key principles - unhcr · guiding principles put forward in this document. unhcr is ple ased to...

Refugee Operations and

Environmental Management

Ref

ugee

Ope

rati

ons

and

Envi

ronm

enta

l Man

agem

ent:

Key

Pri

ncip

les

KeyPrinciples

for

Decision-making

Engineering and Environmental Services SectionUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

Case postale 2500CH - 1211 Genève 2 Dépôt

Refugee Operations and

Environmental Management

KeyPrinciples

for

Decision-making

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYA Time for Action and Taking Decisions

Refugee operations are often typified by the need to makequick decisions — decisions which if not based on the bestavailable information, may risk jeopardising the lives andwelfare of large numbers of people, both now and in thefuture.

Camp sites must be found; shelters must be constructed;access routes may need to be built to enable delivery offood supplies and medication; people must be fed andprovided with the basic needs for survival. Many, but by nomeans all, such decisions are in some way linked with theenvironment, either directly or indirectly.

One of the most serious implications of environmentaldegradation for relief and humanitarian organisations is thefact that this might influence the decision of a givencountry to grant asylum to refugees. Another is thatenvironmental degradation may jeopardise refugee’slivelihoods. UNHCR cannot afford for these to happen. It istherefore essential that appropriate actions are taken toprevent such a situation from arising.

Decision-makers must have access to the best availableinformation in order to formulate judgements and evaluatethe impact of actions to be taken. In humanitarian reliefoperations, this is especially important given that themajority of managers dealing with refugee situations aregeneralists who cannot presume to have in-depthknowledge on specialised subject areas such as theenvironment.

Refugees and the Environment

This short guide has been prepared to help decision-makers by:

• drawing attention to the links between refugees and theenvironment; and

• highlighting key issues to enable decision-makers reachconclusions and take appropriate actions on issues

Focus on the Environment

i

connected to environmental management duringrefugee operations.

If decision-makers remain unaware of the links between theenvironment and human well-being, the environment maybe marginalised by inappropriate decisions. Unwittingplacement of a camp close to a national park or other areaof ecological importance can threaten wildlife resourcesand destroy a country’s natural heritage ; carelessconstruction of roads can lead to erosion problems — evenhuman deaths; uncontrolled cutting of trees can result insoil erosion; while increased pressure on local naturalresources can easily result in conflicts with localcommunities. All of these actions have a cost : economic,social and/or environmental.

KKeeyy PPrriinncciipplleess ffoorr DDeecciissiioonn--MMaakkiinngg

The principles put forward in this guide have been drawnfrom a recent undertaking by UNHCR and partnerorganisations to extract some of the most pertinentlessons learned from a wide range of refugee situations inAfrica and Asia. Among the key principles are that :

• preventing environmental degradation from happeningin the first instance is the most effective strategy ;

• attaching a monetary value to natural resources canreduce the level of those resources consumed;

• environmental projects need not be complex or costly ;

• clear policies are needed on access and user rights tonatural resources ;

• influencing policies can be as important as definingpractice ; and

• the roles and responsibilities of actors and stakeholdersneed to be clearly defined.

By highlighting these and other experiences, this booklet isintended as one more step towards strengthening theability of decision-makers to make appropriate judgementswhich will be in the interests of refugees and the localenvironment.

ii

Key Principles for Decision-Making

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary.......................................................................... i

Introduction ......................................................................................... 1Human Welfare and the Environment go Hand in Hand ...... 1Learning from Experience: How this Booklet can Help......... 2

Focus on the Environment ........................................................... 5Why does the Environment Matter? ......................................... 5Key Environmental Issues in Refugee Operations.................... 6Refugee Welfare and the Environment: Integrated Concerns 8

What are the Most Important EnvironmentalPrinciples to Consider? .................................................................. 11

UNHCR Environmental Guidelines............................................. 11Building on Experience................................................................... 13

Key Principles ...................................................................................... 151. Prevention is Better Than Cure ............................................... 152. Environment Programmes Need not be Complex............. 233. Environment Programmes Need not be Costly.................. 274. Environmental Management is More than Providing

Stoves and Planting Trees ......................................................... 315. Interventions Should Add Value to Environmental

Assets and Practices ................................................................... 476. Access Rights and Benefit Sharing are Fundamental to

Sound Environmental Management ...................................... 537. Co-ordination and Implementation are Vital but

Separate Environmental Roles ................................................ 578. Influencing Policy can be as Important as Defining

Practice........................................................................................... 619. Relief and Development Assistance Should be

Compatible ................................................................................... 6510. Protect the Environment to Safeguard Asylum.................. 69

Where to Find Out More on Refugees and theEnvironment ......................................................................................... 74


iii

Key Principles

Introduction

1

Introduction

Human welfare remains the undisputed priority for UNHCRand partner organisations in times of crisis. It has, however,become increasingly evident that environmental concernstoo need to be taken into account at such times.

Peoples’ lives depend on the quality of the surroundingenvironment, which may provide food, fresh water, fuel andbuilding materials. In a refugee situation, excessive damageto the environment, competition with local communitiesover scarce resources, or disruption of ecological servicesare understandably not appreciated by host governments, afeature which may well influence a country’s decision toprovide asylum to refugees.

Human Welfare and the Environmentgo Hand in Hand

What can be done to assist and improve the decision-making process and support sustainable environmentalmanagement? A first step is for people to understand thelinks between human welfare and the environment. This isincreasingly taking place: more and more people apprec-iate how these two concerns are related and how animpact on one might affect the other. Environmentalissues, no longer seen in isolation, now feature in manyinternational and national debates on human welfare.

What is now required is for people, particularly decision-makers and field staff, to take account of recent expe-riences of environmental management in refugee situa-tions, to learn from the experience and failures of UNHCRand other organisations, and to be in a better position to

identify and implement practical solutions at the fieldlevel, before problems develop or get out of hand.

Learning from Experience :How this Booklet can Help

Drawing from a vast pool of information compiled byUNHCR and partner organisations, with funding from thegovernments of Japan, the Netherlands and the UnitedStates of America, this booklet summarises some of themost prominent findings on environmental management inrelief and humanitarian operations, which should be con-sidered by all managers and decision-makers.

A broad range of actions are outlined — actions that maysave lives and money, while also benefiting the environ-ment. Building on these experiences, project managers anddonors may avoid common problems and create morefavourable conditions for refugees and local communities,a situation which would undoubtedly also foster goodwillbetween refugee-hosting governments and humanitarianorganisations.

Using real examples of how environmental considerationscan be included in field operations, this booklet should notonly provide guidance on the types of environmental acti-vities donor organisations might consider to fund, butshould also enable managers and decision-makers to diffe-rentiate sound proposals from those likely to result inrepetition of past mistakes. Each of the key principles isfollowed by a short list of priority considerations that canbe used to assess the suitability and soundness of a parti-cular project proposal from an environmental perspective.

Readers should remain aware that this booklet cannot offera blueprint which might be applied to all refugee situations.Even armed with this information, decision-makers must stillbe aware of the need to thoroughly examine the underlying

2


causes of problems and the needs of people on a case bycase basis. Cultural, social, economic and environmentalaspects must all be taken into account when considering theguiding principles put forward in this document.

UNHCR is pleased to offer these key principles for environ-mental management in refugee situations — one more steptowards strengthening the ability of field and office per-sonnel to make decisions which will be in the best interestsof individual refugees and their families, as well as the sur-rounding environment.

Introduction

3

Refugees may benefit from a wide range of natural resources – wildfood and medicinal plants in particular. Care must be taken, however,to ensure that such resources are not over-exploited.UNHCR/A. Hollmann

Refugees require large amounts of wood for cooking meals andbuilding shelters. This can lead to rapid destruction of naturalvegetation in the vicinity of camps.UNHCR/E. Dagnino

Key PrinciplesFocus on the Environment

Why Does the Environment Matter?

Human welfare is dependent on the state of the environ-ment. A large proportion of the world’s populationdepends directly on natural resources as a source of wildfoods, natural medicines and shelter. Many others maketheir living from the sale of natural resources, eitherthrough direct trade or more refined processing and mark-eting. Indirectly, the environment provides a wide range ofservices without which we would not be able to survive —fresh water being an example.

In some way or another, all of our lives are intertwinedwith, and dependent upon, the continued well-being of theenvironment. The challenge, however, is to manage theenvironment and specific resources in a manner which willhelp guarantee their availability for future generations.

Human behaviour can have profound effects on the envi-ronment. This is often highlighted during refugee situa-tions, when large numbers of homeless people have to becatered for. Minimising the impacts on the environment is amajor challenge at such times, but a challenge which mustbe met. Decisions taken to promote responsible actionsgeared towards wise environmental management areessential. For this to happen, technical planners, managers,decision-makers and donors must be conscious of the linksand interdependencies between economics, political deci-sions, social welfare and the environment. Inappropriatedecisions taken to foster advancements in one of thesesectors might have serious negative implications for theenvironment.


