key skills for library managers: leadership

KEY SKILLS FOR LIBRARY MANAGERS:

LEADERSHIP

A Routledge FreeBook

03 • INTRODUCTION

06 • 1: WHAT IS LEADERSHIP AND HOW DOES IT DIFFER FROM MANAGEMENT?

15 • 2: STAFF SUPERVISION AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING

26 • 3: COMPETENCIES OF A GOOD LEADER

35 • 4: THE ROLE PLAYED BY ORGANIZATIONS AND FOLLOWERS IN DYSFUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

60 • 5: KINDNESS IN LEADERSHIP AT WORK

82 • 6: LEADING THE WAY AS A GOOD EMPLOYER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3

INTRODUCTION

Fundamental in guiding a group of people or an organization, leadership is something that everyone will regularly encounter in their lives. Leadership, good or bad, can have a significant and lasting effect on individuals as well as businesses/organisations.

As a senior librarian, or a librarian managing a team, it is likely that you may often be placed in situations where the attributes of leadership need to be shown. But what exactly are these attributes? How are they attained? And how are they best applied?

Drawing on book chapters featuring helpful tips, expert advice and real-life examples, this FreeBook will help you to:

• Define leadership

• Identify your own leadership style

• Understand the core competencies of a good leader

• Recognise the impact of dysfunctional leadership

• Appreciate the role of kindness in leadership

Please note that several chapters in this FreeBook will speak of leadership in the contexts of other industries (supply chain management, healthcare, etc), however the examples used can be translated and applied to other professional environments.

Contributions from a total of 6 chapters have been selected, each written by knowledgeable and respected experts in their field, including:

Joseph L. Walden, experience includes designing and operating the multi-million square foot distribution centre in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and consulting for FORTUNE 500 companies as well as the Department of Defence.

Peter Jordan, the author of the first three editions of Staff Management and Information Work, and of Gower’s The Academic Library and Its Users, has had wide experience of lecturing and writing on library management. Now retired, he was Head of Reader Services at Manchester Metropolitan University Library, UK.

Caroline Lloyd, the co-author of this edition, is Head of the Library and Archives service at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK.

Robert Kragg, currently works as a senior research associate at the Institute for Clinical Leadership, Warwick University.

R O U T L E D G E R O U T L E D G E . C O M

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INTRODUCTION

Peter Spurgeon, is Director of the Institute for Clinical Leadership at the Medical School, University of Warwick.

Dr Annette B. Roter, is Assistant Professor of Leadership, Change Management and Healthcare Management at Viterbo University. She has written several articles on the topic of dysfunctional leadership related to healthcare and provides consulting on the topic along with executive coaching.

Gay Haskins, is an Associate Fellow of the Saïd Business School, University of Oxford.

Mike Thomas, is Vice-Chancellor and Professor of Organisational Leadership and Mental Health, University of Central Lancashire.

Lalit Johri, is a Senior Fellow in International Business of the Saïd Business School, University of Oxford.

Ruth Chambers, has been a GP for more than 25 years and is currently the Director of Postgraduate GP Education at the Workforce Deanery, NHS West Midlands Strategic Health Authority.

Note to readers: As you read through this FreeBook, you will notice that some excerpts reference other chapters in the book - please note that these are references to the original text and not the FreeBook. End of chapter references are included where available, however, for a fully referenced version of each text, please see the published title.


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This chapter is excerpted from

Modeling and Benchmarking Supply Chain Leadership

By Joseph L. Walden ©2009 Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

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WHAT IS LEADERSHIP AND HOW DOES IT DIFFER FROM MANAGEMENT?



7

WHAT IS LEADERSHIP, AND HOW DOES IT DIFFER FROM MANAGEMENT?

Excerpted from Modeling and Benchmarking Supply Chain Leadership

CHAPTER 1

Team members at all levels of an organization need to understand what leadership is and what leaders do.

All too often, the terms “leadership” and “management” are used synonymously and interchangeably. Are they interchangeable terms, or are they separate disciplines? Many companies in their annual reports address the senior management team — this usually includes the president and vice presidents of the firm. Are these managers or leaders? Mary Kay Cosmetics is one of the pioneers in calling its senior leaders the Leadership Team. Can you be both a leader and a manager? This chapter establishes the differences and similarities between leadership and management, and also establishes workable definitions of both to assist you in breaking out the differences in your company.

As of the date this was written, there were 482,589 books on management and 207,481 books on leadership. In the supply chain field there were more than 12,900 books on supply chain management and only 21 books that addressed supply chain leadership — a concept first introduced by the Supply Chain Leadership Institute in 2001. MBA programs look at the functions of managers but rarely address leadership in the education of future “leaders of business.”

Every organization, regardless of size, has a requirement for both leaders and managers, and in small companies there may be one person doing both of them. Every leader has some managerial functions but not all managers have leadership function in their job descriptions. Not everyone can be a leader, and not everyone wants to be a leader. There are people who are content to be followers only. Even leaders must sometimes be followers to be effective. Everyone has someone to whom they report.

Ask a hundred people to define leadership and you will get a hundred different answers. It would lead you to believe that perhaps leadership is a lot like love — everybody knows what love is when they experience it but they cannot necessarily define it. Everybody has experienced good and bad leadership and can recognize it when they see it or experience it but they cannot necessarily define it. One of America’s greatest World War II leaders, General George S. Patton, Jr., could not define it but did know “that it is the thing that wins wars.” General Dwight D. Eisenhower defined leadership on the day before the Normandy Invasion as “the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it.”

We are all in wars every day that require leadership. Some wars are military and political in nature and the need for leadership is evident and the lack of leadership can result in the loss of lives and, in all too many cases in history, the loss of a



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country. In business we face war-time situations every day. Your competition is working hard to take your business away, and the loss of business can and often does lead to the loss of the company. We are also in a war against technology — if we lose the war of technology, our competition jumps ahead of us in the marketplace and the potential of losing the company is indeed possible.

Webster’s Dictionary provides the following definitions:

• Lead: To guide or direct in a course.

• Leader: One who leads or guides; one who is in command of others.

• Leadership: Capacity or ability to lead.

Unfortunately, none of these definitions provides a good foundation for the discussion of leadership. Perhaps the best definition of leadership is found in the United States Army Field Manual, Leadership.1 This Field Manual defines leadership as “The act of influencing people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation; while operating to accomplish the mission and improve the organization.”2 This will serve as our definition of leadership throughout this book.

To further develop the foundation in order to start setting the conditions for success in any operation, let’s break down this definition into workable phrases.

The U.S. Air Force doctrinal manual on leadership defines leadership as “the art and science of influencing and directing people to accomplish the assigned mission. This highlights two fundamental elements of leadership: (1) the mission, objective, or task to be accomplished, and (2) the people who accomplish it … The leader’s primary responsibility is to motivate and direct people to carry out the unit’s mission successfully. A leader must never forget the importance of the personnel themselves to that mission.”3

The U.S. Air Force definition is not that much different from the U.S. Army’s definition but the second part of the introduction to the chapter on leadership identifies the critical aspect that must never be overlooked, regardless of what your mission or objective is, and that is the people who accomplish the goals, missions, or objectives of your organization. The goal of leadership is therefore to transform the potential of the people in the organization into effective performance. A secondary goal of leadership is to develop leaders for the future of the company.

The inspiration of a noble cause involving human interests wide and far, enables men to do things they did not dream themselves capable of before, and which they were not capable of alone.4

DEFINITIONS

Lead: To guide or direct in a course

Leader: One that leads or guides; one who is in command of others

Leadership: Capacity or ability to lead

Figure 1.1 • Leadership definitions to help set the foundation.



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CHAPTER 1

THE ACT OF INFLUENCING PEOPLE

Exactly what is the act of influencing people? Influencing people is what General Eisenhower was referring to when he spoke of getting someone else to do something because they want to do it. Influencing is getting employees to do what is necessary. Influencing employees goes past just giving out assignments. Setting the example is discussed in Section II. This is an important method of influencing others. How many bosses have you had who influenced your actions — good or bad? Jackie Robinson may have hit this square on the head when he said, “A life is not important except in the impact it has on others’ lives.”

