowremarkableparallelswithideasonlongevityfoundinearlyDaoisttexts.5Yet,theInner ClassicisnotshapedbyDaoistthoughtonly.AccordingtoPaulUnschuld,mostpartsofthetextshouldratherbeunderstoodintheeclecticConfucian-LegalistcontextoftheHandynasty,thetimeinwhichthemajorityofthetextlayersoftheInner Classicwerewritten.6
HowdidDaoisminlatertimesinfluenceChinesemedicine?Areimportantstages in thedevelopmentofDaoism represented inmedicine? Inhis pre-liminarystudyonthelinksbetweenDaoismandmedicineinthelateMing(1368–1644)–earlyQing(1644–1911)period,PeterEngelfrietarguesthatwheretheremighthavebeentangiblelinksbetweenthetwoinearliertimes,thiswasmuchlesstrueinthelateimperialperiod.Inhisopinion,certainlythelinksbetweenDaoismandelitemedicinearedisputable.Engelfrietevenassumesthatthegradualdisappearanceofacupuncture–themaintherapeuticdevisereferred to in the Inner Classic –inelitemedicineduring theMingdynastywasduetothefactthatneedlingwasatthattimemainlypracticedbyDaoistphysicians,who“wereconsideredvulgarbylearneddoctors.”7TheDaoistconnectionsofmedicinewereforgottenbytheseelitephysicians,or“theyhadbeensubsumedunderlearnedtraditionsinsuchamannerthattheywere identifiedmorewith theConfucian tradition thanwith theTaoist tra-dition.”8About longevity techniques, traditionallyclosely related toDaoistpractices,Engelfrietremarks:
“Whathaddevelopedintoaheterogeneouscollectionofspiritualandbodilyexercises,tendedtobenolongerassociatedwithTaoisminthefirstplace.TheywereratherviewedinaneclecticwayandcateredtothewidespreadpassiontosynthesizetheThreeTeachings.”9
ElitephysiciansofthelateMing–earlyQingperiodaresupposedtohavebeenfirstofallsyncreticNeo-Confucians.10ZhangJiebin(1563–1640),un-doubtedlyoneofthemostinfluentialphysiciansofhistimes,wasresponsi-blefor“themostcomprehensiveattempttoconformmedicinetothewholesystemofNeo-Confuciancosmology.”11OneoftheNeo-ConfucianconceptsheandotherlateMingphysiciansreferredtoinordertounderstandthefunc-tioningof thehumanbodywas theSupremeUltimate (taiji).Although theSupremeUltimateoriginatedfromDaoism,ithadbecomethecornerstoneofNeo-Confuciancosmology.12EngelfrietsaysaboutsyncreticattemptsmadebyphysicianssuchasZhangJiebinthat:
“Wheresyncreticattemptsweremade,eventhoughmanywereconsciousofthefactthatsuchconceptsalsoappeared inTaoism, itwereNeo-Confucianstandardswhich formed thepointof departure.Thus, in the samewayNeo-Confucianism incorporatedmanyTaoist andBud-
dhistelements,medicinerenderedNeo-ConfucianwhatoriginallymighthavehadstrongTaoistroots.”13
Likewise,thehumanbodyinthetextsoftheselateMing–earlyQingschol-arlyphysiciansshouldberegardedas“aNeo-ConfucianbodyratherthanaTaoistone.”14
Chinesescholarsgenerallyexpressanotheropinion.GaiJianmin,forexample,pointsoutthestronginteractionbetweenmedicineandDaoismfromtheearli-est till modern times.15AlsosomeWesternscholarsacknowledgeinfluencesofDaoist inneralchemy(neidan)onmedicaldoctrine in theSongdynasty
SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA 57(1/2014)pp.(63–82)
L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician65
andlater.CharlotteFurth,forinstance,refersextensivelytoinneralchemicalinfluencesonMingmedicine,andon theworksof the syncreticphysicianYuanHuang(1533–1606)inparticular,inherimpressivestudyongenderinChinesemedicalhistory.16But,didDaoistinneralchemyalsohaveaninflu-enceonthemedicalwritingsofthegreatlateMingNeo-ConfucianphysicianZhangJiebin?And,ifso,howdidherenderitNeo-Confucian?OneofZhangJiebin’scelebratedtextsistheLeijing(ClassicinCategories,162417). In thiswork,Zhangsystematically rearranged thecontentsof theentire Inner Classicintotwelvecategories.18Zhang’srearrangementstillex-
4
The textus receptus oftheInner Classic con-sistsoftwoparts:Suwen and Lingshu(Spir-itualPivot,hereafterLS),eachcontaining81chapters.The standard editionof theSuwen used today dates from the 11th century. Fora study of the history of the Suwen and its contents, see Paul U. Unschuld, Huang Di nei jing su wen: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text (Berke-ley,LosAngelesandLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003);foratranslation,seePaulU.UnschuldandHermanTessenow, incollaborationwithZhengJinsheng,Huang Di nei jing su wen: An Annotated Translation of Huang Di’s Inner Classic – Basic Questions. 2 vols (Berkeley, LosAngeles andLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011).
5
PaulU.Unschuld,Medicine in China: A Hi-story of Ideas (Berkeley, Los Angeles andLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985),106–108.
6
Ibid.
7
Peter Engelfriet, “Linked Faiths, DivergentPaths?SomeRemarksonTaoismandMedi-cineinLateMingandEarlyQingChina,”inLinked Faiths: Essays on Chinese Religions and Traditional Culture in Honour of Kristof-er Schipper, ed. Jan A.M. De Meyer and Pe-
terM.Engelfriet(Leiden,Boston,andKöln:Brill,2000),262–265.
8
Ibid.,265.
9
Ibid.,259.
10
Forcriticalreflectionsontheuseoftheword“syncretic” in the context ofLateMingdy-
nasty Three Teachings Unity, see TimothyBrook,“RethinkingSyncretism:TheUnityoftheThreeTeachingsandtheirJointWorshipinLate-ImperialChina,”Journal of Chinese Religionsno.21(1993),3–44.
11
Ibid.,261–262.
12
On the Daoist origins of taiji, see Isabelle Robinet,“ThePlaceandMeaningoftheNo-tion of Taiji in Taoist Sources Prior to theMingDynasty,”History of Religions29,no.4(1990).
13
Engelfriet,262.
14
Ibid., 260. On Zhu Zhenheng (1282–1358),theYuan dynasty physician who introducedZhou Dunyi’s Neo-Confucian taiji philoso-phy into medical discourse, see CharlotteFurth, “ThePhysicianasPhilosopherof theWay:ZhuZhenheng(1258–1358),”Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies66,no.2(2006).
15
Gai Jianmin, Daojiao yixue (Daoist Medi-cine) (Beijing:Zongjiaowenhuachubanshe,2001). Chinese scholars are either unawareofSivin’sstandardsordonottendtofollowtheminapplyingtheterm“Daoistphysician”(daoyi).(PersonalcommunicationwithKongLinghong, November 2007) Some even di-rectlyrelateZhangJiebintotheDaoisttradi-tion.See,forexample,ZhuDeming,Zhejiang yiyao shi (HistoryofMedicineandPharma-ceuticsinZhejiangProvince)(Beijing:Ren-minjunyichubanshe,1999),319.
16
CharlotteFurth,A Flourishing Yin: Gender in China’s Medical History, 960–1665. (Berke-ley,LosAngelesandLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1999),187–206.
17
ThedatingofSong-MingtextsinthisarticlefollowsLiuShijue,ed.,Song Yuan Ming Qing yiji nianbiao (Time Chart of Song, Yuan,Ming,QingMedicalTexts)(Beijing:Renminweishengchubanshe,2005).
18
Thesetwelvecategoriesare:“PreservingLi-fe”(shesheng),“Yinyang”,“OrganClusters”(zangxiang), “Pulsations and Complexion”(maise), “Channels and Links” (jingluo),“Ramifications and Roots” (biaoben), “QiandFlavor”(qiwei),“DiscussingTreatment”(lunzhi), “Illnesses” (jibing), “Piercing withNeedles”(zhenci),“[Five]CirculatoryPhases and [Six] Seasonal Influences” (yunqi), and
SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA 57(1/2014)pp.(63–82)
L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician66
erts a very stronginfluenceonthewayinwhichcontemporarytextbooksofTraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM)describingtheInner Classic are struc-
tured,asElisabethHsuhasshown.19Hiscommentsontheideason“nurtur-ing life” in the Inner Classic are found in the first category: “PreservingLife”(Shesheng).20Herein,almosttheentirecontentofSW1andSW2isgiven.