5

Key Environmental Issues in RefugeeOperations

Evidence shows that large-scale dislocation of people, char-acteristic of many recent refugee crises, can create adver-se environmental impacts (see Box 1). The scale and sudden-ness of refugee flows can rapidly change a situation of relative abundance of local resources to one of acute scarcity.

Box 1. Environmental Impacts Associated withRefugees

The environmental impacts of refugee flows are diverse.Deforestation tends to be the most apparent of theseimpacts, although it is not the only one.

Soil erosion, loss of wildlife and non-timber products, andloss of biological diversity are other visible impacts. Indoorand outdoor air pollution caused by concentrated use of bio-mass fuels, the depletion or contamination of aquifers, and analtered pattern of transmission of certain diseases are alsoenvironment-related, but tend to be overlooked.

Whatever the issue, the environmental impacts are borne bythe refugee and host populations, albeit in varying propor-tions, depending on the situation. Efforts to assure the well-being of refugees require simultaneous efforts to prevent ormitigate the impacts on the refugees themselves and the hos-ting population, on whose goodwill the granting of asylumultimately depends.

Where the hosting environment is already under stress, as it is,for instance, in many arid regions of Africa and Asia, an influxof refugees can seriously threaten the integrity of local ecosys-tems and the economic activities dependent upon them.

While deforestation may be a problem in many areas, it islikely that the full range of effects upon both the environ-ment and the well-being of refugees and host communitieswill be far more diverse and demand a broad approach toplanning mitigative activities.

6



7

Establishment of a refugee camp can quickly lead to loss ofvegetation and additional environmental degradation if notcontrolled. UNHCR/A.Hollmann

Refugee Welfare and the Environment:Integrated Concerns

Environmental impacts of refugee camps and settlementscan be diverse. Among the most obvious are the cutting oftrees for housing support and fuel. Others such as pollu-tion or the extraction of groundwater resources are farmore subtle — at least in the short-term. Changes have alsobeen recorded in terms of impacts on household labourand health. In all cases, the increased pressure on a region’snatural resources invariably affects human welfare and theoptions available for sustainable management of naturalresources. Local people and refugees themselves may beequally affected by inappropriate or excessive use of suchnatural resources.

Host governments and humanitarian organisations are res-ponsible for assuring the welfare and security of asylum-seekers. The condition of the environment where thoseasylum-seekers are settled thus becomes a key factor inenabling them to fulfil this mandate. The main reason forthis is the range of direct links between refugees’ susten-ance and products derived from the local environment.Refugees may depend on firewood and building poles fromnearby woodland, water from local aquifers or rivers, ormedicinal plants from surrounding lands — natural pro-ducts and services which help support them during a timeof great uncertainties.

It is increasingly accepted that environmental interventionscannot be separated from regular refugee assistance activi-ties. The growing number of projects that seek to counteror compensate for the refugees’ impact on local environ-ments is an indication of this inter-relatedness, as well as auseful indicator of how serious these environmentalimpacts can be.

There are also a variety of indirect linkages between refugeewell-being and the state of the local environment.

8


Underground water reserves are easily polluted by ina-dequate sanitation, a situation which can result in illness andspread of disease. If firewood becomes scarce, refugees mayneed to go further to collect wood — journeys which mayexpose women and children, in particular, to other hazards.If farmland is over-cultivated then crop yields may declineand nutritional levels decrease, particularly in refugee settle-ments that are partly self-reliant for food (see Box 2).

Box 2. Links between the Environment and RefugeeWelfare

Sudanese refugees in Kakuma camp, north-western Kenya, liveunder a regime of strict control imposed by the local Turkanapeople. According to the traditional Turkana resource owner-ship system, refugees are not allowed to gather firewood inthe area, even if it is dead.

A firewood supply programme meets less than 40 per cent ofthe energy demands of the camp, so the refugees must pur-chase wood and charcoal to make up the shortfall. This has amajor impact on the spending power of the refugees, espe-cially poorer families and unaccompanied minors, who use upto 35 per cent of their meagre cash income for fuel. This has aknock-on effect as it reduces the funds available for purcha-sing essential food supplements such as milk, meat, vege-tables and sugar. One result has been malnutrition among cer-tain sectors of the population, especially males aged from 15to 20 years, with a high prevalence of anaemia. Besides theobvious health impact, this has necessitated a large-scale andcostly school-based feeding programme.

Environmental concerns are consequently relevant toall agencies with a mandate to ensure the well-being ofrefugees and asylum-seekers. Such concerns shouldform an integral part of humanitarian assistance —UNHCR’s core mandate of asylum protection could beundermined if environmental concerns are overlookedor not adequately addressed.


9

The presence of large numbers of refugees puts pressure on limitedwater resources and can cause refugees to use contaminatedwater.UNHCR/C. Sattlberger

11

Key PrinciplesWhat are the Most ImportantEnvironmental Principles to Consider ?

UNHCR Environmental Guidelines

UNHCR’s Environmental Guidelines (1996) outline fourmajor criteria which need to be considered when addres-sing environmental concerns in refugee operations :

1. Integrated approach

Environmental planning is crucial at all phases of refugeeoperations. Ensuring that environmental concerns areintegrated with planning and activities in other sectors isessential to the overall welfare and safety of refugees. Itcan also have a major impact on the environment, as cer-tain potentially harmful activities might be avoided orovercome by careful planning and co-ordination, particu-larly during the early phases of operations.

2. Prevention before cure

Taking action to minimise potential problems is a key pol-icy promoted by UNHCR in its field operations. Effectiveplanning can contribute greatly to reducing environmentaldegradation as well as the costs — human and financial —of site rehabilitation.

Meeting the various needs of refugees is of fundamentalimportance to preserving the local environment. Unlessadequate supplies of food, building materials and fuel areprovided, refugees will be forced to search for these essen-tials themselves. This can lead to localised degradation andconflicts with local communities over access to naturalresources.

Most Important Environmental Principles

3. Cost-effectiveness

Refugee assistance is costly and, with limited resources at itsdisposal, UNHCR must always strive to maximise the efficien-cy of its assistance programmes. Rather than being a supple-ment, like most forms of development assistance, refugeeassistance has to replicate a support system — unless refu-gees are allowed by host governments to gain access to landor otherwise integrate into the host country’s economy.

12


Many refugees welcome the opportunity of becoming involved withenvironment-related projects, for example, kitchen gardens, seedlingnurseries and natural resource protection.UNHCR/S. Errington

Most Important Environmental Principles

13

4. Local participation

Involving refugees and local communities with the dev-elopment and management of environmental activities isfundamental to managing natural resources in a sustainablemanner. Activities such as reforestation, agroforestry,controlled grazing of livestock, or the promotion of fuel-efficient stoves must have support from refugees and localpeople if they are to succeed in the long term.

Refugee community leaders should be encouraged to cre-ate awareness and a sense of responsibility for protectingthe surrounding environment. Actions such as this help in-stil respect for local traditions such as taboos on huntingor cutting of trees, or entry to sacred forests and other cul-turally important sites. Such initiatives can go a long way toprotecting the local environment and to confining theextent of refugee impacts on the local environment, aswell as to reducing potential conflicts over naturalresources.

Building on Experience

UNHCR feels that the principles outlined in itsEnvironmental Guidelines are of utmost concern at allstages of a refugee operation: they should be clearlyunderstood and the need to apply these principles wellappreciated by all decision-makers.

The following sections expand upon a selection of key les-sons learned in the implementation of environmental stra-tegies in refugee situations. The focus is broadly on mattersof policy, institutional relations, co-ordination and finance— essential principles (summarised in checklist format inTable 1) which should be borne in mind when designing andimplementing environmental activities in refugee pro-grammes. Some attention is also given to technical issuesrelated, for example, to energy conservation and natural

resource management. A short list of key points and speci-fic actions is provided though which donor organisations,in particular, as well as government agencies and otherorganisations might intervene in ongoing or new, planneddevelopments.

Table 1. Checklist of Key Environmental Principles in RefugeeOperations.

Action to consider Yes/NoHave preventative actions been foreseen in theproject proposal or intended continuation ofactivities?

Are the envisaged environmental activities simpleand will they respond to identified needs in ameaningful manner?

Is the level of funding required in keeping with thescale of intended interventions? Are proposedactivities likely to be cost-effective?

Are environmental activities other than stovesand tree planting being considered?

Will suggested interventions add value to envi-ronmental assets?

Have user and access rights been addressed withrelation to environmental management?

Have responsibilities for co-ordination and imple-mentation been addressed and clarified?

Have the needs and means of influencing environ-ment-related policies been identified?

Are the roles of development and relief assistanceorganisations clear?

Are there other identifiable actions which should be highlighted to help safeguard the localenvironment?

14


Key PrinciplesPrevention is Better than Cure

● The over-riding environmental principle in refugeeprogrammes is ‘Prevention Before Cure’.