Do your actions have an impact or influence on the lives of others? The answer to this question is yes unless you live alone, work alone, and never venture into the real world. And even then, your actions have impacts on others, just not necessarily in a positive way.

How do you influence people? Remember that whatever business you are in, you need people to accomplish your objectives. Jackie Robinson said that the value of a person’s life is measured by the impact he has on other people. As a leader, you have an impact on a large number of people through your actions. We will look at the impact of your example (good or bad) when we discuss the attributes of world-class leadership. One of my sister units when I was a lieutenant had a leader who had so much influence through his actions that his officers started talking just like him.

As a leader, your actions, your mannerisms, your life style, and your words have a big influence on those around you. As a leader, you have to establish a clear vision for your organization and for the individuals who make up that organization. Your vision for your organization should include the goal of the organization. What is the goal of your organization? Can you explain it in a few sentences? When I was with the U.S. Army Velocity Management Program,5 we had what we called our “elevator card.” This card had the mission and vision of Velocity Management on a three-by-five-inch index card and provided a few key statements of the goals, vision, and mission. Your vision should be able to be reduced to an elevator card. If you cannot describe what you are doing or where you are going in a few sentences, then your vision is too complicated. Dr. W. Edwards Deming said it a little differently when he said, “If you cannot describe what you are doing as a system, you do not know what you are doing.” As a leader setting the vision for your organization, you have to know what you are doing, where you want the company to go, and where it is actually going.

This vision must be tied to the organizational goals and strategy and may in fact influence the goals and strategy of the organization. Your vision cannot run counter to



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the organization. If you are a retail organization, your vision must incorporate customer care, customer service, and customer satisfaction to ensure continued profitability. The vision must be clearly stated, clearly articulated, and clearly understood by the employees who have to implement the actions to make the vision successful. Stephen Covey called this “seek first to understand and then be understood.”6

Making the vision clearly understood is necessary, and it must be understood from the perspective of the people who have to implement it. Each business has its own language. In the Army we had a language that seemed foreign to people outside the military; in fact, we had such a foreign language that it was sometimes not even understood inside the Army — this is not a good thing when the same words or acronyms mean different things to different people in the same organization.7 In the supply chain industries there is a language that is foreign to people outside the supply chain. In manufacturing there is “foreign” language — even the food service industry has a language all its own. The key is to ensure that the vision is clearly understood by everyone in the organization; therefore, it must be in a clearly understood language and stated in such a way that the people who have to implement it not only understand the vision, but also can translate the vision into the language of their favorite radio station — WIIFM - “What’s In It For Me?”. This is the first step in influencing people.

I have discovered a new phenomenon in the corporate world that did not exist in the military. It is relatively easy to motivate soldiers who are getting shot at or may face the opportunity to get shot at in the future. Protecting yourself and those around you is a great motivator. But in corporate America I have discovered what I call motivational dysfunction (MD). The cure for MD is a clearly stated vision and leadership that provides purpose, direction, and motivation to the entire workforce.

PURPOSE, DIRECTION, MOTIVATION

What is your purpose? How do you convey it to your co-workers and subordinates? What is the purpose — the driving goal or core competency — of your organization? Is your purpose in line with the purpose of the organization? The vision sets the foundation for the organization. However, the real core competency or prime directive of your employees is what motivates them. As the leader, it is your responsibility to convey your vision and the vision of the organization in such a way that it becomes the motivator or vision of the employees. Again this ties back to WIIFM. Each individual employee is motivated differently. This complicates the leadership equation because this means that there is no one-size-fits-all style of leadership. You must be flexible



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as a leader to adapt your style to the needs of the employee. One way of doing this is to ensure that every employee knows what is needed, when it is needed, and why it is needed, as well as how he or she fits into the overall success of the firm. After the completion of the American Civil War, one of General Grant’s aides stated that what made Grant so successful was that “he made sure that all of his subordinates knew exactly what he wanted, when he wanted it and why he wanted it.”8

While establishing the Theater Distribution Center for Operation Iraqi Freedom in Kuwait, I thought I had made it very clear what our purpose was. To my surprise when I asked the soldiers assigned to the Center their purpose, I was told “to move stuff from one truck to the customer lanes to the outbound trucks; and to drive those forklifts.” Ask your forklift drivers the same question and you will probably get a very similar answer.

I gathered all the soldiers together and explained to them the importance of the Theater Distribution Center in the overall success of Operation Iraqi Freedom. I explained to each of them that they were the last link between the wholesale supply systems in the United States and Germany, and the soldiers going into combat. I tried to make it very clear that unless we did our jobs correctly with accuracy and precision, there would be soldiers who would be without food, supplies, and ammunition. I told the soldiers that they were the most important link in the supply chain as the interface between the supply system and the customer. After that little discussion, their chests puffed out and they went about their work with true purpose and motivation.

One of my favorite questions for distribution center personnel is to ask them what their job is. The purpose of the question has several functions. The first is to find out exactly who is doing what in a distribution center. The second function of this question is to find out how motivated the employee really is. Are they there for a paycheck, or are they there because they enjoy their jobs and feel like they are contributing? If they answer like my forklift drivers did — and most do — let them know that they are an important part of the supply chain and may very well be the last person in the company to touch a product before it goes to the customer. See if that does not change their outlook and disposition.

Every worker in any environment needs to have a purpose that they understand in clear, concise language; they need a direction to point toward and a reason for working. Have you ever seen a compass that has been demagnetized? The arrow of the compass spins and points in every direction except North. Workers are the same



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way; they need leadership to provide them with direction and keep them from becoming demagnetized or suffering from motivational dysfunction.

Unfortunately, every worker is not motivated in the same way. What motivates workers? What motivates workers is what motivates each individual worker. There is not a one-size-fits-all motivation — that is what makes motivational dysfunction an interesting malady. The House of Leadership sets the foundation and structure for developing leaders who understand employees, who understand employee needs, and who can provide the purpose, direction, and motivation to prevent the onset of motivational dysfunction and help companies and employees cure this growing phenomenon in the corporate world.

ACCOMPLISHING THE MISSION

All too often, managers and leaders become so consumed in accomplishing the mission that nothing else matters. Unfortunately, this drive to accomplish the mission is because of the drive to climb the ladder of success. “If I can get this mission accomplished, I will be promoted.” This drive leads to motivational dysfunction for workers because they do not share the same goal to climb the ladder or because they do not see the same benefits as the driven manager or leader.

There is another drawback to the drive to accomplish the mission — what is the next challenge, what are you sacrificing to get the mission accomplished, and is the satisfaction of accomplishing the mission going to keep you motivated for the next mission? Leaders at all levels, throughout history, have sacrificed their personal lives to climb the ladder. There was a song a few years ago that asked the question, “Will there be a gravestone with the words — ‘If I could have only spent a few more hours in the office’?” Corporate leaders and military leaders have all too often sacrificed their families for career success. My experience tells me that time away from the family is necessary but there is a balance that is addressed by the House of Leadership — because time lost with your family can never be replaced.

Accomplishing the mission is important for the success of the organization. The key is to ensure that the missions that you are working on are critical to the success of the organization and not just your pet project.



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AND IMPROVING THE ORGANIZATION

You have to ask yourself if the goals you are setting and the missions you are trying to accomplish are good for the organization, or if they are just good for your career. This is the key to establishing quality leadership. Moving up the corporate ladder is a collateral benefit of accomplishing the mission and improving the organization. Corporate America is full of “leaders” who have climbed the ladder on pet projects that have improved their careers but were suboptimal to the overall success of the company. Today’s focus on the bottom line as the only measure of success leads to short-term thinking versus long-term goals to improve the organization. “If I can make things better during my tenure and then move on, I really do not care what happens after my promotion.” This is an attitude that, although not always specifically stated, has been implied by way too many corporate “leaders.”