Particularly, Zhang Jiebin’s comments on the concluding section of SW 1areusefultoexaminehisappreciationofDaoistideas.AttheendofSW1,theYellowEmperor states that therewere four exemplary typesofhumanbeingsinformertimes:theAuthenticPerson(zhenren),theArrivingPerson(zhiren),theSagelyPerson(shengren),andtheVirtuousPerson(xianren).21
TheAuthenticPersonandtheArrivingPersonclearlybelongtotherealmofearlyDaoistthought.TheyembodythehighestsoteriologicalidealsinearlyDaoist texts, suchas theZhuangzi and theHuainanzi.22Unlike theSagelyPersonandtheVirtuousPerson,whicharealsoidealtypesofhumanbeingsinnon-Daoisttexts,theAuthenticPersonandtheArrivingPersonarerestrictedtotheDaoisttraditiononly.AlthoughacleardistinctionismadebetweenthefourtypesintheInner Classic,theboundariesbetweentheseandotheridealtypesofpersonsarenotveryapparentinDaoisttexts.23SW1associatestheAuthenticPersonwithHighAntiquity(shanggu), theearliestphaseofcos-
mogony.TheArrivingPerson,associatedwithMiddleAntiquity(zhonggu),is able to“return” (gui) to the stateof theAuthenticPerson.24TheSagelyPersonandtheVirtuousPerson,livinginlatertimes,embodyidealsoflifecultivationthatareregardedinferiortothatoftheAuthenticPersonandtheArrivingPerson.SincethehighestidealofcultivationinSW1isrelatedtotheAuthenticPerson,itisnocoincidencethatthefirstchapteroftheInner Clas-sicistitled:“EssayonHeavenlyAuthenticityinHighAntiquity”(Shanggu tianzhen lun).InlaterDaoism,andespeciallyininneralchemy(neidan),becominganAu-
thenticPersonremainsthehighestsoteriologicalaspirationfortheadept.Ac-
cordingtoFabrizioPregadioandLowellSkar“xiuzhen‘cultivatingperfec-
tion’[is]acommonsynonymforneidan practicesinimperialtimes.”25Theyfurtherstate:
“Thetermneidan and its synonym jindanrefertothreethings:1.acoherentbodyoforalandwrittenteachings;2.regimensofpracticesrelatedtotheseteachings;and3.aninnerstatereal-ized through thesepractices.Reaching this statederives fromgeneratingandnourishing theperfectedorrealizedone’s(zhenren)‘holyembryo’(shengtai).”26
AlsointheMingdynasty,reachingthestateoftheAuthenticPersonwasthehighestachievablegoalforthepractitionerofinneralchemy.But,whatinter-estsmeinthisarticleishowZhangJiebincommentsonthedescriptionoftheAuthenticPersonintheInner Classic.DidthisdescriptionhaveimplicationsforhisunderstandingofmedicineordidheconsideritmerelytobeaDaoistembellishmentinthetext?DidZhangtrytoneglecttheDaoistconnotationsandadaptthecontentsofSW1toaNeo-Confuciandiscourseordidhe,onthecontrary,acknowledgethestrongconnectionsbetweenDaoismandmedicine,andwashisreadingofthissectioninformedbytheinneralchemicalloredis-
seminatedamongtheliteraticlassoftheJiangnanregion,theregionwherehewasbornandwherehewasactive?27Beforeansweringthesequestions,IwillfirsthaveacloserlookattheimportanceofthelastsectionofSW1itselfandatthedescriptionoftheAuthenticPersoninthehistoryofChinesemedicineuntilZhangJiebin’stimes.
SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA 57(1/2014)pp.(63–82)
L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician67
1. The four exemplary types of human beings in Chinese medical history
PaulUnschuldhassummarizedtheessentialideasonlifestyleandpreventioninthefirsttwochaptersoftheInner Classicasfollows:
“Peopleinthedistantpasthadbeenabletolivethroughtheentirelifespanallottedtothembyheavenandearth.Thereasonsgivenmakeasmuchsensetodayastheydidthen,ifonedisre-
gardsquiteafewadditionalriskfactorsthathavecometothreatenhumanlifeinthemeantime.
“Congruences”(huitong).ComparewithEli-sabethHsu,“Zangxiang intheCanon of Cate-goriesandTendencies towardsaBody-Cen-tred Traditional Chinese Medicine,” Ziran kexueshi yanjue19,no.2(2000),169.
19
ElisabethHsu,The Transmission of Chinese Medicine (Cambridge:CambridgeUnversityPress, 1999), 189–206; and Elisabeth Hsu,“Zangxiang in the Canon of Categories,”168–72.
20
This first chapter is moved to the very endof the1980iesTCMtextbooksexaminedbyElisabethHsu.Sheconcludesthatmajordif-ferencesbetween lateMingandpresent-dayreadingsoftheInner Classic are due to a par-adigmaticshift.Cosmologicalthinkingoftheearlyseventeenthcenturyhasmadeplacefora materialistic (body-centered) intellectualframework.Thismight, inheropinion, alsoexplain the diminished attention on healthcultivation in contemporaryTCM textbooksandclassroomteaching.AlthoughHsu’sob-servationsseemtobevalidforearlytwenty-firstcenturyTCMaswell,notall textbooksput the contents onhealth cultivation in theverylastchapter.CompareforexamplewithWangQingqi,ed.,Neijing xuandu (SelectedReadings form the Inner Classic) (Beijing:Zhongguozhongyichubanshe,2003),27–37.
21
ThesectiontowhichIreferhereandbelowis found in Huangdi neijing suwen (BasicQuestionsoftheInnerClassicoftheYellowEmperor)(Beijing:Zhongyigujichubanshe,1997),2.Thereisnostandardtranslationforthese four types of humanbeings intoEng-lish.AlternativetranslationsareforexampleTrueMan/Person,GenuinePerson,RealPer-son, Perfected for zhenren; Utmost Person,Arrived Person for zhiren; Sage, Saint forshengren;andWorthyforxianren.
22
On early Daoist soteriology, see ThomasMichael, The Pristine Dao: Metaphysics in Early Daoist Discourse (Albany:StateUni-versityofNewYorkPress,2005),95–141.
23
Besides the four types mentioned in SW1, many more types of humans feature in Zhuangzi (shenren, tianren, daoren, daren,
etc.).TheonlyDaoist textwhichhas a list-ing of types of humans that bears some re-semblancewithSW1 isWenzi, in theTangdynasty canonized as Tongxuan zhenjing. Compare with Wenzi, Tongxuan zhenjing (AuthenticClassicofConnectingwithMys-tery)(DZ746),7:14a-b.Foraverydifferentlistofexemplarybeings related to stagesofcultivation, see Dongxuan lingbao dingguan jing zhu (Book of Intent Contemplation oftheDongxuanLingbaoCanon,withaCom-mentary)(DZ400),7a-bandSheyang zhen-zhong fang(MethodsofthePillowBookonConserving andNourishingLife), attributedto Sun Simiao, in Yunji qiqian(CloudyBook-casewithSevenLabels)(DZ1032),33:13b-14b. On stages in Daoist cultivation, see also YangYuhui,Daojiao renxue yanjiu (ResearchontheStudyoftheHumaninDaoism)(Bei-jing: Renmin chubanshe, 2004), 142–145.Here and below, I use the abbreviation DZreferringtoworksintheZhengtong Daozang (DaoistCanonoftheZhengtongReign).Textnumber is after K. M. Schipper, Concord-ance du Tao Tsang, Paris: École Françaised’Extrême-Orient,1975.
24
InhisstudyonearlyDaoistmetaphysics,Tho-masMichaelexplainszhi (toarrive,utmost)asaquasi-synonymofzhen(whichhetranslatesas“genuine”):“‘Genuine’describesthebodyin which those components called ‘Heaven’havetransformedinunionwiththeDao.An-othertermthatisusedinavirtuallyidenticalsense is zhi, literally ‘to arrive’ or ‘arrival’,and it signifies the arrival or attainment ofbodilygenuinenessassomethingachievedbythecultivationofthebody.”Michael,126.
25
Fabrizio Pregadio and Lowell Skar, “InnerAlchemy (neidan),” in Daoism Handbook, ed. Livia Kohn (Leiden, Boston, and Köln:Brill,2000),478.
26
Ibid., 481.