Refugee assistance operations have largely dealt with en-vironmental pressures in a reactive way, the first prioritybeing given to security, food, health and shelter for dis-placed people.

Yet experience suggests that treating environmentalimpacts as an add-on, something to be tackled at a laterstage, has been one reason why refugee operations are socostly for both the international community and hostcountries. This is mainly because timely and deliberateenvironment-protecting measures can cost far less (andhelp refugees more) than the crisis-type response whichhas predominated so far.

Two examples from Kagera, Tanzania, illustrate the impor-tance and benefits which can be gained from addressingenvironmental considerations at the earliest possiblemoment (see Box 3).

Far from being abstract and impractical, these examplesshow that early and well targeted environmental interven-tions may be among the most efficient forms of assistance.UNHCR’s Environmental Guidelines emphasise preciselythe cost-effectiveness of preventive approaches to en-vironmental interventions. Considering the scale of percapita financial assistance involved, this approach is funda-mentally important.

Prevention is Better than Cure

15

Principle 1

Box 3. Siting of Refugee Settlements

Emboldened by the inability of authorities to police gamereserves in Kagera, Tanzania, Rwandan refugees and local peopleencroached upon the reserves’ wildlife resources. Poaching forthe refugee market brought an abrupt end to revenue from priv-ate hunting ventures, formerly averaging US$100,000 per year inlocal and central government payments, and up to 10 times thisamount through indirect expenditures on tourism.

In 1996, US$1.9 million was provided to rehabilitate Tanzania’sgame reserves. The following year, another US$750,000 was madeavailable to further restore those reserves most affected by refugee encroachment. The need for such assistance resulted inpart from the location of camps too close to a valuable ecologi-cal and economic resource. Of course the camp establishmentphase was a time of great pressure on limited emergencyresources and there was a multitude of conflicting demands pla-ced on all those involved. Nevertheless, had environmental argu-ments prevailed in siting the camps, or in their subsequent re-location, rehabilitation would have been largely unnecessary andhunting (and related) revenues would have continued to flow in.

16


Practical Implications

Prevention before cure may be accepted as a working prin-ciple. But what does it mean in operational terms?

✔ The emergency phase is the critical moment atwhich environmental degradation may be confinedor limited.

Environmental concerns are often not a priority at theoutset of an emergency when saving lives must take pre-cedence. But, environmental problems created at this stagecontinue into other phases of refugee assistance, and typi-cally become more serious and costly to redress. Problems,costs and conflicts related to natural resource degradationare likely to be reduced significantly if environmentalissues are addressed from the outset. Otherwise, efforts topromote good local relations will be less effective, refugeewelfare will be jeopardised, and eventual repair will becostly. Efforts should therefore be made to address this assoon as local situations permit.

✔ Site selection and site planning are fundamentalissues.

There are many constraints governing selection of campsites. Some basic environmental principles which should betaken into consideration relate to the size of settlements,and their distance from sensitive areas and from eachother. Internal planning decisions such as plot sizes andorientation of roadways are also important. Although thepressure to meet basic human needs can be intense during


17

Site selection and camp layout require particular attention. Unlesspreventive measures are initiated from the outset, local wood resourcesmay become depleted and ground cover eliminated. Such activities canlead to soil run-off, erosion and sedimentation of water sources.UNHCR/A. Hollmann

×

an emergency operation, it is essential that environmentalconcerns are taken into account. Failure to do so willinvariably result in environmental degradation and subse-quent losses in terms of local welfare.

The Best Option

✔ Integrating refugees with local communities ispreferred over camp development.

Temporary integration of refugees into local communitiescan help create a manageable situation of social check-and-balance, even where a refugee influx leads to drasticpopulation increases and where this influx may be close toecologically sensitive areas.

Local communities can exert greater control over the acti-vities of refugees if the latter are more sparsely distributed.At the same time, any damaging activities are likely to beless concentrated if the refugee population is thinly spread.Furthermore, local integration brings with it a notion ofsecurity and access to natural resources, both of which arelikely to contribute to more appropriate environmentalmanagement on the part of the refugees.

If the “Best Option” is not Available

✔ If local, dispersed integration is not an option andcamp-based settlement is necessary, the followingguiding principles are offered:

• Settlement size: Where refugees depend on localnatural resources, camp populations below 20,000 aremost environmentally sustainable. Large concentrationsof refugees in rural or remote areas tend to have moresevere environmental implications than dispersed sett-lements with the same total population. The exploita-

18


tion of natural resources by refugees is more difficult tocontrol when the refugee population outnumbers thatof nearby communities. Local authorities are oftenunable to cope with increased demands for surveillance.

• Settlement siting: Serious environmental damagecan be reduced where camps are located at least 15kmfrom protected areas or zones of ecological signifi-cance. Like others, refugees exploit natural resources,particularly wood and animal products, if they arereadily accessible. This poses a threat to biodiversityand ecological integrity, especially when the areas inquestion are wildlife corridors, host particularly rareplant or animal species, or are part of an ecosystemsupplying vital services, such as a water catchmentzone. Such exploitation can also undermine the inco-me-generating potential of protected areas in terms ofroyalties, hunting revenues, visitor fees, or the serviceswhich they provide. Rehabilitation of such protectedareas is time-consuming, costly and, in some cases, biologically impossible.

• Settlement spacing: Widely spaced camps result inless environmental damage than camps close to eachother. In time, concentric rings of exploitation tend todevelop around refugee camps, as local people andrefugees extract and harvest a variety of natural pro-ducts for use and sale within camps. If camps are sitedclose to one another, the zones of exploitation willinvariably overlap, the result being doubled pressure onthe land, which is not conducive to encouraging naturalregeneration. Where possible, camps should be locatedat least one day’s walk from each other.

• Housing density: Small plots limit the opportunityfor refugee tree planting and lead to a greater imbalan-ce between demand and supply for natural resources


19

from within the settlement limits. Sound environ-mental management in refugee settlements is morelikely where family plots are large — 400m

2and above.

The larger the plot, the greater the area for which therefugee family is able to take some management re-sponsibility and over which it can exert control. Treeplanting and protection of existing vegetation may takeplace only on household plots. Thus the larger the plotallocated to a family, the greater the area drawn undersome form of assured management.

• Site clearance: As much woody vegetation as pos-sible should be maintained during site establishment.Leaving and protecting ground cover reduces erosion,controls dust or mud, provides wood products for refugees and offers shade or a windbreak. It may not always be necessary to destroy vegetation in orderto meet the requirements of rigorous planning specifi-cations or disease vector control. Camp areas shouldnever be clear-felled.

• Alignment of roads: To avoid water erosion, roadswithin and around camps and settlements should bealigned across slopes, and not up and down. Bare groundand areas of concrete increase run-off of rainfall, a feat-ure which may result in gulley formation and soil erosion.Gullies represent a physical threat to people and live-stock. Preventing the spread of gullies and repairing thephysical degradation is an expensive undertaking, muchof which can be avoided by careful planning.

• Housing configuration: One of the most effectiveenergy-saving measures which might be applied is to pool household cooking resources: individuals or couples cooking alone should be discouraged froman energy-saving point of view. Clustered housing arrangements, where groups of refugee shelters face

20


each other across a small central area, are more likely topromote shared cooking between two or three house-holds than are lines of shelters facing the same way.This practise can have a positive impact on the localenvironment.


21

KEY POINTS : PREVENTION BEFORE CURE

● Identify actions for immediate implementation

which could reduce future environmental prob-

lems and economic outlay.

● Identify actions which are likely to have a serious

negative impact on the local environment and

determine what, if anything, can be done to mini-

mise or confine such damage. Closely monitor

such elements.

● Limit the extent of physical change to intended

areas for settlements or camps.

● Key issues such as camp siting, size, spacing,

housing density and arrangements, and develop-

ment of infrastructure should be carefully plan-

ned with environmental concerns and considera-

tions taken into account to the extent possible.

POINTS OF INTERVENTION

● Engage with government agencies and key or-

ganisations in discussions regarding site selec-

tion, spacing and intended population density.

● Engage in support activities during camp estab-

lishment, design and construction.

● Local institutions, organisations and communities

should be contacted and informed of intentions

regarding camp siting. Valuable environmental

information might be gained from working with

local planners and organisations.

22


Key PrinciplesEnvironment Programmes Need Notbe Complex

✔ Environment programmes can be designed usingsimple techniques and practices.

Environmental programmes are often perceived as beingcomplex undertakings. Some projects and activities mayhave technical components, but this is not always the case.Increasingly, donors and managers favour projects based onsimple techniques and practices that take account of avail-

Environment Programmes Need Not be Complex

23

Principle 2

Establishment of tree nurseries is a frequent development inrefugee operations. Refugees should be encouraged to participatein the development and management of nurseries.UNHCR/W. Stone

able information, human resources and funds. The merits ofsuch simple project activities need to be further highligh-ted and supported.