One key method of improving the organization is through the use of developmental counseling and establishing training programs for employees. Developmental counseling is a critical program that enables leaders to help their employees improve their performance by explaining what the employee is doing wrong and how to improve in those areas; this may very well include performance improvement training or retraining. Developmental counseling also includes what the employee is doing right. All too often, counseling programs focus on the bad and neglect what the employee is doing right, and therefore has a tendency to demotivate the employee and is seen as a negative program.

The definition of leadership is so comprehensive that it must be stated one more time as the foundation for the discussion of modeling supply chain leadership:

Leadership is the act of influencing people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation; while operating to accomplish the mission and improve the organization.

This form of leadership will set the conditions for success in any operation! The next chapter looks to Sun Tzu and his book The Art of War. Sun Tzu provides the historical foundation of leadership prior to a detailed look at modeling supply chain leadership.



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NOTES

1. Field Manual 5-0, Leadership, U.S. Army. The United States Army uses Field Manuals as doctrinal publications. This particular Field Manual is devoted to leadership development and leadership skills needed for any U.S. Army operation.

2. Field Manual 5-0, Leadership, U.S. Army, 2006.

3. U.S. Air Force Doctrinal Manual, p. 1-1.

4. Joshua Chamberlain, speaking in 1889 at the dedication of a monument to honor/ memorialize the 20th Maine Regiment’s actions at Gettysburg on July 2, 1863. General Chamberlain went on to receive the Congressional Medal of Honor for his actions on the battlefield that day. General Chamberlain was later present at the surrender of General Robert E. Lee at Appomattox Court House in 1865. As General Lee passed, General Chamberlain showed his adversary respect by bringing his soldiers to attention and saluting the Confederate general. This action received ridicule from other officers but was a demonstration of General Chamberlain’s character and his respect.

5. The Velocity Management Program served as the U.S. Army’s Supply Chain Process Improvement Program. The program started by looking at customer wait times and order cycle times and expanded to include financial impacts and constraints, a close look at what was stocked where and in what quantities and the impacts of maintenance operations on the supply chain. This program later looked at the reverse logistics processes and drivers long before reverse logistics became a hot topic in supply chain discussions. The Velocity Management Program was loosely based on Six Sigma methodologies but in lieu of the traditional Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control (DMAIC) framework, Velocity Management used a RAND Arroyo Center designed methodology — Define, Measure, and Improve (DMI). All the traditional DMAIC tools and concepts were encompassed in DMI.

6. See Covey, Stephen R. 1989. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, FranklinCovey, Salt Lake City, UT.

7. I have since learned that many corporations have this same problem. Acronyms and definitions for words mean different things to different departments. This causes great confusion and sometimes results in demotivating employees or missed shipments — neither of which is good for any company.

8. General U.S. Grant was separated from the U.S. Army prior to the start of the American Civil War because of his drinking problems while stationed in California, then failed in business in Illinois before being called back to duty in the militia, and then went on to become the most successful general for the U.S. Army, bringing about the fall of Vicksburg, the fall of Richmond and Petersburg, and the defeat of the Army of the Confederate States of America when he accepted the surrender of General Robert E. Lee.



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Staff Management in Library and Information Work

By Peter Jordan, Caroline Lloyd ©2002 Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

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STAFF SUPERVISION AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING

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STAFF SUPERVISION AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAININGPeter Jordan and Caroline Lloyd

Excerpted from Staff Management in Library and Information Work

CHAPTER 2

LEADERSHIP

Useful background reading to this section is given in Chapter 2 on motivation and participative management styles. It is possible, for example, to use the Blake/Mouton grid or the Likert categories to identify one’s own management style in terms of concern for people proportionate to concern for output, or along the authoritarian-consultative-participative continuum. In order to help in this self-analysis, the following statements may be used as a checklist of how you tend to act in typical leadership situations, such as decision making, discussion meetings, conflict situations and general effort put into work, and how you feel about the emotions involved. To assess your score in terms of the Blake/Mouton analysis of possible managerial styles, follow the instructions at the end of this chapter.

DECISIONS

1. I place high value on maintaining good relations.

2. I place high value on making decisions that stick.

3. I place high value on getting sound, creative decisions that result in understanding and agreement.

4. I accept the decisions of others without strong feelings about whether I agree with them or not - I don’t want to get too involved.

5. I search for workable, even though not perfect, decisions.

CONVICTIONS

6. I go along with opinions, attitudes and ideas of others, or avoid taking sides.

7. I listen for and seek out ideas, opinions and attitudes different from my own. I have clear convictions, but respond to sound ideas by changing my mind.

8. I stand up for my ideas, opinions, attitudes, even though it sometimes results in stepping on others’ toes.

9. I prefer to accept opinions, attitudes and ideas of others, rather than to push my own.

10. When ideas, opinions, or attitudes different from my own appear, I initiate middle-ground positions.



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CONFLICT

11. When conflict arises, I try to be fair but firm, and to achieve an equitable solution.

12. When conflict arises, I try to cut it off and keep my position.

13. I try to avoid generating conflict, but when it does appear, I try to soothe feelings and to keep people together.

14. When conflict arises, I try to identify reasons for it, and to resolve under-lying causes.

15. When conflict arises, I try to remain neutral or stay out of it.

EMOTION

16. When things are not going right, I defend, resist or come back with counter-arguments.

17. By remaining neutral, I rarely get stirred up.

18. Under tension, I feel unsure which way to turn or shift to avoid further pressure.

19. Because of the disturbance tensions can produce, I react in a warm and friendly way.

20. When aroused, I contain myself even though my impatience is visible.

HUMOUR

21. My humour fits the situation and gives a sense of perspective: I keep a sense of humour even under pressure.

22. My humour aims at maintaining friendly relations, or when strains do arise, it shifts attention away from the serious side.

23. My humour is seen by others as rather pointless.

24. My humour is a bit hard-hitting.

25. My humour sells myself or a position I am taking up.

EFFORT

26. I rarely lead, but extend help to my staff.

27. I exert vigorous effort, and others join in.

28. I seek to maintain a good, steady pace.

29. I exert enough effort to get by.

30. I drive myself and my staff.



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To relate these leadership characteristics back to Chapter 2, it is worth re-stating the basic leadership problem: how to reach a satisfactory compromise between concern for work performance and output, and concern for people’s needs at work in terms of esteem, sociability, security and using their potential. Examples of how this conflict is dealt with by individual leaders (who may be charted at representative positions on the Blake/Mouton grid) are given below.

At one extreme, the 1,1 Blake/Mouton position (see Figure 2.4), is the manager who refuses either to lead or to delegate leadership to others. The approach is often frustrated or cynical, as a result of the manager failing to influence the organization, and withdrawing from it as far as is practicable. This kind of manager manages as little as possible, keeps at a safe, impersonal distance, and avoids any face-to-face confrontations. Decisions are rarely taken unless there is some kind of crisis, and they are usually based on precedent or regulations, rather than creative thinking or management techniques, for these kinds of ‘managers’ are often proud of their ignorance of management.

At the other extreme, the 9,9 Blake/Mouton position, is the manager who tries to involve the entire staff in participative structures and creative approaches, and encourages everybody to undertake positive planning, self-appraisal and innovative projects. It sounds wonderful in theory, but in practice many staff are not ready for creative responsibility, and feel unhappy and exposed, so the results may be disappointing in both performance and job satisfaction. However, when the right people are in post, or on a work team, the results can be inspired, with high output and infectious enthusiasm. There is harmonious integration of tasks and human needs.

The 1,9 managerial style of high concern for people and low concern for output means that a lot of effort goes into keeping up staff morale, and giving staff the delegated authority. Direction from the manager is not strong, and this can be a problem when staff look for initiatives from their boss, and are told the boss will support whatever initiatives they feel like putting forward. Another weakness of this style may be that because the manager likes to be seen as counsellor/ confidant, it is difficult to confront staff with their inadequacies, mistakes or failures, therefore performance tends to take second place to a cosy togetherness.