27
Zhang Jiebinwasborn inShanyin (present-day Shaoxing). On the spread of neidan among literati in theYuan andMingperiodintheJiangnanregion,seePregadioandSkar,472.ForanaccountontheinfluencesofinneralchemyonMingliterati,seeLiuTs’un-yan,
SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA 57(1/2014)pp.(63–82)
L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician68
Basically,readerswereadvisedthatalifestyleinaccordancewiththerhythmoftheseasons,aswellasmoderationinaction,thought,andfeeling,includingeating,drinking,andsexuality,guaranteedstrengthuntilaninevitableend.Thetextdoesnotexplicitlystate,however,whetherapersoncanoroccasionallyisboundtofallilldespiteperfectinghisorherlifestyle.”28
TheseideasonlifestyleandpreventionareinamostapparentwayconnectedtoearlyDaoisminthelastsectionofSW1.TheYellowEmperorconcludesSW1withadescriptionofhowfourtypesofhumanbeingsinteractwiththespatialandtemporalenvironment(Heaven-and-Earth,yinyang,thefoursea-sons,theeightwinds,etc.);howtheyfunctioninthesocialworld;andhowthey nurture themain internal constituents of the body: essence (jing), qi, spirit(shen),andtheouter,physicalform.TheAuthenticPersonholdsthewholecosmosinhishandsandequalsHea-ven-and-Earth,whiletheArrivingPerson,theSagelyPerson,andtheVirtu-ousPersonareratherinharmonywith,intunewith,orfollowtheprinciplesoftimeandspace(i.e.themacro-cosmos)inwhichtheylive.TheAuthenticPersonandtheArrivingPersonarenotactinginthesocialworldofordinaryhumans,inwhichtheSagelyPersonandtheVirtuousPersonarestillactive.Itshouldbenoted,however,thattheSagelyPerson,whoismostlyreferredtoastherolemodelinotherpartsoftheInner Classic,29isnotaffectedbytheharmfulinfluencesofthehumanworld.Aboutthemainconstituentswithinthebody,SW1saysthattheAuthenticPersonbreathes essence andqi, andpreserveshis spirit.Externally,whichresultsinabodythatappearstobeone.AlsofortheArrivingPersonandtheSagely Person essence, qi,andspiritareessential.TheArrivingPersongath-ersessenceandcompleteshisspirit.TheSagelyPersondoesnotexhausthisbody andmindbydispersingessenceandspirit.NothingissaidinthiscontextabouttheVirtuousPerson,who,however,hastheambitiontofollowthewaysofHighAntiquityandwhotriestoobservethelawsofthecosmos.Thebehaviorofthefourtypes(interactionwiththemacro-cosmoswithoutthebodyandnurturingoftheessentialingredientsofthemicro-cosmoswithin)furtherhasaneffectonthelengthoflifespan.ThelifeoftheAuthenticPersonfallstogetherwithHeaven-and-Earth,andisendless.HecompletelylivesalifeoftheWay(dao sheng).TheactionsundertakentoreturntothestateoftheAuthenticPersonby theArrivingPerson result insuperhumanabilities(wandering freely through theworld, seeing and hearing beyond the eightfar-ends)andasubstantial increase in lifespan.About theSagelyPersonissaidthathecanreachanageofonehundredyears,whichisconsideredastheideallengthofahumanlife.AlthoughtheVirtuousPersonalsoincreaseshislifespanbyfollowingtheexampleofHighAntiquityofunitingwiththeWay,heonlygainsalimitedincrease.Theidealsoflifecultivation,asembodiedbythesefourtypesofhumanbe-ings,couldberegardedasanessentialfeatureofChinesemedicine,sincetheyarefoundinthetwoopeningchaptersoftheInner Classic.However,thesefirsttwochapterswerenotalwaysoccupyingthismostprominentpositioninthetext.AccordingtotheannotationsoftheeleventhcenturyeditorsoftheSW,WangBing(8thC.)shiftedthemtothefrontofthetext.30
Moreover,thesectiononthefourtypesofhumanbeingsinSW1seemstohavehadnotangible influenceonother transmittedtextsdatingbefore theSongdynasty.Althoughsomemedieval textsquote from thecontentsnowfoundinSW1andSW2,noneofthesetextsmentionsthefour. TheDaoistphysicianSunSimiao(581–682),for instance,quotes largerpartsofSW1andSW2inthechapteron“NourishingHumanNature”(Yangxing)ofhis
SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA 57(1/2014)pp.(63–82)
L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician69
famousBeiji qianjin yaofang(EssentialPrescriptionsWorthaThousandGoldPiecesinCasesofUrgency),31butanyreferencetothelastsectionofSW 1 is lacking.32SincetheclassificationinfourtypesofhumanbeingsinSW1isnotattestedinotherearlyandmedievalmedicalandreligious/philosophi-calwritings,thissectionmightevennotbeincludedineditionsoftheInner ClassicdatingbeforetheTangdynasty.ItispossiblethatsomepartsoftheInner ClassicwereonlyinsertedinthetextlongaftertheTang.33Yet,WangBing’sdirectreferencestotheKangcangzi(MasterKangcang),animportantDaoistphilosophicaltextoftheTangdynasty,inhiscommentssuggestthatthesectiononthefourtypesofhumanbeingswaspartoftheTangdynastyeditionoftheSW.34
Thefirstphysicianwhoclearlyreferredtothesectiononthefourtypesofhu-manbeingswasLiuWansu(ca.1120–1200)intheJindynasty.InhisSuwen bingji qiyi baoming ji (CollectiononProtectingLife according toDiseaseMechanismsandQiAppropriateness in thePlain Questions,1186),hede-
“TaoistSelf-CultivationinMingThought,”inSelf and Society in Ming Thought, ed.Wm.Theodore de Bary (NewYork and London:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1970).
28
Unschuld,Huang Di nei jing su wen,198–199.
29
Apart from SW 1, the Authentic Person isonlymentioned in twootherchaptersof theInner Classic:SW13andSW68.TheSagelyPerson, incontrast, features in twentychap-tersoftheInner Classic.Inthreeofthem,theSagelyPerson is even associatedwithHighAntiquity(i.e.shanggu shengren):SW1(ear-liersection),SW5,andSW14.
30
Lin Yi et al., ed., Chongguang bu zhu Huang-di neijing suwen(PlainQuestionsoftheInnerClassicoftheYellowEmperor,BroadlySup-plementedandAnnotated)(Beijing:Xueyuanchubanshe, 2004), 1. Before the edition at-tributedtoWangBing,thefirstchapterswereon prognostication about the outcome of adisease.InPaulUnschuld’sopinion, theris-ingofstatusofthephysicianinTangsocietytriggered the replacement of these chapterson prognostication to a less important place inthetext.Furthermore,WangBing’sinclina-tionstoDaoistthoughtmighthavemotivatedhimtopromoteideasonself-cultivationtothemost prominent position. Unschuld, Huang Di nei jing su wen,45–46,48.
31
Sun Simiao, Beiji qianjin yaofang(EssentialPrescriptionsWorthaThousandGoldPiecesin Cases of Urgency), in Yaowang qianjin fang (Essential PrescriptionsWorth aThou-sand Gold Pieces of the King of Medicine)(Beijing:Huaxiachunbanshe,2004),463–464.AlthoughSunSimiaodoesnotrefertothede-scriptionoftheAuthenticPersoninSW1,herelates theAuthenticPerson toDaoist prac-ticesonotherplacesofhischapteronnour-
ishinghumannature.Ibid.,466,470.OntherelationbetweentheDaoistpracticeofbreathretentionandbecominganAuthenticPerson,see also infra.SunSimiaohimselfisknownbythehonorificnameAuthenticPersonSun(SunZhenren).
32
OthermedievaltextsthatquoteSW1andSW2,butnotthesectiononthefourhumans,arethe Daoist Yangxing yanming lu (DZ 838),attributed to Sun Simiao or Tao Hongjing, and Huangfu Mi’s Jiayi jing (A B Classic).Searchesinthedigitaltextcollectionofmedi-caltextsZhonghua yidian(EncyclopaediaofTraditional Chinese Medicine). (Changsha:Hunandianziyinxiangchubanshe,2006)andtheelectronicversionoftheWenyuange Siku-quanshu (Imperial Library, Wenyuan Pavil-ion Edition). (Taibei: Shangwu yinshuguan,1983–1986, hereafter WYG SKQS) did notrevealanyotherresults.
33
CatherineDespeux,“TheSystemoftheFiveCirculatoryPhasesandtheSixSeasonalInflu-ences(wuyun liuqi):ASourceofInnovationinMedicineundertheSong(960–1279),”in Innovation in Chinese Medicine, ed. Elisa-bethHsu(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),129.
34
Although later commentators of the SW in-cluded parts of Wang Bing’s commentary,theydidnotmentiontheKangcangzi. Kang-cangzi was canonized as Dongling zhenjing (AuthenticClassicofPenetrating theNumi-nous) (DZ 669). For more information onKangcangzi and its relevance in Tang Daoism, see Ursula-Angelika Cedzich, “Donglingzhenjing,” in The Taoist Canon: A Histori-cal Companion to the Daozang,ed.KristoferSchipper and Franciscus Verellen (Chicagoand London: University of Chicago Press,2004),302–303.
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician70
scribestheidealoftheAuthenticPersoninalmostanidenticalwayasisdoneinSW1.Theelaborationoncultivationpractices,whichfollowsthisdescrip-tionoftheAuthenticPerson,bearsstrongresemblanceswithSong-Jininneralchemicallore.35Exceptforanofficial textbookoftheSouthernSong,nootherreferencetotheAuthenticPersoninSW1isfoundinanyotherimpor-tanttransmittedmedicaltextdatingbeforetheMingdynasty.36
AfterthecommentatedSWeditionattributedtoWangBing,mostotherim-portantcommentariesthathavebeentransmittedtillourtimesonlydatefromtheendofthesixteenthcentury.ThelateMingcommentariesontheSWthataremostlyreferredtointextbooksofTCM(TraditionalChineseMedicine)andstudiesonChinesemedicalliteraturearetheseofMaShi(15th–16thC.),WuKun(1552–1618),ZhangJiebin,andLiZhongzi(1588–1655).37Intheircomments, these physicians again explain the section describing the fourtypesofhumanbeingsinSW1.ThissectionisgivenalotofattentiontointheworksofZhangJiebinandLiZhongziinparticular.Intheremainingpartsof this article, Iwill focusonZhang Jiebin’s explanationof theAuthenticPersonin“AbsorptionofLife,”thefirstcategoryinLeijing.38
2. Zhang Jiebin and the Authentic Person
2.1. Structure and contents of Zhang’s comments
on the Authentic Person in SW 1
Thethirdsubchapterof“AbsorptionofLife”istitled:“InantiquitythereweretheAuthenticPerson, theArrivingPerson, theSagelyPerson,and theVir-tuousPerson. (Guyouzhenren,zhiren, shengren,xianren)”Herein,ZhangJiebingivescommentsontheentiretextofthelastsectionofSW1.ThestyleofthesecommentsisanaloguetoallhisothercommentsinLeijing.Zhang’scommentsaremostlyshorterincomparisontothoseattributedtoWangBingoftheTangdynasty.Ontheotherhand,thedifficultyofthelanguageoftheInner ClassicwasahardburdentoovercomefortheMingdynastyreader.ThisundoubtedlymotivatedZhanginprovidingmanymoreexplanationsonmeaningandpronunciationofindividualwordsthanWangdid.Zhangalsotookpreviouscommentaries,includingthatofWang,intoaccount,somethinghehasincommonwithotherMingdynastycommentators,suchasMaShiandWuKun.MostcharacterizingforZhang’scomments,however,arehisuseofcrossreferencestootherpartsofLeijingandhisratherlongessayisticelaborationsonmainideasintheInner Classic,attachedtosomeofthecom-ments.