Host governments and project managers in particular needto appreciate the non-technical aspects of environmentalsupport programmes. This is especially important in a refugee context where, by ignoring or avoiding environ-mental considerations for fear of their being too technical,decision-makers risk making judgements which may have serious social, economic and environmental conse-quences.

It is also important to choose non-technical options giventhe lack of environmental specialists in most emergencyteams and the fact that this may be an unfamiliar issue tomany non-specialist staff.

✔ Simple environmental activities can be initiatedalmost immediately in a refugee emergency,regardless of the situation, pending developmentof a more comprehensive response strategy.

Standard emergency phase activities can include :• tree marking (painting rings around a selection of spe-

cies and ages) to discourage cutting of certain trees ;• appointment of guards to direct and control tree cut-

ting ;• awareness-raising among refugee populations of the

environmental rules and regulations of the host coun-try, through placement of signs and posters, as well asorganised meetings ;

• clear designation of sites from where constructionmaterials may be collected ; and

• establishment (or strengthening) of environmental co-ordination forums with government agencies, otherorganisations, local communities and refugees.

24


✔ Simple data gathering processes should beinitiated as early as possible to determine baselineenvironmental data which can be highlybeneficial for later planning and monitoring.

Local institutions capable of carrying out required surveysshould be identified. Among the most common data requi-red are:• the location of legally gazetted areas such as forest

reserves, game reserves and national parks ;• other ecologically sensitive sites — non-gazetted areas

identified by government and community leaders asbeing important — such as water catchment zones andsacred forests ;

• location and extent of nearby woodlands, forests andplantations ;

• basic land-use patterns of agriculture and local settle-ments ; and

• main freshwater features such as rivers, lakes andswamps.

✔ Make use of existing information and experiencedpersonnel.

Much of the information required may already exist withappropriate national or local institutions: these should beconsulted at the earliest opportunity. Similarly, experi-enced personnel should be sought from host governmentagencies, university faculties and existing national andinternational organisations. Time-consuming, detailed sur-veys that present surplus information should be avoided.Resulting information must be presented in a simple andunambiguous manner.

Environment Programmes Need Not be Complex

25

KEY POINTS: ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMMESNEED NOT BE COMPLEX

● Ensure that suggested environmental activities

and project goals are feasible given current

conditions, time and resources available.

● Determine the extent to which implemented pro-

jects will benefit local communities and refugees.

● Ensure that refugees and local people are

involved with project design, implementation

and management.

● Involve local institutions with project design and

management. Maximum advantage should be

taken to use existing information and locally

available skills.


● Project planning and implementation.

● Baseline data collection, analysis and monitoring.

● Support of locally appropriate awareness acti-

vities.

● Local surveys such as land-use, vegetation cover,

settlement patterns.

● Promotion of, and participation in, environmen-

tal co-ordination groups.

26


Key PrinciplesEnvironment Programmes Need Not Be Costly

Certain projects or activities require considerable fundingover a number of years. Regular, continued support isessential in such cases if the goals are to be achieved.

However, not all projects require the same investment. Inthe short-term, small-scale demonstration projects thatintroduce simple and locally (social and environmental)appropriate approaches should be encouraged. Such pro-jects are often inexpensive, generally do not require sustai-ned funding and have the added advantage of bringingimmediate benefits to the stakeholders. Demonstrationprojects should not, however, be seen as a replacement forlonger, more intensive, activities which require sustainedfunding over a number of years. Their primary role is tocatalyse local action to safeguard the environment andimprove local well-being; demonstrate alternative, moresustainable, practices of resource use and management; sti-mulate co-operation between refugees, local communitiesand local authorities; and reduce conflicts over naturalresources.

✔ Cost-effectiveness should be a key aspect of allenvironmental activities in refugee situations.

Expenditure needs to be kept as low as possible andreturns maximised. In this context it is worth noting thatmany environmental activities are cost-free: changes inpolicy may be the only requirement. In other activities,where external funds are being sought, it makes sound eco-nomic and developmental sense to attempt to apply cost-recovery concepts.

Environment Programmes Need Not Be Costly

27

Principle 3

✔ Defining environmental problems is vital to developcost-effective responses.

Environmental problems need to be carefully defined inorder to develop appropriate and effective responses. If,for example, the main problem is clearly related to anaspect of natural resource degradation, the responsesshould focus specifically on that sector. Other issues thatmight seem at first to be environmental, however, can haveas much to do with easing tensions, responding to localrequests and balancing levels of services as they do withmeasured impacts on natural resources. In this case, therecommended response should be much broader, intro-ducing environmental activities alongside various locallydesigned development and support projects.

✔ Some environmental projects may have long-termobjectives and impacts: funding must be secured toensure that objectives can be reached during theintended span of the project.

While the total cost of environmental programmes may berelatively low if activities are appropriately targeted, multi-year funding commitments from donors are neverthelessdesirable. They may entail the progressive establishmentand strengthening of community-based managementstructures or capacity-building in local and governmentinstitutions. They may also involve the establishment oftrees and other vegetation with long growing cycles. Suchactivities demand funding over a period of years.

✔ Dedicated budgets may need to be set aside forcertain activities, for example research andmonitoring.

Project budgets, no matter the scale, should include anallocation for the establishment and operation of basic

28


research and monitoring systems. If this is not foreseen,such systems are likely to be inconsistent and incomplete.Research and monitoring activities can be implemented bya dedicated environment agency and progressively handedover to local institutions.

Environment Programmes Need Not Be Costly

29

KEY POINTS : ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMMESNEED NOT BE EXPENSIVE

● Projects which demonstrate immediate, visible

and lasting impacts should be favoured. This

should not preclude community or agency ca-

pacity building assistance, which is often a slow

process, but one which usually brings dividends

in the long term.

● Small-scale projects should be encouraged where

these are likely to bring immediate benefits to

stakeholders.

● Each project proposal should contain a basic cost-

benefit justification.

● Consideration should be given to non-quanti-

fiable benefits which might arise as a result of

implemented project activities.

● All project proposals should have detailed time-

frames and budgets. Projects should ideally

demonstrate how intended activities will be inte-

grated with ongoing activities and how support

might be scaled down in time.


● Early intervention in project design and costings.

● Monitoring effectiveness of projects.

● Training programmes for refugees and local

people to encourage their participation and in-

volvement in projects.

● Inclusion of local institutions and authorities in

project development and implementation.

30


Key PrinciplesEnvironmental Management is Morethan Providing Stoves and

Planting Trees

Planting trees and promoting energy-efficient stoves aretwo of the most common environmental support practicesadopted in refugee situations. One of the reasons for this isbecause environmental programmes in refugee operationsare often seen as straightforward supply and demand ac-tivities. The supply of wood is increased through tree plan-ting and its rate of consumption reduced by promotingimproved cooking stoves. Under pressure to offer simple

Environmental Management is More than Planting Trees

31

Principle 4

Fuel-efficient stoves, made from clay or metal, use less wood thantraditional three stone fires and thereby help reduce pressure onthe environment surrounding camps.UNHCR/C. Sattlberger

indicators of progress to managers and donors, there canbe a tendency to over-emphasise the utility of stove pro-motion and tree planting. Both result in visible and oftenhigh profile assets — stoves and trees are easy to count —but they can raise more questions than they answer aboutownership and overall cost-effectiveness.

The suitability of tree planting and the promotion of ener-gy efficient stoves must therefore be examined for eachsituation. Other options also need to be considered. Thefollowing sections outline some of the most importantconsiderations which can and should be implemented aspart of routine project activities.

Energy Programmes

✔ Improved stoves do not result in fuel-savingsunless the conditions under which theyare used are conducive to economy.

The promotion of energy-efficient cooking stoves is a use-ful component of some environmental programmes. At thesame time, however, the potential of such stoves shouldnot be over-estimated and promotion should be at a scalecommensurate with the likely impact.

The promotion of energy scarcity, or at least the avoidanceof a situation of abundance, is a pre-condition for effectiveuse of technologies intended to lead to fuel-efficiency. Theintentions of any energy-saving programme must be clearlypresented to refugees and their participation invited.

Under the right conditions, and if properly used, improvedstoves offer the potential for refugees to save 20-30 percent of the energy used in cooking with traditional openfire systems. An approach that promotes low cost, user-built stoves (mud-stoves, in many cases) is preferable.

32


Production of pre-fabricated stoves (made of clay or metal)can be more costly, but this may be useful as a skills development and income-generating activity.

✔ A narrow focus on technological solutions shouldbe avoided, and the breadth of possible adaptationsto cooking systems more widely explored andappreciated.

A more effective strategy might be a broader interventionthat addresses the whole range of energy-saving oppor-tunities that exist for refugees, not only their cookingdevices.

✔ The right cooking techniques can save substantialquantities of energy.