The 9,1 managerial style, on the contrary, is based on the view that staff only perform well when they are given strong direction, clear instructions, and firm guidance and appraisal from above. Power and decision-making is retained by the manager, and speedy compliance and accountability, rather than creativity or planning their own



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work, is expected of staff. Performance standards may be reasonably good, but this style of management puts staff on the defensive, and tends to reward compliance rather than positive or innovatory thinking. There is a heavy atmosphere of control, which may provide security for the average worker, but may stifle the above-average.

The Blake/Mouton grid may be used to train staff to identify their present managerial style, and its implications for their subordinates and for the library as a whole. This self-awareness may then lead to the identification of preferable managerial styles, towards which staff may move gradually. There is the possibility that they may be given greater incentive to modify their style, if, as in some organizations, appraisal by more junior staff takes place, and managers are made aware of how they are seen by their staff.

There is a strong element of leadership in supervision of staff, but the general view is that supervisors tend to be internally focused, whereas leaders are seen as externally focused and boundary-scanning, watching the future and trying to create a vision. Good supervision will ensure that a task is completed efficiently and effectively, whilst leadership provides the vision that led to the task in the first place.

The Public Library Workforce Study highlighted the urgent need for leadership when less than a third of their respondents were confident that they had suitable staff to succeed to senior posts and when the challenges of, for example, Annual Library Plans, Government standards, and Best Value Reviews have to be faced.16 As the environment becomes more turbulent and unpredictable, the need for new and different models of leadership has been recognized. The contrast between traditional or transactional models of leadership and the now often prescribed model of transformational leadership is frequently highlighted.

Transactional leadership has been described as a favour-for-favour type of exchange - a ‘tit-for-tat relationship of jobs for votes, subsidies for campaign contributions or raises for more production ‘.17 The contrast can clearly be seen in the six-factor leadership model developed by Bass, which was originally based on results obtained by surveying US Army field-grade officers who were asked to rate their superior officers.18 The most passive factor was seen as laissez-faire leadership, similar to Blake’s and Mouton’s 1,1 position. Officers employing this style tend to react only after problems have become serious enough to take corrective action, and often avoid making any decision at all. The two transactional factors were active management-by-exception, which focused on monitoring task execution for any problems that may arise and correcting to maintain performance levels; and contingent reward, which



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clarified what was expected of followers and what they will receive if they meet expected levels of performance. Transactional factors are viewed as insufficient in ‘building the trust and developing the motivation to achieve the full potential of one’s workforce. Yet, coupled with individualized consideration, they may potentially provide the base for higher levels of transformational leadership to have positive impact on motivation and performance.’19

The three transformational factors in the Bass model were charismatic-inspirational leadership, which provides followers with a clear sense of purpose and identification with the leader’s vision; individualized consideration focused on understanding the needs of each follower and developing their full potential, and intellectual stimulation, which gets followers to question tried methods of solving problems, and encourages questioning current methods.

Kouzes and Posner studied over 1500 managers to discover the positive practices in which their leaders engaged.20 Their findings have been widely publicized, and provide valuable guidelines for those wishing to practise transformational leadership.

Most of us tend to admire leaders who have credibility, those who are:

• honest

• competent

• forward-looking

• inspiring.

These credible leaders tend to be committed to consistently implementing ten leadership practices:

1. Search out challenging opportunities to change, grow, innovate, and improve.

2. Experiment, take risks, and learn from the accompanying mistakes.

3. Envision an uplifting and ennobling future.

4. Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to their values, interests, hopes and dreams.

5. Foster collaboration by promoting co-operative goals and building trust.

6. Strengthen people by sharing information and power and increasing their discretion and visibility.

7. Set the example for others by behaving in ways that are consistent with your stated values.



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8. Plan small wins that promote consistent progress and build commitment.

9. Recognize individual contributions to the success of every project.

10. Celebrate team accomplishments regularly.21

Frank, in reviewing a book on leadership, has summarized neatly the modern view of leadership:

The new leadership model states that vision and mission are more important than the activities associated with planning and allocation of responsibilities. Controlling people and solving problems are significantly less important than motivating and inspiring people. The de-emphasis on control is dramatic. Change and innovation are valued over routine and equilibrium. Power is retained and valued in earlier models of leadership. New leaders do not emphasise power, and assist others to become empowered. The new leadership creates commitment (as opposed to creating compliance). 22

LIBRARIANS AND LEADERSHIP

In an interesting article on librarians’ and psychologists’ view of leadership, Quinn states that ‘in comparison to more traditional evaluation methods like the use of assessment centers, the use of subordinates’ ratings can actually be more accurate in predicting the future performance of administrators’.23 This makes Hall’s study all the more illuminating.24 He asked librarians on a Post Experience MA course over a period of six years to think of good leaders they had known at work, and to write down the qualities they possessed. His list bears some resemblance to that of Kouzes and Posner, but gives greater emphasis to the way staff are treated, and is understandably more public service-orientated:

Good Leaders are intelligent, self confident, enthusiastic and consistent in their behaviour. They work hard, have high professional competence, can command professional respect, are visible and lead by example.

They know what is happening in their organisation and in their own department. They have initiative and foresight, are decisive, don’t let situations drift, are good at planning, have good organisational skills and are calm in crises.



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They treat all staff with respect, are fair, approachable, have a good sense of humour, are open and straightforward, keep staff informed, explain decisions and admit mistakes. They delegate, trust staff, consult staff and are open to others’ ideas and views.

They are considerate, sympathetic, understanding of individuals’ problems, concerned with the welfare of staff, tactful, sensitive to feelings of others and are people you can confide in. They take an interest in the work of staff, praise good work, are supportive, give helpful advice, criticise in a constructive way, foster initiative and encourage staff development and advancement.

Finally they work for the good of the team, fight for the team, get resources for the team, are loyal to subordinates and defend individual staff.

Hall’s findings confirm our own view that it is not simply the ‘vision thing’ that matters. In itself, it is ‘not sufficient to be an effective leader. Attention to detail and follow-through - the elements of execution - are also very important.’25 A library leader with vision alone can easily become isolated and a de-motivating influence to those at the ‘grass roots’.

It is no longer possible, or desirable, for leaders to be able to perform or even understand the details of their own staff’s jobs: ‘the Age of Information has made the Big Boss into a dinosaur. Nobody can possibly know enough to run the whole show.’26 Twenty years ago, many chief librarians were able to perform most, if not all, of the jobs performed by their staff. This is now rarely possible, and some older librarians have found it difficult to accept this change. Leadership is also episodic, in that different leaders will be needed in different situations: ‘leading from the front has been the hallmark of twentieth century leadership. Empowering from behind will be the hallmark of the twenty-first century.’27

CONFLICT

Analysis of leadership style using the Blake/Mouton grid includes the management of conflict. Dr Helen Dyson has identified five main ways of responding to conflict, and this analysis has been used to help staff to understand their own responses and to think about how appropriate they are.28 The categories of response can be shown on a grid similar to that of Blake/Mouton. Stated briefly:



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• Competition is the response you make when you think you are right, when giving way means loss of face. It assumes that conflict is inevitable.

• Collaboration is the response you use to eliminate negative feelings, and requires good interpersonal skills. It assumes that conflict is resolvable.

• Compromise is an expedient or mutually acceptable solution that partially satisfies both parties but does not really solve the problem. It assumes that each can only gain at the other’s expense.

• Avoidance assumes that conflict is avoidable, but in fact achieves the least of all responses.

• Accommodation means that you satisfy the other’s needs and neglect your own.

We have used these categories successfully in training sessions. Participants are asked to analyse a case study, and to discuss why particular responses were chosen and whether they were appropriate. An important factor in conflict is the norms which exist in an organization: which are the most accepted or socially desirable strategies, and what the pressures are upon a person to take one approach rather than another.