ThetextofSW1describingtheAuthenticPersonisbrokenupinthreepas-sages,almostinthesamewayasWangBingdid.39Thefirstpassagereadsasfollows:
“TheYellowEmperorsaid:‘IheardthattherewastheAuthenticPersoninHighAntiquity.HeheldHeaven-and-Earthinhishands,andgraspedyinyang.’”40
Zhang’scommentisrathershort.LikeWuKun,Zhangstatesthat“authentic-ity”refersto“heavenlyauthenticity”,andthattheAuthenticPerson“doesnothavetodependoncultivationpractices”.41Thisisfollowedbyanownaccent,inspiredbyNeo-Confucianmetaphysics:
“HisheartisidenticaltotheSupremeUltimate(xin tong taiji).Hispowerisinagreementwiththe twosymbols (de qi liangyi).Hence,hecanmake thecreationsand transformations spinaround,andharmonizeyinyang.This iswhat ismeantby‘heavinginhishands’(ti qie)and‘grasping’(ba wo).”42
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician71
ThesecondphraseofthedescriptionoftheAuthenticPersoninSW1reads:
“Hebreathes[huxi:ex-andinhaling]essenceandqi.Standingonhisown,hesafeguardshisspirit.Hismusclesandflesh[theouterbody]arelikeone.”43
Hereafter,Zhang’scommentdivertsfromallpreviouscommentators:
“Byexhaling,hemakescontactwithHeaven.Therefore,heconnectswithqi.Byinhaling,hemakescontactwithEarth.Therefore,heconnectswithessence.44PossessingtheWay,heispre-
servedbyhimself.Hence,heisabletostandonhisown.Hisspiritdoesnotdriftoutside.Hence,‘hesafeguardshisspirit.’Whenthespiritissafeguardedinternallyandtheformiscompletedexternally,body(shen)andmind(xin)arebothunitedwiththeWay.Hence,‘hismusclesand
35
Liu Wansu, Suwen bingji qiyi baoming ji (Collection on Protecting Life according toDisease Mechanisms and Qi Appropriate-
ness in the Plain Questions) (Beijing: Ren-
min weisheng chubanshe, 2005), 3–4. SeeGaiJianmin,164–166.FormoreinformationonLiuWansu,seeJuttaRall,Die vier gros-sen Medizinschulen der Mongolenzeit: Stand und Entwicklung der Chinesischen Medizin in der Chin- und Yüan-Zeit (Wiesbaden:SteinerVerlag,1970),38–52.OnLiuWansuasfounderofpost-Songmedicallineages,seeWuYiyi,“AMedicalLineofManyMasters:AProsopographicalStudyofLiuWansuandHisDisciplesfromtheJintotheEarlyMing,”Chinese Science 11 (1993–94). On the al-chemical connections between Liu Wansu’sideas onmedicine and alchemy, seeAngelaKi-che Leung, “Medical Learning from theSong to theMing,” inThe Song-Yuan-Ming Transition in Chinese History, ed. Paul Jakov
Smith and Richard von Glahn (Cambridge:HarvardUniversityAsiaCenter,2003),463,n.26.
36
For the Authentic Person of SW 1 in theSouthern Song textbook, see Taiyi ju zhuke chengwen ge (Composition Models for theVariousDepartmentsoftheImperialBureauofMedicine),inWYGSKQS,2:12a.Search-
es Zhonghua yidian and the electronic ver-sionofWYGSKQSyieldednoresultsontheAuthenticManasdescribedinSW1inotherpre-Mingtexts.
37
Fortextbooks,seeforexampleYanLilanandGuZhishan,eds.,Zhongyi wenxian xue(TheStudy of Chinese Medical Texts) (Beijing:Zhongguozhongyiyaochubanshe,2002),19andWangQingqi,222;forstudies,seeforex-
ampleUnschuld,Huang Di nei jing su wen,
66–69.UnschulddoesnotrefertoLiZhongzi.For modern editions of these commentariessee:MaShi,Huangdi neijing suwen zhuzheng fawei(PlainQuestionsoftheInnerClassicoftheYellow Emperor, commented, validated,anditssubtletieselucidated)(Beijing:Xuey-
uanchubanshe,2003);WuKun,Huangdi ne-jing suwen Wu zhu (Wu’sCommentaryonthe
BasicQuestionsof theInnerClassicofYel-lowEmperor)(Beijing:Xueyuanchubanshe,2001);ZhangJiebin, Leijing(ClassicinCate-gories)(Beijing:Xueyuanchubanshe,2005);andLiZhongzi,Neijing zhiyao(KnowingtheEssentialsoftheInnerClassic),inLi Zhongzi yixue quanshu(TheCompleteMedicalWorksofLiZhongzi)(Beijing:Zhongguozhongyi-yaochubanshe,1998).
38
IwillfocusonLiZhongziismuchdetailinaforthcomingpublication.
39
Compare with Lin Yi, Chongguang buzhu Huangdi neijing suwen,8–9.
40
AsquotedinZhangJiebin,20.ComparemytranslationofthepassagesinSW1describingtheAuthentic Person with Unschuld, Medi-cine in China,279–280.
41
Ibid.ComparewithWuKun,4.
42
ZhangJiebin,5.
43
Ibid.,6.
44
ThisphraseisalmostidenticallyfoundafteraquoteofYeWenshuinLeijing fuyi(AppendixtotheClassicinCategories).SeeZhangJie-bin,2052.ThequoteofYeWenshuisinfacttakenfromhiscommentonZhangBoduan’s(984–1082) Wuzhen pian (Pieces onUnder-standing Authenticity), included in Xiuzhen shishu(TenBooksonRestoringAuthenticity)(DZ263),26:23a.ThephraseonbreathinginconnectionwiththerootsofHeavenandEarthis,however,notincludedinYe’scommentonWuzhen pian. Because the above phrase isincludedinYe’squoteinthemoderneditionofLeijingthatIused,itspunctuationismis-taken.Moreover, both quote and phrase arefoundinChenZhixu(1289–?)’sShangyangzi jindan dayao(MasterShangyang’sGreatEs-sentialsoftheGoldenCinnabar)(DZ1067),3:5a-b. Zhang probably used Shangyangzi jindan dayaoashismainsource.Seeinfra.
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician72
flesharelikeone.’Thisispreciselywhatismeantwith‘formandspiritarecompleted’inthefirstsubchapter.”45
ZhangcontinuesbyreferringtotheDaoisttradition:
“Whatthissectionemphasizesarethreewords:essence,qi,andspirit.OnlyDaoists(daojia)explainthemindetail.”46
Here,ZhanggoesbeyondamereNeo-Confucianunderstandingofthetext.Hehighlightsthatthemainconstituentsofthebodyinthemostthoroughwayare discussed by Daoists.
Zhangfurtherelaboratesonthispointinalongex cursusattachedtohiscom-ment.Herein,heincludesanextensivelistofquotationstoillustratetheimpor-tanceofessence,qi, and spirit in relation to cultivation practices.47Thequoteschosen, except those from theHuainanzi,FangYang, andLiGao’smedicaltext,areallcloselyrelatedtoinneralchemy.ZhangJiebinseemstohavebeenespeciallyinspiredbytheTaixi jing(ClassiconEmbryonicBreathing),48ZhangBoduan’sYuqing jinsi qinghua biwen jinbao neilian danjue(AlchemicalFormu-laefortheInnerPurificationoftheGoldTreasurefromtheSecretDocumentsintheGoldenBoxoftheJadePurityofQinghua),49andChenZhixu’sShangyang-zi jindan dayao.50Moreover,threeoftheotherquotesinZhangJiebin’slistalsofeatureinJindan dayao,whichsuggeststhatJindan dayaowasthesourcetextfromwhichZhangJiebintookthesethreequotes.51Afterthelistwithquotes,Zhangpointsouttheimportanceofqi,relatedtobothPre-Heaven(xiantian)andPost-Heaven(houtian),againillustratedbyreferringtovarioustexts.
Table 1. SourcesofZhangJiebin’sconsiderationoftheimportanceofessence,qi, and spirit in relation to cultivation practices
Source (author and/or text) Explanation
– BaiJuyi(772–846) [in Huainanzi]52
– FangYang53
Thenourishingofqi should follow in-andexhaling.(yang qi dang cong hu xi)
– CaoWenyi,Lingyuan dadao ge.
[in Jindan dayao]
– ZhangXujing,Sanshi dai Tianshi Xujing zhenren yulu [in Jindan dayao]
Safeguardthespirittonourishqi.(shou shen yi yang qi)
– Huainanzi Tranquilitycannourishthespirit.(jing ke yang shen)
– ChenZhixu,Jindan dayao Essence and qi are rooted in each other. (jing qi zhi hu gen)
– Qi mitu [in Jindan dayao] Thesexualintercourseofkan and li.(kan li zhi jiao gou)
– LüYan,jujue(poemintruncatedverse)54 Thewayofrestoringauthenticityisfoundinessence,qiandspirit.(xiu zhen zhi dao zai yu jing qi shen)
– Taixi jing and appended Taixi ming Thewayofnourishinglifeisfoundinpreservingthespiritandnourishingqi.(yang sheng zhi dao zai hu cun shen yang qi)
– ZhangBoduan,Yuqing jisi qinghua miwen jinbao neilian danjue
The preservation of spirit depends on the heart, andmaking the heart tranquil depends on the eyes. (cun shen zai xin, jing xin zai mu)
– Ibid. Forprimordialessence,primordialqi, and primordial
spiritlookforessence,qi,andspiritatthebeginningsof the transformation of life. (yuanjing yuanqi yuan-shen zhe qiu jing qi shen yu hua sheng zhi chu )
– LiGao,Piwei lun(Essaysonthe Spleen-Stomach)
Thewayofnourishing thebodytakes thenourishingofqiasitsroot.(yang shen zhi dao yi yang qi wei ben)
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician73
ThelastpassageontheAuthenticPersoninSW1relateswhatwassaidintheprevioustwopassagestohislifespan.