Refugee families can implement a wide variety of suchenergy-saving practices when cooking: the quantity of fuelthus saved far exceeds what an improved stove alone canoffer. Such practices include the splitting and drying of fire-wood, careful control of the fire and its air supply, gentlesimmering, prompt extinguishing of the fire, pre-soaking ofhard foods, and using lids on pots.

✔ Promotion of familiar fuels and cooking systemsshould take priority over unfamiliar items

The types of stoves being promoted should be designedaround the main fuel(s) used and the cooking stylesemployed. A choice of locally-produced models should beoffered. Stoves and other cooking devices which use fami-liar and convenient fuels and which can be manufacturedon site are generally cheaper and are more likely to beadopted and used in an energy-efficient manner. This gen-erally implies woodfuels and woodfuel appliances.


33

KEY POINTS : ENERGY PROGRAMMES

● Energy-saving activities must not only focus on

stoves and other devices.

● Energy-saving concepts and principles must be

clearly communicated to refugees.

● All such principles and concepts must be cul-

turally and socially appropriate to the end users.

● Parallel efforts should be set in place to ensure

that energy is not freely available to the refugees

— otherwise there is little incentive for energy-

saving proposals to be adopted.


● Evaluation of needs and opportunities regarding

fuel availability and likely demand; problem

analysis and rectification in an appropriate manner.

● Gender appropriate awareness programmes on

energy-saving techniques and practices.

● Provision, in return for labour or some other

environment-supporting service, of appropriate

stoves, cooking materials, seedlings or other

incentives.

34


Natural Resource Management Programmes

✔ Natural resource management programmesmust be appropriate to local conditions and meetidentified social and ecological needs.

Tree nurseries and the establishment of plantations arecommon activities in a relief setting. While natural re-source management includes forestry and traditional treeplanting activities, the scope of such programmes is muchgreater and should be explored further.

Donor organisations, government authorities and other in-stitutions should be encouraged to support more sus-tainable and effective practices such as natural regenera-tion and the promotion of sustainable tree cutting prac-tices. Stakeholders should be encouraged to plant andjointly manage a variety of multipurpose trees and cropswithin and adjacent to the camps.

✔ Tree planting has certain limitations in refugeesituations but, given favourable circumstances,this can be an activity well worth supporting.

The use of salaried refugee labour to establish nurseries orplantations is limited to the period for which funds areavailable. When project funds are used up, there is usuallyno way to continue paying salaries. This system has manyinherent flaws, including low survival rates of seedlings innurseries and plantations (on account of drought, weeds,livestock pressure and fire), uncertainty about harvestingrights, and a general lack of interest in voluntary partici-pation in environmental activities.

Tree planting should not, however, be abandoned. Plantingwithin camps, particularly on household plots, normallyachieves high survival rates and is of immediate social


35

benefit. Seedling production to supply such programmesshould be decentralised to local community groups andrefugees as early as possible. Host governments and emer-gency-oriented donors may favour large, high profile, cen-tralised tree nurseries using hired labour, but these areunsustainable, engender lack of ownership on the part ofseedling recipients, and generally lead to poor survivalrates after planting out. Decentralisation to individuals andorganisations within the refugee and local community,each with modest output targets, can achieve a satisfact-ory balance between meeting production targets cost-effectively and promoting better survival rates by addingvalue to the raising and protection of trees. Furthermore,small-scale, private tree nurseries develop skills that cande-mystify the process of growing trees.

✔ Local communities must be consulted prior toenvironmental rehabilitation plans being prepared.

Protection and rehabilitation should aim to restore thecapacity of the local community to derive a sustainablelivelihood from their natural resource base. Often, if agri-culture is the basis of that livelihood, sustainability refersto the use of agricultural practices that do not degrade thesoil and nutrient supplies in the long term. Integrated agro-forestry practices, using trees within agricultural fields, aremuch more likely to contribute to long-term ecologicalsustainability and livelihood security than are plantations.

While plantations may help respond to host governments’concerns that tree cover has been damaged, by providingnew trees, this may be inappropriate for several reasons. Ifpreviously uncultivated land is opened up by refugeesthere is a chance, particularly where the supply of land isshort, that it will continue to be cultivated by locals afterrepatriation. Restoration of previous levels of tree covermay conflict with local aims for expanded cultivation.

36


Similarly, plantations require land that locals may prefer touse for agriculture.

✔ Refugees and local people should be involved inprioritising interventions and managing sustainablenatural resource management programmes. Usufructrights are key to the success of any such programme.

Whenever trees are to be planted or protected as part ofan environmental mitigation or rehabilitation strategy, it isimperative that the ownership rights of the trees’ eventualusers are clearly established at the outset.

The most cost-effective way to address deforestation out-side refugee settlements and on land not under privateownership is normally to promote regeneration and man-aged harvesting — rather than new planting. This is likely tomake a much more significant contribution than tree plan-ting, even on a massive scale.

✔ Management and protection must be a high priorityon any natural resource management programme.Flexibility will be needed to enable appropriate man-agement systems to develop in respective situations.

Strict monitoring and protection is essential. This includesregulating the harvest of wood, grasses, wild foods and ani-mals, perhaps zoning different areas for use on a rotationalbasis, and the strategic designation of ‘no cutting zones’ tobe used as genetic banks for eventual regeneration.Particularly sensitive ecological zones might need to beclosed off from any access.

Simple protection techniques include tree marking(showing which trees must not be cut), signs with appro-priate pictures or messages in local languages, public awa-reness-raising programmes, and forest guards.


37

KEY POINTS: NATURAL RESOURCEMANAGEMENT

● Access and benefit sharing issues should be clar-

ified at the outset for all refugees.

● Small-scale, localised planting around house-

holds is likely to more successful than salaried

employment of workers in plantations.

● Seedling production should ideally be contracted

out so that refugees or local people have a greater

stake in its management.

● Ensure that refugees and local people are in-

volved with natural resource protection and

management programmes through, for example,

on-site work, forest users groups, environmental

round-tables and land-use planning.


● Policy and management interventions regarding

access and usufruct rights for refugee popul-

ations.

● Support to natural regeneration programmes,

with the support of local communities in partic-

ular.

● Small-scale demonstration projects which adhere

to the governing principles outlined in UNHCR’s

Environmental Guidelines (1996).


39

Regular meetings between refugees, community represen-tatives and implementing partners are essential toguarantee the smooth running of environmental projects.UNHCR/N. Worrall

×

Environmental Education

✔ Environmental education programmes should relateto ongoing and planned environmental activities.

Environmental education activities can be introduced as arefugee programme develops to reinforce the environ-mental themes contained in other project components.

40


There should be strong and practical linkages between anyenvironmental programmes and formal and non-formalenvironmental education. Education typically has long-term impacts and should be supplemented with short-term public information messages on environmental pro-tection. It is advisable to ensure a mix of education andincentives for environmentally-sound behaviour.


41× Integrating lessons on the environment with normal school

programmes is an important part of UNHCR’s awareness raisingprogrammes. UNHCR/S. Errington

✔ Multiple entry points are available for non-formalenvironmental awareness raising.

Non-formal environmental education can be channelledthrough health programmes, adult literacy classes, videoparlours, religious services, notice boards, drama and po-etry festivals, competitions, etc. Networks of communityservices and health mobilisers can be particularly effectivein passing on appropriate environmental messages, givenappropriate training.

✔ Formal and non-formal approaches should beharmonised for better results.

Non-formal education can be most effective in schools if a‘whole school approach’ to environmental education is adop-ted, so as to use co-curricular activities that reach all pupilsand teachers, as well as features of the school landscape.Schools must not operate as islands of knowledge in commu-nities: they must be given to communities and the communi-ties must be brought into the schools, for example, throughcamp/settlement environmental working groups.

42


KEY POINTS : ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

● Environmental education and awareness raising

should be integral components of all environ-

ment-related support activities.

● Gender and cultural issues must be taken into

account in all education activities.

● Suitable entry points should be determined for

each education programme.

● Environmental education should build upon exis-

ting ecologically sustainable knowledge and skills.


● Support to, and implementation of, formal and/or

non-formal environmental education activities.

● Exchange visits for teachers and trainers to ben-

efit from experiences in other situations


43

Data Analysis and Monitoring

✔ Collection of baseline environmental data shouldbe undertaken from the earliest possible moment,and should be repeated at regular intervals.

Up-to-date information on the local environment, as wellas the manner and scale of interactions between refugeesand the host environment, is essential to guide, monitorand evaluate environmental interventions. Key informationnormally relates to refugee wood consumption, rates oftree cutting, types of cooking systems and their efficien-cies, and the effect of diet on energy demand.

Local and national agencies responsible for environmentalmonitoring should be contacted in the first instance. Inview of the importance of this activity, a dedicated unit forresearch and monitoring may be justified.

✔ The choice of measurement and monitoring toolswill vary from one situation to another, butstandard units should be employed to facilitatedata storage and comparison.