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Because leadership is so important, a lot of attention is being paid to the development of leaders. In Chapter 2, the practice of identifying staff who have the potential to become the senior managers of the future in the organization was noted. Once identified, it is logical to provide leadership training. Large organizations, as Reynolds observes,29 mainly take a competency-based approach, in which they identify skills and practices relevant to their own situations and corporate strategies, and develop those competences in future leaders. Best-practice organizations, as identified in an investigation of 35 organizations in the USA, ‘develop leaders internally because of powerful and distinct cultures, which are critical to continued success’.30 Action learning is seen to be the most appropriate method, with the participants solving real time business issues, and the leadership development programmes are continually assessed to ensure they are having the desired effect.

The executive performance and development scheme at HSBC bank is an example of good practice. The scheme begins in January with the manager’s annual review, with two Executive Development Forums (EDFs) following in April and October. These examine leadership skills and management potential. The EDF acts as a succession-



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planning mechanism to fill key positions, matching the right people to the right job, and avoiding unnecessary external recruitment.31 Employees are able to assess the scheme at the annual roadshow, backed up with feedback from an annual opinion survey.

Alongside internal succession planning, there exists the realization that in today’s climate, employees cannot be insulated. People will change not only employers, but careers several times during their working life. A change of emphasis towards ‘succession management’ rather than ‘succession planning’ has therefore been advocated, with company people being blended with out siders ‘unencumbered by corporate history’, and the balance coming from internally developed executives, who provide continuity for the organization and corporate memory.32

Table 8.3 • Managerial Styles



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ASSESSING ONE’S PERSONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE,

USING THE BLAKE/ MOUTON GRID

Using the 30 statements on leadership given on pages 249-50, summarize your personal selection in Column II below by entering the numbers of statements 1-30 which you personally identify with. The related management style may be found in Table 8.3, coded in Blake/Mouton terms. For an interpretation of these, refer to the Blake/Mouton grid (Figure 2.4).

Table 8.4 • Scorecard



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How to Succeed as a Leader

By Ruth Chambers, Kay Mohanna, Richard Jones and David Wall ©2007 Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

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COMPETENCIES OF A GOOD LEADER

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COMPETENCIES OF A GOOD LEADERRobert Cragg and Peter Spurgeon

Excerpted from How to Succeed as a Leader

CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION

A competency is a skill that an individual has, which equips them to perform a specific task. Just as a mechanic requires a precise set of skills to mend cars, leaders require a certain array of competencies to enact effective leadership.

Leadership is an often misunderstood, nebulous concept, difficult to define and frequently contested, owing to the diversity of contexts in which leadership can be expressed.1 As a consequence there are a plethora of models, frameworks and theories to describe leadership in both academic and populist literature.

Leadership traits have developed throughout history linked to emotive religious, political and military icons.2 In this chapter we consider the development of leadership theory through the 20th century covering the three most commonly referenced theories: trait theory, situational leadership and transformational leadership – discussing their relative validity and application today. The common thread to these contrasting models is the core concept of leadership as a process of influence.

The kind of leadership that is required (in the NHS) is transformational leadership.

Alimo-Metcalfe3

MAIN THEORIES AND MODELS OF LEADERSHIP

1 Trait theory

Trait theory implies that leaders are born rather than developed, supporting the notion that leaders have an innate superiority that makes them naturally predisposed to positions of importance and power. The theory attempts to characterise the identification of personal attributes that separate leaders from others.4 This field of research identifies traits such as charisma, courage and intelligence.

Trait theory has been largely disregarded by researchers as providing no tangible basis for leadership development. But, although considered outdated, the traits emerging from this theory still influence the selection of leaders today.4

2 Situational leadership

This model claims that it is the situation itself that determines the person who emerges as the leader, so that an individual’s competencies and style are



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complementary to the task. Consequently this theory implies that no one individual is able to lead across all tasks and scenarios, and that a person’s leadership potential is narrow and inflexible when the environment changes.2 A case study alleged to illustrate this notion relates to Winston Churchill’s meteoric war time rise and post war slump in popularity with voters, demonstrating that the former prime minister excelled in leading military strategy but failed to retain his followers during the post war hardships, amidst voters’ demands for social reforms.

With the situational model is the realisation that leadership is embodied in us all. To achieve the full multifaceted gamut of leadership competencies, you must harness the collective talents of your team, as well as yours as an individual. Organisations should enhance leadership potential in the workforce within team settings, at every level of service.5 Whilst leaders have a strong preference for one style, the key is to develop flexibility but at the same time acknowledge their own limitations.

3 Transactional and transformational leadership

The transformational model of leadership is synonymous with the proactive implementation of change and the concept of the servant leader.6 Empowerment is key by which the leader unifies followers through a shared vision, trust and common values, imparting their influence across networks of individuals to deliver service development.7

Bass identified key behavioural dimensions including intellectual stimulation through questioning and thinking creatively; these are – consideration, value and development of others.7 Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe identified characteristics that staff required of their leaders.5 They recognised qualities typified by the transformational model including; ‘concern for others, approachability, encouraging questioning, promoting change; the ability to communicate, set direction, unify and manage change’.5 These competencies do not include being brash and overly confident as a stereotyped notion of leaders suggests, but instead emphasise subtlety and imply an emotional intelligence and inquisitive disposition.

By contrast, the transactional model of leadership offers an incentive based exchange between the leader and follower in return for enhanced performance. This approach is task focused, reliant on hierarchy and bypasses the requirement to engage individual principles; thus the process is more short-term.8 Transactional leadership concerns maintenance and monitoring of a pre-existing service, having an operational rather than a strategic focus.4,5



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EMERGENT COMPETENCIES

The study of leadership theory dispelled the myth that leadership requires superhuman qualities, in favour of a more practical model of leadership which lends itself to development.1

The competencies emerging from three of the models (trait theory, transactional and transformational models, see Table 5.1) though largely derived from the private sector, resonate within the public sector too including the NHS. Their transferability implies that the skills required for leadership are largely universal, be it in a managerial, professional or political context.4

Table 5.1 • Comparison of leadership models: as to their qualities, skills and attributes.

LEADERSHIP FRAMEWORKS

The diverse range of leadership competency frameworks can be confusing. Which one do you follow? There are the NHS leadership qualities framework,9 Dye and Garmans’ exceptional leadership model,10 John Adair’s task-team-individual model3 or Alimo-Metcalfe’s 21st century model of leadership1 to name but a few. The NHS has developed the leadership qualities framework as a guide to the leadership characteristics it feels healthcare workers need to adopt (see Table 5.2). The 15 qualities within the framework are grouped in three clusters – personal qualities, setting direction and delivering the service. This framework has been instrumental in establishing leadership development activities across the NHS. (see www.nhsleadershipqualities.nhs.uk).9



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Table 5.2 • Leadership qualities framework.

Dye and Garmans’ model has 16 critical competencies for healthcare executives; it draws out many of the same themes as in the leadership qualities framework centred around the four clusters of: well cultivated self-awareness, compelling vision, masterful execution and real way with people (see Table 5.3).10 Whilst there are countless competency models there is great similarity and overlap between them, as seemingly distinct characteristics of one model are often merely approximate synonyms from another.3

Table 5.3 • Dye and Garman’s model of leadership.

Leadership roles need to be created with reference to a model of effective leadership that the organisation endorses and upholds according to its culture and objectives.

Every employing organisation needs a leadership framework to both select and build capacity for the competencies it requires to achieve success. Competencies must be selected carefully balancing the trade off of a specific versus generic scope, individual versus organisational need, whilst considering the requirement for future adaptivity.4



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TOP TIPS

• No one leader has the skills, knowledge and behaviour to be effective in all situations.

• Leadership is not a construct reserved for individuals but can be displayed by teams too.

• Organisations should not develop leadership competencies at the expense of management skills.

• Teams need managers to promote stability and leaders to press for change.