“Therefore,itispossibleforhislifespantoexhaustHeaven-and-Earth,andtobewithoutatimeofending.ThisiswhatismeantbylivingbytheWay.”
Zhangcomments:
“‘Exhausting’(bi)means‘ending’(jin).Thebodyof theAuthenticPersonisunitedwith theWay.Therefore, he is born because he comes after Heaven-and-Earth, but finds his originsatthebeginningofHeaven-and-Earth.HetransformsbecauseofwhatisbeforeHeaven-and-Earth,butseekstoendwithHeaven-and-Earth.Theformleaves,buttheheart(xin)remains.Qi disperses,butthespiritispreserved.Hence,hislifespancanexhaustHeaven-and-Earth.ThisiscompletelylivingbytheWay.”55
45
ZhangJiebin,5.Thephraseofthefirstsub-chapterreferstotheresultoflivingalifestyleassociatedwiththepeopleofHighAntiquity.Inthefirstsubchapter, thesepersonsarenotcalledAuthenticPersons,butjust“peopleinHighAntiquity”(shanggu zhi ren).SeeZhangJiebin, 4.
46
Ibid.,6.
47
First, he refers to a source, (“… says:”, …yue). This is followed by the actual quote,and concluded by a short explanation (“thisexplains…”,ci yan … ye).InTable1,refer-encestothequotesZhangusedandhisownconcludingexplanationscanbefound.
48
TheTaixi jingisaveryshorttextonrespira-tory techniques, probably dating from theTang dynasty.As a separate text, it can befoundasGaoshang Yuhuang taixi jing(Clas-sic on Embryonic Breathing of the JadeEmperoronHigh)(DZ14).TogetherwithacommentaryandtheappendedTaixi ming(In-scriptiononEmbryonicBreathing),itcanbefoundasTaixi jing zhu(ClassiconEmbryonicBreathing, with a Commentary) (DZ 130).TheTaixi jing is also included in Yunji qiqian, 60:26a-28b.SeealsoFarzeenBaldrian-Hus-sein,“Taixijingzhu,”inSchipperandVerel-len, The Taoist Canon, 366–367. The Taixi ming, which is also appended to the Taixi jinginZhangJiebin’slist,equatesembryonicbreathing(taixi)withinneralchemy(neidan).Taixi jing zhu, 2a.
49
DZ240.
50
Intheremainingpartsofthetextandannota-tions,Iuseitsshorttitle:Jindan dayao.
51
The first two quotes come from two differ-ent poems that have the same title: Dadao ge (Song of the Great Dao). The first of
these quotes is from the Northern Song fe-male Daoist Cao Wenyi’s Lingyuan dadao ge(SongoftheGreatDaooftheNuminousSource)(ZW160),1b;thesecondisfoundin30thgenerationHeavenlyMastersZhangXu-jing’s(1092–1126),Sanshi dai Tianshi Xujing zhenren yulu(RecordedSayingsoftheThirti-ethHeavenlyMasterAuthenticLordXujing)(DZ1249),3:1a.BothquotesalsofeatureinthesamepassageofJindan dayao,4:7a.Thequote fromQi mitu (SecretDiagramsof theToken) is found in Jindan dayao, 5:4a. Qi mituprobably refers toDa huandan qi mitu (SecretDiagramsontheTokenfortheGreatReverting to Cinnabar), a text included inYunji qiqian, 72:1a-32b. However, the con-tentsofthequoteofQi mituusedbyZhangJiebindonot feature in the text included inYunji qiqian,andare tomyknowledgeonlyfoundinJindan dayao.
52
Huainanzi (Master of Huainan), in Guoxuezhenglishe,comp.,Zhuzi jicheng(GrandCom-pendium ofVarious Philosophical Masters),8 vols. (Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1954),7:353–354.
53
Iwas unable to identifyFangYang and thequoted passage.
54
AlsoknownasLüDongbin,andacknowled-gedaspatriarchbybothSouthernandNorth-ern lineageof inneralchemy.FarzeenBald-rian-Hussein,“LüDongbin,”inEncyclopedia of Taoism,ed.FabrizioPregadio(LondonandNewYork: Routledge, 2008), 712–714. Seealso,PaulR.Katz, Images of the Immortal: The Cult of Lü Dongbin at the Palace of Eter-nal Joy (Honolulu: University of Hawai’iPress,1999),52–93.Forthepoem,see Quan Tang shi (Complete Poems of the Tang),comp. Peng Dingqiu et al. (Taipei: Hongyeshudian,1977),2426.
55
ZhangJiebin,8.
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician74
ZhangJiebin’scommentsonthedescriptionoftheArrivingPerson,theSage-lyPerson,andtheVirtuousPersonareshort,andcanbecomparedinstylewiththoseonthefirstandthirdpassagesdescribingtheAuthenticPerson.Tosumup,mostofZhangJiebin’sattentiongoestotheDaoistexplanationsoftheessentialingredientsofthebody(essence,qi,andspirit)referredtointhesecondpassagedescribingtheAuthenticPerson.
2.2. Pre-Heavenly qi
Althoughessence,qi, and spirit are all important, qiisthepointofdeparture.ThelastquoteinTable1isnottakenfromaDaoistsource,butisfromtheJin dynasty physician Li Gao (1180–1251). In “Admonishment on SavingWords” (Shengyan zhen)at theendofhis famousPiwei lun (Essayon theSpleen-Stomach,1249),Listressesthatqiistherootofcultivatingthebody.
“Qiistheancestorofspirit.Essenceisthechildofqi. Qiistherootandstemofessenceandspirit.Howgreatindeed!Gatherqitoaccomplishessence.Gatheressencetocompletespirit.Itshouldbeclearandtranquil.ControlitbytheWay(yu zhi yi dao),andyouwillbecomeaHeavenlyPerson(tianren).SomeonewhopossessestheWaycandothis.WhatkindofmanamI?Itisonlyappropriatetosavemywords.Thatisall!”56
InZhangJiebin’smedicaldoctrine,however,thereisanimportantdifferencewithLiGao’sexplanationofqi.Zhangdistinguishestwomodesofqi, some-thinghehasincommonwithotherlateMingphysicianssuchasSunYikui(1522–1619),ZhaoXianke(16th–17thC.),andLiZhongzi.ForZhang,thereis fundamentaldifferencebetweenPre-Heavenlyqi (xiantian qi) andPost-Heavenly qi(houtian qi).57AccordingtoZhang,thedifferencebetweenthesetwostatesofqicanbeexplainedasfollows:
“XiantianistheqioftheAuthenticOne(zhenyi zhi qi).Itisqitransformedoutofemptiness.Thus,qitransformsintoform.Thisqicomesfromemptynothingness(ci qi zi xuwu zhong lai).HoutianistheqiofBloodandqi(xueqi zhi qi).Itisqitransformedoutofgrains.Thus,formtransformsintoqi.Thisqicomesfromadjustingandabsorbing(ci qi zi tiaoshe zhong lai).”58
Asubtleinterplaythusexistsbetweenqi and form(xing).InZhang’sopin-ion, form isexactly the sameasessence (jing). It is “what isproducedbytheHeavenlyOne”(tianyi suo sheng),andassuch“theancestorofwhathasform”(you xing zhi zu).59Hence,essenceisnotonlytheproductofxiantian qi,itisalsothestartingpointofeverythingthatexistsinthe(houtian)cos-mos.ThisisfurtherillustratedbyreferencestotheLonghu jing(ClassicoftheDragonandTiger)60andtwochaptersoftheInner Classic.61Finally,Zhangsummarizeshisideasontherelationbetweenessenceandqiinthexiantian and houtianstaterespectivelyasfollows:
“Qiofxiantian is qi transformingintoessence.Qiofhoutianisessencetransformingintoqi. Essence and qi originate frommutual production.When essence andqi are abundant, spirit
flourishesspontaneously(shen zi wang).”62
Table 2.RelationofessenceandqiindifferentstatesofqiaccordingtoZhangJiebin
state of qi origin of qi relation essence-qi
xiantian emptiness qi å essence
houtian grains essence å qi
Theintroductionofxiantianintomainstreamphilosophicalthinkingisattrib-utedtoShaoYong(1012–1077)intheSongdynasty.Accordingtotradition,
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician75
thelearningofPre-Heaven(xiantian xue)wastransmittedtoShaoYongbythesemi-legendaryDaoistmasterChenTuan.63 Xiantian,whichreferstotheformlessstatebeforethecosmositselfexisted,isliketaijioneofthoseNeo-ConfucianconceptsthatoriginatedintheDaoisttradition.64InShaoYong’swritingsxiantian isassociatedwiththe“methodoftheheart”(xinfa)65 and withdiagrammaticcharts:
“Thestudyofxiantianisthemethodoftheheart.Hence,thediagrams(tu)arisefromitscenter.Themyriadtransformationsandmyriadthingsarebornfromtheheart.”66
Althoughxiantian,especiallyinrelationtodiagrammaticcharts,wouldplayanimportantroleintheNeo-ConfucianorthodoxysystematizedbyZhuXi(1130–1200),AlainArraulthasshownthatthespecificdiagrammaticorder-ing associated with xiantian cannot be attested in ShaoYong’s writings.67 Neither should the importanceof theconceptxiantian be overestimated in ShaoYong’sphilosophy.