Remotely sensed data is a valuable environmental moni-toring tool to complement ground observations and exis-ting thematic maps in refugee situations. This can includeaerial photography, aerial video or satellite imagery. Aerialvideo may be a useful monitoring tool for small areas.Recent aerial photos may be available from host govern-ments or may need to be commissioned as part of environ-mental monitoring activities. Satellite images, which areespecially useful for retroactive analysis and broader-scaleimpact assessments, may need to be commissioned.Standard measurements should be practised in all suchactivities.

44


✔ Relevant data should be stored in a centraliseddatabase and interpreted to suit the needs ofdecision-makers, planners, implementing partners,other institutions and local communities.

Geographical information system technology has anincreasing number of appropriate applications. The abilityto generate new information and produce simple maps atlow cost can make a valuable, practical contribution tofield-based data collection and environmental monitoring.Advantage should be taken of UNHCR’s central, and insome cases national, database on environment-relatedinformation in relief operations.


45

KEY POINTS : DATA ANALYSIS AND MONITORING

● Monitoring, evaluation and reporting should be

an integral component of all environment-

related activities.

● Remote sensing is a powerful tool which may

assist planning and monitoring.

● National and local institutions should be involved

with, and made responsible for, remote sensing

wherever possible.


● Support to research, monitoring and evaluation

programmes, with appropriate feedback and

communication mechanisms.

● Involvement of national authorities and instit-

utions with remote sensing and monitoring acti-

vities.

● Support to sectoral training programme intended

to strengthen local personnel skills and institut-

ional capacities for data analysis and monitoring.

46


Key PrinciplesInterventions Should Add Value toEnvironmental Assets and Practices

✔ Refugees should be aware that environmental assetsare not available on a free-for-all basis.

The hand-out mentality, pervasive in refugee operations,stems from the tradition of donors providing basic needs— food, water and health care in particular — to asylum-seekers, free of charge. However, a host country’s naturalresources can be better protected if refugees understand atthe outset that resources such as wood have some sort ofvalue, and that they should be used frugally.

Commercial value can be added to a resource to betterensure sustainable exploitation. Trade in natural productssuch as honey, gums, natural medicines or animal feed can,for example, be regularised. Opportunities may arise toencourage such trade if it does not already exist. Closemonitoring is essential for such activities to ensure thatnatural resources are not over-exploited for monetarygains, and that benefits derived from controlled usage arefairly shared among responsible stakeholders.

✔ External assistance will most likely be required todetermine the value (economic or otherwise) ofsome natural resources.

The value of certain resources may be difficult to deter-mine. Nonetheless, it is important that this is accomplishedin order to promote sustainability and the rational use offunds. Various participatory approaches, such as rapid ruralassessments, can be used to determine the values which

Interventions Should Add Value to Environmental Assets

47

Principle 5

people apply to resources. For more detailed inventories,the assistance of resource economists may be required todetermine over what time period and at what rate of returnenvironmental pay-offs should be realistically expected.

✔ It is vital that natural products are not undervalued,but are traded at something approaching the truecost of their production and worth.

It is sensible to ensure that all taxes, levies and licence feesdue are paid in full by traders. This is the responsibility ofthe local government and can play an important role inboosting local revenue collection as well as encouragingmore sustainable use of natural resources.

Adding value to natural resources does not only mean thattheir economic value must be enhanced. It has broader implications for the overall manner in which environmentalprogrammes are operated, suggesting that the give-awaymentality be contested in order that some commitment —economic or otherwise — is made by the refugee communityin return for the use of environmental assets. This impliesthat any environmental commodity, tree seedlings, cookingstoves, firewood or the like, should not be provided withoutsome substantive commitment in return (see Box 4).


49

Adding economic value to natural resources can help ensuresustainable exploitation of resources such as fuelwood andbuilding materials.UNHCR/C. Sattlberger

×

Box 4. Adding Value to Environmental Goods andServices: A Wood-for-Work Approach

Fuelwood is one of the most heavily used natural resources inrefugee situations. Increased demands on local resources bythe concentration of large numbers of refugees, lead to woodshortages and eventual scarcity. As a result, refugees andsome locals may be forced to walk longer distances: thesearch for wood rapidly changes from the environmentallybenign collection of dead wood to cutting live trees.

Supplying fuelwood from more remote surplus areas and itsdistribution to refugees is often seen as the most logical environmental response. Yet the approach has proven costlyas well as relatively ineffective in some locations as, havingobtained the minimum quantity of fuelwood required, refugees may continue to collect wood either for additionalconsumption or to trade for other goods. Despite provisionof fuelwood, at a cost of US$1.2 million, to the Kagera campsin western Tanzania, no significant changes were recorded inthe pattern of deforestation, and the consumption of fuel-wood by the refugee population remained well above normal(pre-refugee) levels.

Instead of an organised, free supply of fuelwood to refugees,environmental objectives can be achieved more efficiently if,for instance, wood supplied is exchanged for refugees’ contri-bution for environmental activities — fuelwood for environ-mental work. Such an approach has been used, with somesuccess, in the Dadaab camps in eastern Kenya under a projectimplemented by GTZ. Rather than going against economicfundamentals by making a scarce item such as firewood avail-able free of charge, sound interventions can build on fieldobservations about people’s responses and their great abilityto cope with shortages. ‘Fuelwood commoditising’ arrange-ments (as in Dadaab) promise to reach set environmentalobjectives at a much lower cost than the simple ‘trucking-and-distributing’ approach, without negative impacts on refugee welfare.

50


✔ Attaching a monetary value to resources can reduceresource consumption and thus enhance theirprotection, but this needs to be closely monitored.

Assigning a cash value to resources may, for example,strengthen the resolve of local people to protect resourcesfrom over-exploitation. However, it can also place a finan-cial burden on the refugee community that some of itsmembers may find difficult to bear. Refugees might findtheir nutritional status affected by an inability to procuresufficient firewood for cooking. Monitoring householdcoping strategies is an important part of any commercial-isation strategy in order to highlight cases where refugeewell-being may be adversely affected.


51

KEY POINTS : ADDING VALUE TOENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS

● Identify activities that can be taken to enhance

the value attached by refugees and/or local people

to particular environmental assets, either econ-

omically or in some other way.

● Free distribution of goods or products should be

discouraged. If this is necessary, plans should

be initiated to progressively withdraw external

support.

● Commercialisation of natural resources can be

damaging if not properly regulated.


● Conduct economic evaluations of available and

most widely used natural resources.

● Identify and establish local and socially appro-

priate incentives which might contribute to the

sustainable use of natural resources.

● Together with local authorities and institutions,

establish a mechanism such as a revolving fund to

re-invest income gained from the sustainable use

of natural resources into environmental manage-

ment programmes.

52


Key PrinciplesPrinciple 6

Access Rights and Benefit Sharing are Fundamental to Sound Environmental Management

✔ Community and refugee involvement in projectactivities is a prerequisite for sustainable environmental management.

The level and extent of refugee and local participation inenvironment-related activities is partly dependent on thenature of incentives offered to individuals, as well as thebenefits likely to accrue from such participation. Thismeans more than just their involvement as paid labourers— a practice which may actually threaten sustainability andundermine the potential for voluntary participation in thelonger term.

Effective and sustainable environmental management, aswell as successful rehabilitation, requires an understandingof the incentives and motivations for refugees or localcommunities to become involved in such activities. Suchincentives revolve primarily around access or usufructrights. If a refugee family is given responsibility for man-aging a patch of fruit trees, for example, they will naturallybe more inclined to protect the trees so that they canbenefit from the harvest. When user rights are not madeclear, people generally have little interest in managingnatural resources.

✔ Clear policies must be established on access anduser rights.

Access to land and other resources are fundamental issuesin refugee situations. Little care will be given to assets

Access Rights are Fundamental to Sound Environmental Management

53

established or maintained under ill-defined ownership or res-ponsibility. Government policy towards land is often the keyto the success of refugee participation in sound natural resour-ce management. Decisiveness and clarity is essential. An ambig-uous government policy or inconsistent application of lawsrelating to refugees’ rights over local land is likely to be moreenvironmentally damaging than the adoption of a clear stance,even if that stance allows for full access and exploitation.

Asylum-providing governments have long assumed that ifrefugees are allowed access to local land — for example, forcultivation or grazing — negative environmental repercus-

sions are inevitable. This, howe-ver, is not necessarily the

case. While a total banon land use, if pro-

perly enfor-

54


ced, may protect the environment, such bans are rarely wor-kable without concerted local support. Thus local resourceutilisation will generally continue, but in a legal vacuum. Sucha ban on refugee user rights that is weakly enforced is a verypoor environmental option. In this situation, refugees are nei-ther legally allowed to use local land, nor physically barredfrom doing so, resulting in unsustainable exploitation.

✔ Good communications are essential to ensurethat all actors and stakeholders are aware of localpolicies and regulations.