• If there is too much transactional management teams stagnate. If there is too much transformational leadership then organisations can become chaotic.5

• When you have mapped the leadership competencies in your existing team and people’s strengths, use this information to allocate tasks so that you maximise the overall performance of the team. Ask those with the right competencies if they will act as coaches and role models for colleagues wishing to acquire that skill.

• Remember leadership skills can be developed. Just because you don’t excel in a given competency today doesn’t mean you can’t acquire it in the future.

• Reflect on leaders that have influenced you. What qualities did they have that impressed you? Role modelling of this kind can make you more perceptive to behaviours that display effective leadership.

• Leadership models which incorporate both change and the adoption of organisational culture, start to provide a link between leadership performance and organisational success. This can be assessed by the ability of the leader to change individuals to embrace a transformational culture.1

• Training and conceptualisation is key to instigate the appropriate cultural context within which leadership can prosper.

• Challenge and responsive feedback along the way ensure that interim and post project evaluations take place to assess the success of both learning and delivery.

• There is no fixed model of leadership to follow; the overriding approach needs to match the individual and the context.



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FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q. How can different leadership theories be reconciled and how can we relate leadership competence to performance?

A. There is a constant tension between leadership where a range of personal characteristics are emphasised, as against the understanding of tasks and behaviours that might constitute leadership. This tension can be reconciled as simple components of the same dynamic theory. The raw ingredients of leadership, your natural innate and acquired competencies (inputs), determine your behaviour in response to specific tasks and leadership situations (enactment). The appropriate- ness of your behaviour and influence with a given context or situation directly correlates to your performance (outputs) in fulfilling your leadership objectives. Leadership works when it is defined by outcomes.

Q. How can I develop and learn more about my personal leadership style?

A. Knowledge of models and traits should be compulsory for prospective and current leaders, teamed with a supportive development pack to improve their skills. You must maximise the enactment of both your innate and acquired competencies, learning to deploy your skills and attributes in a flexible and adaptive manner to be an effective leader. Being aware of your personal competency levels is critical.

Q. How can I find out more about my strengths and weaknesses?

A. Self-awareness can be improved through psychometric tests, which should give you insights into your personal preferences, e.g. Myers Briggs (see the exercise in Chapter 3 too).

INTERACTIVE EXERCISE: GRIDLOCKED:

ANALYSING YOUR COMPETENCIES AS A LEADER

You can develop a framework to apply your newfound comprehension of leadership competencies in order to identify the skills that your work role demands. First off is your need to develop more self-awareness in respect of the competencies you currently hold and those that you need to acquire. Combine doing this exercise with the evolution of your personal development plan, to capture your current competencies in leadership as a benchmark on which to build your future development.



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Step 1: list the competencies that are pertinent to your current job-role or a specific project on which you are set to embark.

Step 2: place each competency onto a grid similar to that in Table 5.4 according to your previous experience and comfort level. Discuss this part of the exercise with a colleague, mentor or your line manager to consider the differing needs between your competency and that required by the job. Competencies placed in each quadrant will fit the following descriptions.

• Quadrant 1. Tasks involving these competencies may cause you anxiety. You may have previously avoided this type of task. You will need to acquire confidence in enacting this competency.

• Quadrant 2. A competency in this quadrant requires expansion of your current skill set. You may be apprehensive about tasks incorporating this competency, due to the development challenges it poses.

• Quadrant 3. Unchallenging, not stimulating, limited development, ‘Been there, done that’.

• Quadrant 4. Provides an easy challenge. Good personal development, increasing your competency portfolio. You are eager to engage with the opportunity.

Table 5.4 • Competency grid.

Step 3: identify and prioritise goals for developing the competencies identified in Quadrants 1, 2 and 4, accounting for the size of the learning gap you need to overcome. Aim for a good balance of development. If you stay in your comfort zone all the time you will eventually lack flexibility and lose your willingness to accommodate others’ styles and acquire new skills. Conversely if you seek to develop yourself too much or too quickly you might become susceptible to stress and find it difficult to cope.



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REFERENCES

1. Alimo-Metcalfe B, Lawler J. Leadership development in UK companies at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Lessons for the NHS? J Healthc Manag Med. 2001; 15(5): 387–404.

2. Olivier R. Inspirational leadership – Henry V and the muse of fire. London: Spiro Press; 2001.

3. Alimo-Metcalfe B, Alban-Metcalfe J. Half the battle. Health Serv J. 2002; 112(5795); 26–7.

4. Adair J. Effective Leadership. 2nd ed. London: Pan Books Ltd; 1988.

5. Kotter J. What Leaders Really Do. Harvard: Harvard Business School Press; 1999.

6. Greenleaf RK. The Servant Leader Within: a transformative path. New Jersey: Paulist Press International; 2003.

7. Bass BM. Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press; 1985.

8. Turrill T. Change and innovation: a challenge for the NHS. Management Series 10. London: Institute of Health Services Management; 1986.

9. NHS Leadership Centre. Leadership Qualities Framework; 2002 www.nhsleadership qualities.nhs.uk.

10. Dye CF, Garman AN. Exceptional Leadership – 16 critical competencies for healthcare executives. Chicago: Health Administrative Press; 2006.



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Understanding and Recognizing Dysfunctional Leadership

By Annette B. Roter ©2017 Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

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THE ROLE PLAYED BY ORGANIZATIONS AND FOLLOWERS IN DYSFUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

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THE ROLE PLAYED BY ORGANIZATIONS AND FOLLOWERS IN DYSFUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIPAnnette B. Roter

Excerpted from Understanding and Recognizing Dysfunctional Leadership

CHAPTER 4

The culture of an organization is like a river. It can be fluid, strong and consistent, serving as a lubricant while guiding its members in the right direction. In contrast a river can become stale and toxic, silently killing those who drink at its shores.

Ron Kaufman (2002)

INTRODUCTION

At this point in the book, we will shift gears and examine the context of how the organization helps to support the behavior of dysfunctional leadership. We will also explore how dysfunctional leadership impacts the organization, including how it works against the organizational culture, norms and behaviors. In some of the chapters, we have touched upon this impact to organizations, but have only done so in relation to that specific dysfunction. Organizations may face one or several different types of dysfunctions. In most cases it will experience several different types. This chapter explores the overall impact of dysfunctional leaders and the costs associated with these behaviors.

IMPACT ON THE ORGANIZATION

Leadership plays a critical role in relation to the organization that they lead. Positive leaders have paved the way to creating exciting, innovative, creative, healthy and successful organizations. In contrast, dysfunctional leaders have led to the downfall of once-successful organizations. These types of leaders ultimately abuse their position, status and power, and will leave their organizations worse than when they arrived (Ashforth, 1997; Aubrey, 2012).

A study conducted by Moore and Lynch (2007) found that organizations exposed to dysfunctional leadership experienced work cultures that were autocratic, bureaucratic and hands-off. Of course, organizations that were not exposed to dysfunctional leadership found work environments to be friendly, supportive and productive. Dysfunctional leadership impacts many different levels within the organization. From the front line of leadership to the executive office, dysfunctional leaders are embedded. Their behavior affects morale, motivation, teamwork, the organizational culture and productivity, as well as the overall health of the organization and followers. The cost of dysfunctional leadership impacts many other areas. Table 9.1 illustrates further insights into other types of impacts on the organization.



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Table 9.1 • The Impact of Dysfunctional Behavior

The following list will examine in further detail the impact of dysfunctional leadership on the organization from many different viewpoints:

• Poorer financial results: A tangible result of dysfunctional leadership is the impact on the organization in terms of poor financial performance and lack of goal achievement. These factors are demonstrated in a negative impact on the bottom line. Dysfunctional leaders, regardless of their type of dysfunction, are unable to inspire their employees to perform at their best. Instead, they lead by fear, intimidation and manipulation, resulting in employees who become disengaged, are less productive, experience lost time, waste and inefficiency. All of this impacts the organization, resulting in negative financial results.