“L’expression xiantian n’apparaît que dans les ultimes chapitres du Jirang ji, autrement dit
dans lesdernières annéesdeShao.Par ailleurs, ses relations lesplusprochesne l’évoquentqu’incidemment.”68
WhileNeo-Confuciansmainly referred toxiantian in thecontextof adia-grammaticorderingoftri-andhexagram,xiantian became even more com-monlyused in later inneralchemical texts,whichofcoursealsomadeuse
56
AsquotedinIbid.,7.ComparewithLiGao,Piwei lun (Treatise on the Spleen-Stomach)(Beijingweisheng chubanshe, 2005), 96.LiGaodoesnotrefernottotheAuthenticPer-son,buttotheHeavenlyPerson(tianren).
57
Thisdistinctionbetweenxiantian and houtian isnotfoundinpre-Mingmedicaltexts.Xian-tiandoesfeatureinSW69,SW70,andSW71,asatermusedinthecontextofclimaticconditions.SeeXieGuan,ed.,Zhongyi daci-dian(GreatDictionaryofChineseMedicine)(1921;repr.,Beijing:Shangwuyinshuaguan,2004),969.
58
ZhangJiebin,7–8.
59
ZhangJiebin,8.
60
Animportantalchemicalclassic,DZ996.
61
SW5andLS10.
62
ZhangJiebin,8.Onthemutualinterdepend-enceof jing and qi, seealso thequote fromJindan dayao inTable 1. I will refer to es-sence and qi in relation to spirit in thenextsection.
63
OnChenTuan, seeLiviaKnaul,Leben und Legende des Ch’en T’uan(Berne:PeterLang,1981).
64
Robinet,“ThePlaceandMeaningoftheNo-tion of Taiji in Taoist Sources Prior to theMing Dynasty,” 385; François Louis, “TheGenesisofanIcon:TheTaiji Diagram’sEarlyHistory,”Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 63,no.1(2003):162.
65
Alain Arrault, “Les diagrammes de ShaoYong (1012–1077):Qui les avus?”Études chinoises19,no.1–2(2000):77–78.SeealsoDonJ.Wyatt“ShaoYungandtheNumber,”in Sung Dynasty Uses of the I Ching, ed. Kid-derSmithetal.(Princeton:PrincetonUniver-sityPress,1990),127.
66
ShaoYong,Huangji jingshi shu(BookofthePassingofAgesof theAugustUltimate), inWYGSKQS,13:34b.SeealsoDonJ.Wyattwho explains: “For Shao, xiantian learning, ifnotthediagramitself,appearstohavehaditslocusinthehumanmind,whichitselfwasbelievedtoexistevenbeforeHeaven’sforma-tion.”DonJ.Wyatt,The Recluse of Loyang: Shao Yung and the Moral Evolution of Early Sung thought(Honolulu:UniversityofHawai’iPress,1996),205.
67
OnlythepositionofqianintheSouth,kun in theNorth,liintheEast,andkan intheWestisreferredtobyShaoYong.Arrault,“Lesdia-grammesdeShaoYong(1012–1077),”79.
68
Ibid.,77.
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of thesediagrams.69For inneralchemists,suchasChenZhixuof theYuandynasty,thedistinctionbetweentwomodesofqiisfundamental.InChen’sopinion,inneralchemyisnotaboutesotericlanguage,butabout“theineffa-ble, all-embracing, immanent, and transcendental qiof‘FormerHeaven,’”ashighlightedinhisprefacetoJindan dayao.70TheresemblancebetweenChenZhixu’sexplanationsonxiantian qi and houtian qiandthoseofZhangJiebinarestriking.Compare,forinstance,thefollowingphrasesofJindan dayao, withtheabovequotestakenfromZhangJiebin’scomments:
“Now,IwillexplainqithatcomesafterHeaven-and-Earth(hou tiandi zhi qi).Thisqi is pro-
ducedbygrains.Therefore,it[thecompositionofthecharacterforqi]comesfrom‘vapor’and‘rice.’71Thestomachreceivesthegrains,andproducesqi.72
…
Only,theqiofthePre-HeavenlyAuthenticOnecanberefinedtoletitrevertintocinnabar.Thisiscomingfromemptynothingness.”73
Table 3. ComparisonofexplanationsofdifferentstatesofqiinChenZhixu’s
Shangyangzi jindan dayaoandZhangJiebin’sLeijing
state of qi Jindan dayao Leijing
xiantian qi of the Pre-Heavenly AuthenticOne can be refined to let it revertintocinnabar.Itcomesfromemptynothingness.
qioftheAuthenticOne.Itisqi transformedoutofemptiness.
houtian qithatcomesafterHeaven-and-Ear-th.Thisqi is produced by grains.
qiofBloodandqi. It is qi trans-
formedoutofgrains.
In Jindan dayaoalsotherelationbetweenqiandessence/formisexplained.Theproductionofessenceoutofqiisanessentialpartoftheontogenyofthehumanbeing,andiscomparedwiththefamouscosmogonyintheforty-sec-ondchapteroftheDaode jing:
“Whatiscontinuation(shun)?Oneproducestwo.Twoproducesthree.ThreeproducestheMyr-iadThings.74Thus,emptiness(xu)transformsintospirit.Spirittransformsintoqi. Qi transformsintoessence.Essencetransformsintoform.And,formcompletesthehumanbeing.”75
Inalchemicalpracticesthereturntotheprimordialstateofthecosmos(xi-antian) isessential.Therefore, thealchemist inverses(ni) thenormalorder(shun)ofcosmogony:
“Whatisinversion?TheMyriadThingscontainthethree.Thethreereturntothetwo.Thetworeturntotheone.ThosewhoknowthisWayconcordthespirit(yi shen)andsafeguardtheform(shou xing).Theynourishtheformandrefineessence.Theyaccumulateessenceandtransformit into qi.Theyrefineqianduniteitwithspirit.Theyrefinespiritandmakeitreturntoempti-ness.Whengoldencinnabar(jindan) is thencompleted,itdependsonlyonthatonethingofbeforeHeaven-and-Earth(xian tiandi zhi yi wu)!”76
EvenifwestillmightarguethatZhangJiebinshouldbeplacedinthecon-textofNeo-Confucianism,aftercomparingZhangJiebin’sideasonxiantian-houtian qiandthoseofChenZhixuinJindan dayao,itisveryapparentthatZhangowesalottotheinneralchemicalexplanationsofChen.Suchdetailedexplanationsonthedifferencesbetweenxiantian and houtian qi,asfoundinthemedicalandtheinneralchemicaltext,areabsentinorthodoxNeo-Con-fucianwritings.77Thecircleisfullnow.Accordingtotradition,ChenTuantransmitted xiantian xue to ShaoYong.AlthoughZhuXi consideredShaoYong’sideastobetooDaoisttoincludehimintotheorthodoxtransmission
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician77
oftheWay,attheendoftheMingdynasty,physicianssuchasZhangJiebinwerereachingbacktoalchemicaltextsforexplainingtheessenceofqi and thedifferencebetweenitsxiantian and houtian state.
3. Cultivation practices
Inthelastpartofthisarticle,IwillhaveacloserlookatZhangJiebin’sexpla-nationsofcultivationpracticesthemselves,andwheretothesepracticesmightlead.AscanbeseeninTable1,Zhangmakesadistinctionbetweentheprac-ticeofrestoringauthenticity(xiuzhen zhi dao)andthepracticeofnourishinglife (yangsheng zhi fa). In theMing dynasty, restoring authenticity shouldbeplaced in thecontextofDaoist inneralchemy.This is illustratedby theinclusionofsomeversestakenfromapoemattributedtoLüYan,patriarchofbothSouthernandNorthernlineagesofinneralchemy.Ontheotherhand,inexplainingthepracticeofnourishinglife,whichismoreneutralandnotnec-essarilyrelatedtoinneralchemy,Zhangalsoquotesabasictextofinneral-chemy:theentireTaixi jingwiththeappendedTaixi ming.Thus,inhisexpla-nationoftheimportanceofessence,qi, and spiritinrelationtobothxiuzhen and yangsheng,theconnectionswithinneralchemyarehighlighted.78
However,practicesrelatedtoessence,qi,andspiritarecertainlynotexclu-sivelyfoundininneralchemy.TheyoriginatedinearlyChinaandpre-datein-neralchemyassuch.79Forexample,thecontentofthetextofBaiJuyi(772–846)towhichZhangrefersexplainingthebreathingtechniquespracticedbytwolegendaryimmortals,WangQiaoandRedPine(ChiSong),canalreadybefoundintheHuainanzi.Alsothequotewhichexplainsthat“themethodto
69
Ibid.,77–79,82–83andAlainArrault,Shao Yong (1012–1077), poète et cosmologue (Paris:CollègedeFrance,InstitutdeHautesÉtudesChinoises,2002),282–286.Onxian-tian and houtianintheinneralchemicalcon-text,seealsoIsabelleRobinet,“OriginalCon-tributions ofNeidan toTaoismandChineseThought,” inTaoist Meditation and Longev-ity Techniques, ed.LiviaKohn (AnnArbor:TheCenterforChineseStudies.UniversityofMichigan,1989),323–324;andPregadioandSkar,484–485.