It is essential that host governments not only make a clearpolicy statement on refugee access and user rights to landor other resources, but follow this through with whateverenforcement may be required – especially if a containmentoption is adopted. Locally appropriate forms of meetingsshould be appraised (entire community gatherings or

elders’ meetings) and used wherever possible as the entry point for discussions. In cer-

tain situations, the creation ofan environmental

forum may bewarranted.

Access Rights are Fundamental to Sound Environmental Management

55

Demonstrating new skills, such as tree planting, and ensuring thatpeople know how to look after trees are often integratedcomponents of environmental support programmes.UNHCR/W. Stone

KEY POINTS : ACCESS RIGHTS AND BENEFITSHARING

● Projects should include measures to empower

=beneficiaries with a sense of participation, owner-

ship and responsibility towards environmental

assets.

● Develop a clear policy on access to, and use of,

natural resources by refugees. Any subsequent

changes should be communicated to refugee

leaders and local communities.

● Gender issues must be taken into account when

considering and developing strategies related to

access and benefit sharing.

● The role of outside institutions must be made

clear to all stakeholders : if local organisations are

involved, there should be a clearly defined phase-

out programme of their activities.


● Government authorities, in particular, must

provide an unambiguous statement to refugee

leaders regarding their rights to, and use of, natu-

ral resources.

● Establishment of, and participation in, commun-

ity discussion groups.

● Development and introduction of appropriate

incentives to encourage sustainable environmen-

tal management practices.

● Training and outreach support programmes in

related sectors.

56



Co-ordination and Implementation are Vital but Separate EnvironmentalRoles

Some environmental programmes may demand technicalexpertise, often for a short, fixed period. At the same time,there is a clear need for a parallel co-ordinating role inorder that policy and practice are monitored, and disparateapproaches avoided. Separation of these roles acknow-ledges not only the difference in expertise required, butalso the potential conflicts of interest that could arise ifone agency had an all-encompassing mandate. A two-tiered system offers objectivity and accountability.

✔ Implementation and co-ordination are two distinctbut important roles.

Co-ordination and policy formulation are generally the res-ponsibility of the host government authorities, in conjunc-tion with UNHCR. Together, they can establish forums fordialogue and co-ordination at which all stakeholders arerepresented. Such forums may already exist in local govern-ment, in which case a process of identification and insti-tutional strengthening may be needed. In such situations,the general role of the co-ordinator would be to:

• oversee implementing partners;

• provide guidance on policy direction; and

• ensure harmonious working relationships and non-contra-dictory implementation strategies.

Co-ordination and Implementation are Vital but Separate Roles

57

✔ There are clear environmental, social and politicalbenefits to be gained from appointing a lead agencyto implement environmental initiatives acrossseveral refugee settlements.

Relations with host communities and the government canbe significantly improved through the appointment of alead agency responsible for implementing environmentalactivities.

The relationship between non-governmental organisationsand UNHCR is also likely to be more harmonious if oneorganisation has a clear mandate to handle environmentalmatters and provide environmental advice. This processcan reduce inter-agency rivalry and duplication, as there isno competition for the same funds for similar activities,and, ultimately, can have a real impact in reducing the rateof environmental degradation. The lead agency can pro-gressively hand over responsibility of a number of activitiesto camp management and community services agencies.

✔ Where possible, and according to their capacity,local organisations should be identified to manageimplementation.

New structures should be created only where those exis-ting are incapable of addressing environmental concerns.Any support for local organisations must include appro-priate capacity-building measures. Institutional strength-ening, if developed slowly and steadily, will be a long-termbenefit to the region, and should greatly increase thechances of sustainability of any environmental initiatives.

58


Influencing Policy is Important

59

KEY POINTS : CO-ORDINATION ANDIMPLEMENTATION

● Proposed activities should fit within existing in-

stitutional structures and correspond to existing

environmental policies within which organis-

ations are working.

● Clear responsibilities and reporting lines must be

established for those responsible for project

implementation as well as policy direction and

oversight.

● Responsibility for implementing environmental

activities should normally be assigned to a quali-

fied lead agency.

● Local organisations should be involved with pro-

ject implementation. Responsibility for environ-

mental management, in particular, should be

increasingly devolved to such groups.


● Appointment of a lead environmental co-ordin-

ating group with clear definition of individual

roles and responsibilities; organisation of work

programme.

● Inclusion of development-oriented partners with

implementation plans.

● Identification of a technical support agency: cap-

acity building for local institutions to guarantee

their responsibility and effectiveness in program-

me management and co-ordination.

Refugee women, often accompanied by their children, may beforced to walk long distances to collect firewood.UNHCR/L. Taylor


Influencing Policy can be as Importantas Defining Practice

✔ Influencing policies that govern control of naturalresources may in some cases be a more cost-effective measure for protecting the environmentthan direct implementation of field activities.

The most significant environmental impacts during refugeeoperations are possibly those resulting from policy de-cisions relating to, among other things, camp siting, layout,size and population density (see Prevention before Cure).If agencies can influence these and other decisions at thepolicy level, through a combination of local, national andinternational lobbying and advocacy, achievements can befar more significant than if agencies confine themselves toimplementation of remedial programmes.

✔ Lessons should be drawn from previous experiences.

UNHCR and its partners have worked with refugeesthroughout the world and have amassed considerableknowledge and experience on the most cost-effective andefficient ways to handle refugee situations. Some hostgovernments might lack such an institutional memory or acapacity to catalogue lessons learned, often having noexperience (or no recent experience) of a refugee influx. IfUNHCR and its partners were to respond in an essentiallyreactive way, there would be little scope for applying thelessons learned elsewhere. Effective environmental activ-ities therefore tend to encompass macro-level policy andadvocacy work as well as field-level technical interven-tions.


61

✔ Key policy issues relate to camp siting, sizeof and distance between camps, housing density,refugee diet and distributed items. Independently,or combined, these will have an impact onthe local environment.

Some of these issues have been dealt with in previous sec-tions. The remainder are addressed below.

Refugee Diet

The type of foodstuffs provided to refugees can dramat-ically affect energy consumption, and hence peoples’demands on the local environment. Certain foods, particu-larly unmilled cereals, beans and some types of lentils, canbe very slow-cooking. In addition to the cost and nutrit-ional and cultural suitability of the refugee ration, it isdesirable, for environmental reasons, to assess the fuelrequired to cook it. According to the joint UNHCR/WorldFood Programme Memorandum of Understanding, thisshould be a pre-requisite for food supply. If particular itemsin the food basket are found to require high amounts ofenergy, different courses of action should be pursued ifenvironmental impacts are to be mitigated. It may be pos-sible to reject certain food donations on the basis of ageand their consequent energy demands for cooking. It is alsopossible to mill maize prior to distribution.

Distributed Items

Distribution of non-food items to refugees would rarely bethe responsibility of an environmental agency. Yet thechoice of these items has significant environmental impli-cations, especially through indirect impacts on fuelconsumption. Large cooking pots with lids, for example,allow more energy-efficient food preparation than smallpots without lids. From an environmental point of view,lids should be considered an integral part of kitchen sets.

62


The use of lids saves 10-20 per cent of the energy used incooking. Larger pots, of approximately 10 litres, facilitateshared or bulk cooking and are thus also environmentallypreferable. There is an energy saving of up to 45 per centassociated with four people cooking together instead oftwo, for example, and such economies may not be possibleif only small pots are offered. Bulk cooking can also reduceoverall water requirements. Provision of blankets or warmclothing can reduce the need for refugees to keep fires bur-ning at night for warmth.


63

Clear policies and guidelines are required for issues governingaccess to, and use of, land and other resources.UNHCR/A. Hollmann

KEY POINTS : INFLUENCING POLICY

● Identify and address pertinent policy issues that

will, or may, influence or constrain environment-

supporting activities.

● Previous experiences should be taken into

account when planning new interventions.

● There is a clear need for a policy governing the

distribution of goods and services where these

may have direct impacts on the environment.


● Early inclusion of policy-makers in all discus-

sions and decisions related to project develop-

ment and implementation; clear identification of

roles and responsibilities.

● Consideration of possible environmental and

social impacts of policies adopted by partner organ-

isations, ideally outlined in specific sectoral

guidelines.

64



Relief and Development AssistanceShould be Compatible

✔ Environmental requirements and initiatives mustnot be seen apart from other concerns or activities.

Environmental interventions must not be viewed in iso-lation. It is important that these are considered as a com-ponent of broader efforts designed to minimise negative,and maximise positive, impacts on the refugees and hostcommunities.

The impacts of refugees cannot be isolated from the localeconomy, despite frequent efforts made in that direction.Similarly, refugee assistance should not be separated fromdevelopment assistance. A new road serving refugee settle-ments, for example, is both a form of refugee assistanceand development expenditure. Details provided in Box 5show how integrated planning of refugee support infra-structure can ensure greater local benefit when the ref-ugees depart.