• Lack of team synergy: One of the main points of discussion throughout this book is that the dysfunctional leader thrives in chaotic and tense situations. At times, they will create tension and turmoil in order to further their agendas and goals. Organizational disorder within a team setting is usually focused on dividing the team and pitting team members against one another. Team performance is stalled and employees begin to work in their own personal silos, as they feel that they can’t trust others. The synergy of the team is negated. Idea sharing and open discussions are silenced. The leader may choose people who are “yes” people and will agree with them. Other employees recognize that in order to get ahead or to survive, they must agree with the leader. Competitive teamwork becomes the norm as team members compete for the favor of the dysfunctional leader. Departments become fragmented and work roles become less defined. Employees begin to question their importance in the department or the organization as a whole. As a result of the lack of team synergy, there is a natural decline in innovation and creativity, causing teams to become stagnant and stale in their thinking.

• Healthy conflict is impeded: Dysfunctional leadership interferes with and blocks healthy conflict. Healthy conflict is needed in organizations in order to drive creativity, innovation and diverse thinking, and to help with decision making. When unhealthy conflict is paramount, individuals tend to want to avoid these



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types of situations and interactions. Instead, they will go with the flow and focus on not rocking the boat or causing the dysfunctional leader to react. In order to boost the ego of the dysfunctional leader, followers tend to go with whatever decision, agenda or motive is important to that leader. The team or group eventually agrees and in some cases they move into groupthink mode. During healthy conflict, organizations are able to engage in innovation and creative thinking. During unhealthy conflict, innovation and creative thinking become halted and will not move the organization forward. Change becomes difficult, if not impossible, to implement and resistance increases.

• Low morale: When employees feel mistreated either by the dysfunctional leader or the organization’s lack of addressing the problem, they begin to feel uncertain about the stability of the organization and their careers as a whole. Their focus is no longer on their work, but waiting on the actions of the leader and wondering what the next move from the leader will be. Morale and organizational commitment decline significantly. Employees become angry and mourn the organization that once was. They lose faith in leadership, allowing these types of behaviors to continue.

• Lost time: The amount of time and lost productivity related to dysfunctional leadership is extremely high. The following list outlines examples of where time is lost when dealing with dysfunctional leadership:

i. the time lost because of employee absenteeism;

ii. employees discussing the situation with others, including gossip, rumors and closed-door discussions;

iii. lost time for the organization addressing or investigating the situation;

iv. lost time and opportunity costs increase.

Increase in turnover: When employees have had enough of the negative behavior, they will look elsewhere. They will either look at other departments within the organization or outside the organization. The dysfunctional leader may block any movement of employees, especially within the organization. They don’t want to get rid of their target and will do what they can to prevent this from happening. The dysfunctional leader usually derives a perverse sense of pleasure in keeping employees in their unit so that they can continue to target them. If an employee feels as though they are being blocked or cannot move within the organization, then they will look to leave the organization. Often, the employee will not care where they are going as long as they are out of the clutches of the dysfunctional leader. Leaving is not always easy for the employee. During the interview process for a new position, the employee feels exposed and



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vulnerable, and their confidence is negatively affected. As a result, they may not interview well. In other cases, they might be going to another dysfunctional leader who picks up on their vulnerable state and identifies them as their next target. If the employee is not careful, they may not recognize the signs as they are excited to leave one predator, only to find themselves back in a negative situation. Eventually other employees will begin to leave the organization and the turnover costs begin to increase. Turnover includes several hidden costs, such as increased overtime, recruitment costs, orientation of a new employee, decreased morale and lost opportunity costs. The following provides an example of a real case that took place, which reflects the costs and impact on the organization.

Bob ran the GI lab at an inner-city hospital. The GI lab was a profit center for the organization and was the only unit making money in a hospital that was running in the red. Bob liked to hire young nurses to work in his unit. The hospital had a 30-day probationary period. The nurses would be hired, excited to start working at their first job and for the opportunity to make an impression. Bob was very charming and always pleasant during interviews. Nurses were excited to work for Bob. They would start their job with an enthusiastic mindset. Usually on day 28 or 29 of the probationary period, Bob was in the Human Resources department saying that the new nurse or tech was not working out for his unit. Without explanation, the employee was terminated. The only reason the employee was given was that they were not a good fit for the organization or were not successful during the orientation program. The organization knew about the high turnover rate of the department, which ran at 65 percent. Instead of finding out the root cause of the problem, which was Bob, the organization hired a recruiter whose sole responsibility was to hire for the GI lab. Because of the results within the department, Bob was labelled as a high-potential employee, was put into the cue line for succession planning, and within two years was appointed as director of several departments. In one such department, the turnover rate prior to Bob coming in as director was five percent. Less than a year later, under the direction of Bob, the turnover rate increased to 45 percent. Today Bob is an administrator at this hospital, but they are finding it very hard to recruit for his units since the word is out about the high turnover rate and former



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employees advise applicants not to work under Bob’s direction. In addition, the organization is viewed negatively for allowing this behavior to continue.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND DYSFUNCTION

Organizational culture in its most simplistic form can be defined as the roles, norms and values of the organization. Through these norms, roles and values, the organization is able to define and recognize appropriate behaviors as well as encourage healthy behaviors between leaders and employees and also between employees and employees. Employees are indoctrinated into the culture of the organization from their first day with the organization. During their early days of employment, they are exposed to the culture of the organization and begin to internalize these components. Lease (2006) stated that: “Control through cultures is so powerful because once these values are internalized, they become part of the individual’s values and the individual follows organizational values without thinking about them.”

Researchers have provided many different definitions of organizational culture. The father of organizational culture, Dr. Edgar Schein, provides the following definition: “A pattern of shared basic assumptions learned by a group as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration … a product of joint learning” (Schein, 1996: 41). He further identified four categories related to culture: macro-cultures such as nations and global organizations; organizational cultures; sub-cultures (groups within organizations) and micro-cultures (microsystems within an organization). From the basic definition of an organization, he identified three levels of organization cultures, including artifacts (visible), beliefs and values, and basic underlying assumptions (unconscious taken-for-granted beliefs and values).

The most important component of Schein’s definition relating to organizational culture is that the “Human mind needs cognitive stability and any challenge of a basic assumption will release anxiety and defensiveness” (Schein, 1996: 44). The research points to one common understanding of organizational culture, which is the strategic element of behaviors and the interactions of individuals within the organization. Schein’s belief focuses on the core concept that leadership is the source of the beliefs and values of employees and the organization, and the most central issue for leaders is to understand the deeper levels of a culture within an organization. It is critical that leaders deal with the anxiety that is unleashed when assumptions along with values and norms are challenged.



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When employees see that their beliefs of what a leader should or shouldn’t be are challenged by the actions of a dysfunctional leader, these assumptions are changed forever. Either anxiety will set in for the followers or they will change their assumptions to fit into the new reality or new culture. In order to further understand the role of organizational culture, let’s explore each of its components.

ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES

Values are the basis for normalizing behaviors within the organization. “Organizational values reflect the basic beliefs and understandings of individuals about the means and the ends of the organization” (Reino & Vadi, 2010; see also Aubrey, 2012). The values of the organization help to define what the organization believes in and provide insights into how employees should interact with others. Leadership plays a role in defining how people will interact with key stakeholders connected to the organization, while the organizational systems emulate the values and behaviors of their leaders, especially at the senior levels of leadership. When a dysfunctional leader is in place, behaviors will begin to mimic the same dysfunction displayed by that leader. Organizational systems may become a breeding ground that fosters dysfunctional leadership behaviors, while promoting this behavior at all levels of the organization, whether directly or indirectly.

Within an organization, leadership embeds its interpersonal characteristics and personal attributes into the organization. Leaders tend to attract similar individuals to the organization. For example, if the leader is positive and focused on innovation and creativity, then they will attract individuals that encompass these characteristics. If a leader is dysfunctional and promotes a dysfunctional environment, they will likely attract similar individuals into the organization. Just as a positive leader has the ability to influence a positive organizational culture, a dysfunctional leader has the ability to completely morph a culture into a dysfunctional one lasting for many years, long after they have left the organization.