70
FarzeenBaldrian-Hussein,“Shangyangzijin-dan dayao,” in Schipper and Verellen, The Taoist Canon,1180.
71
This is an etymological explanation of thecharacterqi(匝).Thecharacterdepictswhatissaidintheprevioussentence.Vapor(qi 蛩)risingupaftercookingrice(mi 椛).Or,inamoremedicalview:thegrainsenterthestom-ach,wheretheyareprocessed.Qi processed ofthegrainsrisesuptothelungs,fromwhereitdiffusedoverthewholebody.
72
Jindan dayao,3:5a.
73
Ibid.,3:7b.
74
Daode jing,chapter42.
75
Ibid.,4:7b.
76
Jindan dayao,4:7b.Oncontinuationandin-version,seePregadioandSkar,485.
77
Compare for example with the writings ofZhuXi,whodidalsowriteacommentaryontheZhouyi cantong qi(TokenfortheAgree-mentof theThreeAccording to theBook of Changes),abasictextofinneralchemy.Thiscommentary, however, “offers a cosmologi-cal interpretation of the Cantong qi whichdownplays its alchemical import.” PregadioandSkar,474.
78
OnlywhenZhangexplainsthewayofnour-ishing thebody/self (yang shen zhi dao),hereferstoLiGao’smedicalPiwei lun.
79
Fabrizio Pregadio and Lowell Skar call theperiodbefore theTangdynasty the “embry-onic phase” of inner alchemy. They situate“earlyneidan”intheTang.“Matureneidan”starts only in the late Tang. Pregadio andSkar,465.
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician78
cultivatethespiritistranquility”istakenfromtheHuainanzi.80Whatismorespecificforlatertextsofinneralchemy,andnotfoundinearlyDaoisttexts,isforinstancetheideaoftheintercoursebetweenthetrigramskan(water, )and li(fire, )intheexplanationofthequotetakenfromtheQi mitu.81
ZhangJiebinfurtherdistinguishesthepracticeofessence,qi, and spirit into xing(innernature)andming (life)training,asisdoneinthetwomaininneralchemicaltraditions.82 Practices related to spirit are regarded as xing training, whilethoserelatedtoessenceandqi are regarded as mingtraining.Neverthe-less, essence, qi,andspirit(or:ming and xing)formanunbreakablebond,andcan never be separated.83ZhangJiebinexplains:
“Althoughspiritisproducedoutofessenceandqi,itisalso[thething]bywhichessenceandspiritarecontrolledanddriven,andistheruleroftheirapplications(yunyong zhi zhu).Itisthespiritthatislocatedinourhearts.Ifthesethree[essence,qi, and spirit] are united as one, it can
becalledtheWay!”84
Attheendofhiscommentonessence,qi,andspiritinrelationtotheAuthenticPerson,Zhanggivesanintroductorypracticeaid.Hecountersthewidespreadopinionthatrestricting(sexual)desires(jin yu)wassufficienttonourishlife.
“They[peopleinhistime]donotknowthatwhenthereisanaberrantmovement(wang dong)oftheheart,qiisdispersedbyfollowingtheheart.Whenqiisdispersedinsteadofgathered,essenceisexpelledandqiislost.”85
Hereafter,hereferstotheBuddhistSishi’er zhang jing(S┣trainForty-twoSections):
“Cuttingoffsexualdesires(duan yin)isnotasgoodascuttingofftheheart.Theheartistheofficialthatdoestheefforts(gong cao).Ifyouareabletostoptheoneincharge,thefollowerswillallceasetheirirregularities(xie).Whentheheartisnothalted,whatbenefitsdoesithavetocutoffsexualdesires?”86
Morespecificpracticesarefoundintheforty-firstsubchapterofthecategory“CirculatoryPhasesandSeasonalInfluences”(Yunqi)towhichZhanggivesacross-reference.InthatsubchapterwefindapassageoftheapocryphalSW72,87 inwhich“breathretention”(bi qi)88and“swallowingthefluidofqi”(yan qi jin)arementionedasamethodthatcanbepracticedinthecaseofanenduring kidney disorder.89ZhangJiebinfirstpointsoutthatthisisamethodof“nourishingqiandmakingessencereturn”(yang qi huan jing).Byswal-lowingsalivatherootsoflifecanbereinforced.Or,asisstatedinanoldcom-menttowhichZhangrefers:
“Daoistsalchemists(xianjia)swallowqi.Theylettheroaringintheirbellyarriveundertheum-
bilicus.Theqiofthechild(zi qi)seestheprimordialqiofthemother(mu yuanqi).Hence,thisiscalled‘turningbacktotherootandrevertingtotheorigin’(fanben huanyuan).”90
Inaddition,Zhangattachesalongexplanation,titled“MethodofGuidingandPulling”(Daoyin fa).91Again,hehighlights the importanceofessenceandqiastherootoflife(ming)andspiritasthecontrolleroflife(xing).Healsoprovidesthreebreathingexercisesthatcanserveasintroductorymethods.92 Zhangfurtherexplainshowandwhentheseexercisescanbepracticed,andwhatresultscanbeexpected:
“Whenthewholebodyiscompletely[like]theWay(yi shen jie dao),whatobstruction(zhi)willtherestillbe?Afterithasbecomemostsubtlebypracticingforalongtime,thenithonestlydoesnotstopbydispellingdiseases!”93
Moredetailsontheresultsaregiveninaquoteofthe“MethodofBreathRe-tention”(Biqi fa)attributedtothelegendaryfigurePengzu,whosupposedly
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livedeighthundredyearsandisassociatedwithlongevitytechniques.Resultsofpracticingthistechniquearedescribedasfollows:
“When a goose feather is put on the nose, it does notmove anymore during three hundredbreathings.Theearshavenothingtheyhear,theeyeshavenothingtheysee,andthemindhasnothingitthinksof.Coldandheatcannotenter.Waspsandscorpionscannotstingtheirpoison.Onelivesonehundredsixtyyears,andisnearingthestateoftheAuthenticPerson(lin yu zhen-ren).”94
80
Huainanzi, inGuoxuezhenglishe,Zhuzi jic-heng,7:23.
81
Ontheuseofthesetrigramsininneralchemy,seeRobinet,“OriginalContributionsofNei-dan toTaoismandChineseThought,” 312–314.Robinethascharacterizedtextsofinneralchemyasfollows:“1.aconcernfortrainingthemindasmuchasthebody,withthemen-talaspectusuallypredominant;2.atendencytosynthesizevariousTaoistcurrents,certainBuddhist speculations, and specific Confu-cianlinesofthought;3.referencestotheYi-jing;and4.referencestochemicalpractices.”Ibid.,300.Theuseof tri-andhexagramsoftheBook of Changes in inner alchemygoesback to Zhouyi cantong qi,attributedtoWeiBoyangoftheHandynasty.However,there-ceivedversionoftheZhouyi cantong qi dates from the Tang dynasty and marks the shiftfromexternalalchemy(waidan) to inneral-chemy.FabrizioPregadio,“TheEarlyHistoryoftheZhouyi cantong qi.”Journal of Chinese Religions30(2003).
82
Xing and ming are used in Quanzhen andNanzong,butnot in theZhong-Lütradition,theoldesttraditionofinneralchemy.Robinet,“OriginalContributionsofNeidan to Taoism andChineseThought,”306.
83
Dualcultivationofinnernatureandlife(xing-ming shuangxiu) was important in both theSouthern lineage of Zhang Boduan and theYuandynastyformofinneralchemyofChenZhixu.Ondualcultivationofxing-mingintheSouthern lineage of inner alchemy, see DanK.J.Vercammen, “Bedenkingen bij de xing-ming formule van de Zuidelijke InnerlijkeAlchemie (Thoughts on the xing-ming For-mula of Southern InnerAlchemy),” in Food for Thought: de essentie van de Chinese cul-tuur, ed. Dan K.J. Vercammen (Antwerpen:BelgischeTaoïstischeAssociatie,2001).Dualcultivationofxing-ming,asexplainedbyChenZhixu,alsoinfluencedMingdynastyinneral-chemists,suchasLuXixing.SeePierre-HenrydeBruyn,“DaoismintheMing(1368–1644),”inKohn,Daoism Handbook,608.
84
Zhang Jiebin, 8. Compare also with Ibid.,1141.
85
Ibid.,8.ThesesentencescanalmostverbatimbefoundinJindan dayao,3:6a,whichagainprovesthecloseaffinitybetweenZhangJie-bin’sideasonessence,qi,andspiritandthoseexpressedinJindan dayao.
86
QuotedasinZhangJiebin,8.ComparewithTaishô shinshu daizôkyô 784, 723b:28–29.On Sishi’er zhang jing,seeErikZürcher,The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China,3rded.(Leiden:Brill,2007),29–30.
87
ThecontentsofSW72and73areattributedtoLiuWenshu(11thC.).Despeux,“TheSys-tem of the Five Circulatory Phases and theSixSeasonalInfluences,”133.
88
SeeCatherineDespeux,“BreathRetention,”in Pregadio, Encyclopedia of Taoism, 234–235. On techniques of breath retention asmentioned in theBaopuzi andSunSimiao’sBeiji qianjin yaofang, see supra.
89
ZhangJiebin,1411.
90
Ibid.