Relief and Development Assistance Should be Compatible

65

Box 5. Siting of Refugee Camps for Environmentaland Other Benefits

Many, if not most, organised refugee settlements have beendeliberately located far from local population centres — inpart for political and security reasons, but also to minimisethe perceived risk of environmental and other damage.

Following the return of Rwandan refugees from the Ngaracamps (Tanzania) and the camps’ dismantling in 1996-1997, itbecame easier to judge the relative pros and cons of the in-itial siting. The relative remoteness of the camps, seen at firstas an unqualified plus, turned out to have serious disadvan-tages as some of the infrastructure provided for the refugees,and newly opened-up arable land, were not easily reached bythe local population.

Although environmental goals could be well served by loca-ting refugees far from centres of local population, such anapproach may not be optimal on balance. People can createassets, not only deplete them. In any case it is not just thenumber of people or even the carrying capacity of the hostenvironment that determines the extent of environmentaldamage, but also the arrangements put in place. Isolationdoes not guarantee environmental soundness. It guaranteesonly that the hosting community will be deprived of other,non-environmental, benefits.

✔ Integration of refugee and local activities is alegitimate objective. But, relief and developmentapproaches are not always compatible.

If refugee- and community-oriented environmental pro-grammes are to be run concurrently in the same area, theapproaches of relief and development organisations mustbe well co-ordinated so that their goals remain compatible.Where refugees are receiving large-scale external support,donors and development agencies may seek to intervene

66


with community-based investments that service local in-habitants of the refugee-hosting area.

Existing implementing organisations may find it difficult toadapt from relief-type work to competent developmentinterventions. A decision must be reached on how refugeeand local programmes are to be internally structured andoperated. It is possible that misconceptions may arise ofthe types of projects being proposed, in particular leadingto an expectation of free hand-outs on the part of localcommunities expected to participate in more sustainableresource management.

Relief and Development Assistance Should be Compatible

67

KEY POINTS : HARMONISING RELIEF ANDDEVELOPMENT SUPPORT

● Opportunities for environmental support

through relief and development approaches

should be closely examined and maximum efforts

made to avoid contradictions and confusion on

the part of beneficiaries from within and outside

the refugee community.

● Provisions should be made to include appropriate

development organisations at an early stage with

a view to making the transition to long-term

development activities smoother.

● Intentions and responsibilities of respective organ-

isations need to be clearly communicated to all

stakeholders.


● Identification of appropriate development-orien-

ted agency.

● Assignment of clear roles and activities between

co-operating agencies.

68



Protect the Environment to Safeguard Asylum

Measures taken to safeguard the environment during ref-ugee operations can benefit the local environment andpeople’s livelihoods.

Equally important, such measures are likely to foster good-will on the part of host governments to guarantee asylumto refugees, both now and in the future. It is thereforeessential that maximum efforts are made to guarantee theinstitution of asylum and that environmental degradationdoes not begin to constitute a threat to a country’s will-ingness to accept refugees.

✔ Demonstrating care for the environment canhelp persuade governments to continue to acceptrefugees.

Environmental damage, or perceived degradation, can be afactor in governments’ refusing asylum to refugees.Governments and communities are likely to be more opento hosting refugees if measures are in place to minimiseenvironmental degradation, to prevent local communitiesfrom bearing the costs of the refugee’s presence, and toundertake rehabilitation in keeping with the expressedneeds of local communities and relevant national agencies.

✔ Safeguarding the local environment duringrefugee operations is important for the continuedwelfare of local communities.

Host governments will be concerned for the needs of theirown people. In developing countries, in particular, many


69

people depend directly on environmental goods and ser-vices for their livelihood. Any disruption to the availabilityof such goods or services – for example, increaseddemands on limited natural resources following the arrivalof refugees – undermines the well-being of local com-munities. Maximum efforts therefore need to be taken notto alter the already delicate balance and, where this is notpossible, to ensure that adequate compensations are madeto affected communities in order to avoid social problemsand foster good relationships between local people, ref-ugees, government agencies and relief organisations.

70


Uncontrolled felling of trees by refugees can lead to conflicts withlocal communities and government agencies, perhaps even to theextent of undermining the institution of asylum.UNHCR/T. Bølstad

✔ The links between the environment and humanwell-being need to be constantly highlightedthrough appropriate awareness raising programmes.

Raising people’s awareness of the links between their localenvironment and social and economic well-being should be afundamental component of all refugee operations. Theresults of UNHCR’s and other agencies’ environmental man-agement/support programmes should be clearly communic-ated to all stakeholders – decision makers, government agen-cies, refugees and local communities. Highlighting the suc-cesses and examining the failures of environment-relatedactivities during refugee operations is an essential part ofsound management programmes.

✔ External assistance is often required for environ-mental management in refugee operations. Thisshould help guarantee the support of host govern-ments and local communities in accepting refugees.

Neither refugee-hosting governments nor local com-munities should be expected to pay for environmentalrehabilitation or the replacement of lost goods or servicesfollowing the arrival of refugees. International supportmust be forthcoming to ensure that the livelihood of localcommunities, in particular, is not jeopardised by environ-mental degradation resulting from the presence of ref-ugees. The people and governments of refugee-hostingcountries will most likely be receptive to this support.

✔ Local capacity-building exercises should be onecomponent of relief organisation’s support to hostgovernments.

The needs of responsible national organisations (govern-ment and non-governmental) in terms of environmentalmanagement should be identified at the earliest possiblemoment. Capacity building will not only benefit the ref-ugee community, but will contribute to the host govern-ment’s long-term institutional development.


71

72


KEY POINTS : SAVE THE ENVIRONMENT TOSAFEGUARD ASYLUM

● Future granting of asylum may be jeopardised ifrefugee hosting countries alone bear the costs ofenvironmental degradation following the arrivaland settlement of refugees.

● Environmental concerns should be an integratedcomponent of refugee assistance programmes.

● The links between the state of the environmentand human well-being should be clearly com-municated to relief organisations, governmentauthorities, donor institutions, developmentagencies, non-governmental organisations, localcommunities and refugee populations throughenvironmental awareness programmes.

● Capacity-building should be foreseen for local ornational agencies responsible for environmentalmanagement.

Used sustainably, natural resources such as grasses can formthe basis of skills training programmes, providing economicbenefits to refugees.UNHCR/A. Hollmann


73


● Environmental issues should be an integratedpart of relief organisations’ operations from theoutset of their work.

● Meetings and dialogue with local agencies re-sponsible for environmental management as well as local communities to determine theirneeds, both during and following the presence ofrefugees.

● Dialogue with host governments and local authorities to help them understand the effortsthat UNHCR and its partners are taking towardsenvironmental protection.

74


Where to Find Out More on Refugeesand the Environment

Refugee Operations and the Environment :Selected Lessons Learned. August 1998.

Environmental Guidelines : Forestry inRefugee Situations. May 1998.

Environmental Guidelines : DomesticEnergy in Refugee Situations. May 1998.

Environmental Guidelines : Livestock inRefugee Situations. May 1998.

Partnership Workshop : EnvironmentalManagement of Refugee Operations.Proceedings of a Workshop held in Geneva.October 1997.

Refugees and the Environment : Caring forthe Future. June 1997.

English, French and Spanish.

Energy Strategy for Refugee-AffectedAreas of Kagera and Kigoma Regions,Tanzania. June 1997.

Refugee Environmental Education PilotProject in Kenya. April 1997.

Environmentally-Friendlier ProcurementGuidelines. April 1997.

Further Reading

75

Energy Consumption in Refugee-hostingAreas of Kagera Region, Tanzania.November 1996.

Experience of UNHCR and its Partnerswith Solar Cookers in Refugee Camps.October 1996.

Refugees and the Environment in Africa.Proceedings of a Workshop at Bahari Beach,Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. July 1996.

UNHCR Environmental Guidelines. June1996.English and French.

Environmentally Induced PopulationDisplacements & Environmental ImpactsResulting from Mass Migrations.International Symposium. April 1996.

Economic and Financial Assessment ofUNHCR’s Environmental Policies.December 1995.

Refugee Environmental Education: AConcept Paper. July 1995.English and French.

Development of a GIS System in UNHCRfor Environmental, Logistic and PlanningPurposes. 1995.

Publications are available upon request from the Environment Unit.

PHOTO CREDITS:Cover background: D. Stone/CAS ImagesInsert: UNHCR/C. Sattlberger

First printed August 1998 - Reprinted June 2000

* As of 1 May 1999, following restructuring, environmental activities havemerged with technical support functions in water, sanitation, shelter, community-related infrastructure and activities related to camps and settlements. The new section bears the title of Engineering andEnvironmental Services Section (EESS).

ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES SECTION

UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR REFUGEES

GENEVA

AUGUST 1998

key principles - unhcr · guiding principles put forward in this document. unhcr is ple ased to...

Documents