91
Daoyincanbeliterallytranslatedas“guidingandpulling”andusually refers to“gymnas-tics”.Ondaoyinasgymnastics,seeCatherineDespeux, “Gymnastics: The Ancient Tradi-tion,” in Kohn, Taoist Meditation and Lon-gevity Techniques. Here, Zhang Jiebin usesdaoyintodenoterespiratorytechniques.
92
These exercises are: “Mr. Jiang’s Pieces onRegulatingQi”(Jiang-shi Tiaoqi pian),“Mr.Su’s Formula on Nourishing Life” (Su-shi Yangsheng jue),andAuthenticManLi’sFor-mulainThirty-sixCharactersonProlongingLife (Li Zhenren Changsheng shiliu zi jue).ZhangJiebin,1411–1414.
93
Ibid., 1414.
94
As in ibid.ComparewithSunSimiao,Beiji qianjin yaofang, 470, in which Pengzu’smethodisalsodescribed.
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician80
ForZhangJiebin,becominganAuthenticPersonwasthusagenuineambition,andshouldbeseeninthecontextofinneralchemy.Zhangpointsoutthattheobscureterminologyusedininneralchemicaltextsbasicallyreferstomakingqiraiseup(ti qi),breathing(huxi),thefluids(jinye),etc.95Althoughtherearemanynamesandpractices,accordingtoZhangthereisonebasicprinciple:“whatgoesoutislessthanwhatenters”(chu shao ru duo).96ThisprinciplealreadyoccursintextsastheBaopuzi,andrelatestoembryonicbreathing.97 ThepurposeofthisbreathingexerciseintheBaopuzi,whichpredatesmatureinneralchemy,wasalso“generatingandnourishingtheperfectedorrealizedone’s(zhenren)‘holyembryo’(shengtai).”98
It couldbe argued thatmostof thepractices towhichZhang Jiebin refersareonlyintroductorymeans,andshouldnotberegardedasinneralchemy.Asthismaybe,itisundeniablethatinZhang’sopinionmedicineandinneralchemy(referredtoasxiandao)arecloselyrelatedtoeachother.Or,tousehiswords:
“Thewayofmedicineconnectswiththewayofimmortality(yidao tong xiandao).Thisismostimportant.Whenyouhearthis,youshouldnotregardittobeaheresy,orthatItellthisasajoke.”99
Conclusion
It is impossible to prove that Zhang Jiebin himself practiced Daoist inneralchemy.Hewasa“(Neo-)Confucian,”orrathera“scholar”,physician(ruyi)inthefirstplace.Asaphysician,thereligiousaspirationsofthe practitioner ofinneralchemywereprobablynothisfirstpreoccupation.Zhanglivedintheworldofordinaryhumanbeingsandpracticedthevirtuousprofessionofmedicine.
Nevertheless,heacknowledgedtheimportanceofDaoismespeciallyinhiscommentsdealingwithprinciplesofcultivatingalongandhealthylife. His referencestoDaoismareundeniablynotjustsomeembellishmentsinthetext.Thisbecomesclearwhenanalyzinghiscommentonthesecondpassagede-scribing theAuthenticPersonat the endofSW1.First,Zhang Jiebinhadthoroughly readmain inneralchemical texts.Hehighlights the importanceoftextssuchastheTaixi jing, Jindan dayao,worksbyZhangBoduan,etc.,to explain essence, qi, and spirit. Second, Zhang’s understanding of xian-tian qi ismore profound and elaborate than in “orthodox”Neo-Confucianwritings,andbearsstrongresemblanceswith ideasexpressed in textssuchastheJindan dayao.Third,ZhangJiebinreferstospecificexercises.Theseexercisesarenotjusthealthpreventivetechniques.AlthoughthetechniquesdescribedintheLeijingareonlyintroductorymeans, theydonotonlyaimatdispellingdiseasebutalsoleadtothesoteriologicalgoalofbecominganAuthenticPerson.ForZhangJiebin,medicineandDaoismwerenodivergentpaths.IfaphysicianattheendoftheMingdynastywantedtofullyunderstandthemainingredientsoflifeitself,hehad,inZhangJiebin’sopinionatleast,totakeaccountofDaoistinneralchemicalexplanationsandpractices.
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Leslie de Vries
Autentični čovjek kao ideal za liječnika u razdoblju kasne dinastije MingDaoistička unutarnja alkemija u Zhang Jiebinovom komentaru Huangdi neijing
SažetakKrajem razdoblja dinastije Ming (1368.–1644.) daoistička unutarnja alkemija imala je znača-jan utjecaj na medicinske teorije nekih od najistaknutijih liječnika u kineskoj pokrajini Jian-gnan. Ovaj se članak fokusira na Zhang Jiebinove (1563.–1640.) komentare Huangdi neijing (Unutarnji klasik žutoga cara), temeljnog teksta kineske medicine. U prvome poglavlju nave-denog teksta dan je opis četiri uzorna tipa čovjeka. Analizira se Zhang Jiebinovo razmatranje jednog od tih tipova, autentičnog čovjeka (zhenren). Obilato se oslanjajući na izvore unutarnje alkemije, Zhang se fokusira na bitne konstituente tijela: bit (jing), qi i duh (shen). Nadalje se pokazuje kako Zhang naglašava snažne veze između medicine i unutarnje alkemije u raspravi o konkretnim praksama, koje ne samo da uklanjaju poremećaje nego također vode do daoističkog ideala postajanja zhenrenom.
Ključne riječiZhangJiebin,kineskamedicina,dinastijaMing,unutarnjaalkemija,qi,soteriologija
Leslie de Vries
Der authentische Mensch als Ideal für den Arzt der späten Ming-Dynastie
Daoistische innere Alchemie in Zhang Jiebins Kommentar zu Huangdi neijing
Zusammenfassung
Gegen Ende der Ming-Dynastie (1368–1644) übte die daoistische innere Alchemie einen er-heblichen Einfluss auf die medizinischen Theorien einiger der prominentesten gelehrten Är-zte im chinesischen Gebiet Jiangnan aus. In diesem Artikel richte ich meine Aufmerksamkeit auf Zhang Jiebins (1563–1640) Kommentar zu Huangdi neijing (Innerer Klassiker des Gelben Kaisers), dem grundlegenden Text der chinesischen Medizin. Im ersten Kapitel des erwähn-ten Textes werden vier beispielhafte Typen von Menschen geschildert. Ich analysiere Zhang Jiebins Ausführung eines von denen, des authentischen Menschen (zhenren). Sich reichlich an die inneren alchemistischen Quellen lehnend legt er seinen Schwerpunkt auf die wesentliche Bestandteile des Körpers: Essenz (jing), qi und Geist (shen). Ferner zeige ich, wie Zhang starke Verbindungen zwischen Medizin und der inneren Alchemie in einer Diskussion über konkrete Praktiken betont, die nicht nur Störungen abbauen, sondern überdies zum daoistischen Ideal des zhenren-Werdens führen könnten.
Schlüsselwörter
ZhangJiebin,chinesischeMedizin,Ming-Dynastie,innereAlchemie,qi,Soteriologie
95
Inaddition,Zhangalsoreferstosexualprac-tices (Yunü zhi shu). On inner alchemy andsexualpractices,seeDouglasWile,Art of the Bedchamber: The Chinese Sexual Yoga Clas-sics Including Women’s Solo Meditation Texts (Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1992).
96
ZhangJiebin,1414.
97
Baopuzimentionsthisprincipleinreverseor-der(“whatentersismorethanwhatgoesout”ru duo chu shao)inthecontextofembryonicbreathing.Qi(air)isinhaledthroughthenose,andthenclosedoff(bi).Afterhavingcounted
tillonehundred-twenty(atbeginnerlevel),theairisgentlybreathedoutthroughthemouth.As in the citation of “Pengzu’s Method ofBreathRetention”above,alsoagoosefeath-er is mentioned. This goose feather makes“whatgoesoutislessthanwhatenters”visu-allyclear:“Itshouldbethatagoosefeatherplaced on top of mouth and nose does notmovewhilebreathingout(tu qi).”GeHong,Baopuzi (MasterwhoEmbracesSimplicity),Guoxuezhenglishe, Zhuzi jicheng,8:33.
98
Cf.fn.26.
99
ZhangJiebin,1414.
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L.deVries,TheAuthenticPersonasIdealfortheLateMingDynastyPhysician82
Leslie de Vries
L’homme authentique en tant que médecin idéal dans la période
tardive de la dynastie Ming
Alchimie taoïste interne de Zhang Jiebin dans le commentaire du Huangdi neijing
Résumé
À la fin de la dynastie Ming (1368–1644) l’alchimie interne taoïste exerçait une influence signi-ficative sur les théories médicales de médecins renommés de la province chinoise de Jiangnan. Cet article se concentre sur les commentaires du Huangdi neijing (Classique interne de l’empire Jaune) de Zhang Jiebin, texte fondateur de la médecine chinoise. Dans le premier chapitre de ce texte quatre types d’hommes exemplaires sont décrits. L’analyse porte sur l’élaboration de Zhang Jiebin de l’un des quatre types d’hommes, l’homme authentique (zhenren). Se référant de manière abondante aux sources de l’alchimie interne, Zhang se concentre sur ses constituants essentiels : l’essence (jing), le qi, et l’esprit (shen). Plus loin, l’article montre comment Zhang souligne les relations fortes entre la médecine et l’alchimie interne dans les discussions sur les pratiques concrètes, qui non seulement suppriment les désordres, mais mènent également à l’idéal taoïste du devenir zhenren.
Mots-clés
ZhangJiebin,médecinechinoise,dynastieMing,alchimieinterne,qi,sotériologie