ORGANIZATIONAL NORMS

Norms are embedded into the organizational culture and reflect the actions of the employees within the organization. Typically, they are developed within groups and they may be more susceptible to the positive or negative influences of leadership and other members of the group. Stamper, Liu, Hafkamp and Ades stated “Behavior which is not governed by any kind of norms is by definition, intrinsically chaotic or random” (2000: 110). The norms within a group provide structure and guidance on



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acceptable behavior within the organization. As a new team or group forms, they will identify the behavior that is acceptable in order to interact and work together. When exposed to a dysfunctional leader, the group may witness their dysfunctional behavior. In turn, the organization may excuse negative behavior and establish these behaviors as the appropriate behavior for the organization. This is especially true if followers see the leader being rewarded for their dysfunctional behavior and view this as the leadership approach that the organization abides by.

Norms provide insights into how employees should interact within the organization, but also provide a guideline in relation to equity, equality and responsibility of how resources and rewards are distributed within the organization. In healthy organizational cultures, employees are rewarded and respected for the work they do and are treated as individuals and people who have value within the organization. In a dysfunctional environment, employees are rewarded for supporting and promoting the leader’s agenda, and conforming to the dysfunctional behavior and norms of the leader, along with not challenging the leader.

Individuals, who embody the positive norms once established by the organization, may challenge the leader or challenge the new negative norms that are being displayed. In turn, these employees may be viewed as obstructionists and may be ostracized and cut off from resources such as information or work-related resources, resulting in them being unable to perform their work. Others within the group recognize which behavior is rewarded and which is punished. In contrast, individuals who view themselves as not being valued by the dysfunctional leader are more likely to withhold information, resist change and demonstrate a decline in organizational commitment.

BEHAVIORS

Behaviors within the organization are the tangible actions relating to the norms and values of the organization. Tepper, Hoobler, Duffy and Ensley (2004) found that “employees who perceive that their supervisors are dysfunctional are less satisfied with their jobs … and are less willing to perform pro-social organizational behaviors” (as cited in Aubrey, 2012: 11). Pro-social behaviors are identified as behaviors including initiative, helping and loyalty, which are also examples of organizational citizenship. In reverse, anti-social behaviors include obstruction, resistance, non-compliance and lack of teamwork.

Typically, behavior such as initiative is inspired by leadership. As we have already discussed, dysfunctional leaders lack the ability to inspire others. If they are able to



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inspire, more than likely they will inspire the wrong kind of behavior. Dysfunctional leaders tend to micro-manage, discourage initiative and encourage an environment that is destructive toward others. Behaviors are acted out in a negative ways, including ostracizing, humiliation, harassment, belittling and threats, and these tangible and visible actions become the normal and accepted behavior within the organization.

ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCE ON DYSFUNCTION AND IMPACT

As we have touched upon earlier, organizations may directly or indirectly influence dysfunctional leadership behavior. Upper-level leadership is responsible for cultivating and developing the organizational culture. This can be enhanced by the direct and indirect behavior of leadership. For dysfunctional leadership, behaviors may be instilled through acts that are considered unethical, bullying or abusive behaviors. As dysfunctional leaders are rewarded for their achievements, provided incentives and promotions, other leaders and followers are incentivized to embrace these same dysfunctional behaviors as a means to obtaining power, status and promotion. In other cases, leaders may promote tasks and results (profits by any means) that are self-serving and align with the goals of the leader rather than the organizational goals. Other acts may include that the organization embraces task-related duties versus people-focused relationships. Organizations may overlook dysfunctional behavior either by ignoring the behavior or by reassigning work that will accommodate the dysfunctional leader, thereby retaining that individual. Organizations that consist of loose systems, along with a lack of rules, policies or governance to address dysfunctional behavior, cause these behaviors to flourish.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Organizational commitment relates the psychological relationship between employees and the organization. Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979: 226) defined organizational commitment as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization … can be characterized by three factors: 1) A strong belief and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values; 2) A willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization; and 3) A strong desire to maintain membership and affiliation to the organization.” These three factors allow the employee to give their all to the organization and build an emotional attachment to its identity and goals.

Organizational commitment develops over time based on the relationship between the employee and the organization. There are two thoughts related to organizational



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commitment: attitudinal and behavioral. Meyer and Allen (1984) describe attitudinal commitment as the emotional attachment of employees toward the organization. When employees feel an emotional attachment to the organization, they are able to identity and feel as though they are involved and belong in the organization. Behavior commitment is defined as the employee’s commitment to the organization based on wages, commission and perks. Employees will weigh the cost of their work back to the benefits they receive. This weight is usually a factor in determining whether to stay or leave the organization – for example: “I don’t get paid enough to put up with this type of behavior.” Normative commitment is the third component. This refers to the employee’s feelings of obligation to stay with the organization.

Employees who are committed to the organization experience different types of rewards. The first reward is aligned with monetary rewards, such as promotion, increased salary and bonuses. The second is psychological rewards, such as increased job satisfaction, engagement in their work and strong interpersonal relationships between co-workers and leadership. Organizations with employees who are committed to the organization also benefit. They experience lower turnover rates and increased employee engagement, along with an extension of work responsibilities and innovativeness coupled with creativity, which provide an increased competitive advantage for the organization.

Organizations that have dysfunctional leadership provide an environment where commitment is lacking. Those who experience dysfunction in their workplace either directly or indirectly become less committed from a psychological perspective. They do not feel that the organization is committed to their well-being, resulting in their lack of commitment back to the organization. Employees are less engaged, innovation and creativity are stifled by the leader, or the employees begin to shut down emotionally, becoming unwilling to engage in the operations of the organizational system. Decision making and idea generation becomes one-sided and there is a lack of interest in the well-being of the organization and the organizational culture, values and behaviors.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

Social justice within an organization is defined as how employees perceive the level of fairness and equal treatment they receive from others within the team, leadership or the organization as a whole. Lind and Tyler (1988) suggest that employees value fairness from leaders and peers as an indication of acceptance within the group. Employees exposed to dysfunctional leadership experience higher levels of unjust treatment, along with perceived injustice through rewards and punishments. When employees perceive that there is unfair justice or treatment in the workplace, they



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often act out through, anger, resentment, outrage, reduced commitment, vandalism, resistance, sabotage and withdrawal or isolation from social norms within the organization. If employees feel that there is injustice within the team or group, they may be less engaged or feel ostracized by the team as well as the organization. When injustice or unfairness is experienced, employees have a lower level of trust toward the leader. Lencioni (2002: 195) defined trust as “the confidence among team members that their peers’ (including leadership) intentions are good and that there is a no reason to be protective or careful around people.” As has been demonstrated in previous chapters, dysfunctional leadership exhibits behaviors that test and challenge trust, demonstrate a disregard for followers and lead through control. These behaviors are detrimental in terms of building trust within groups, teams and organizations. Employees begin to distrust others and fear for their positions as well as their standing within the team. If there is distrust amongst the employee and the leader, the employee will become less willing to engage with the work, the team and the leader.

The culture of any organization is a key strategic factor that separates one organization from its competitors. Organization culture is also an essential factor in defining what are the acceptable behaviors, norms and practices of an organization. Leaders within an organization leave their mark on the organizational culture through their own personal values and norms. If a positive leader is at the helm of an organization, it will attract like-minded positive individuals who in turn create positive norms and values within the organization. If a dysfunctional leader is part of the institution, their behavior encourages dysfunctional norms and values. These same dysfunctional behaviors embed themselves into the organizational culture and become the lasting blueprint of the organization. It is believed that elements of the organization are thought to influence whether or not a leader will engage in dysfunction. Ways in which the organization may promote dysfunction include:

1. how power is distributed throughout the organization;

2. competition levels;

3. loose systems and structure (usually implemented through constant restructuring);

4. stressful environments subject to frequent and unexplained change;

5. organizations that struggle with conflict resolution.

Dysfunctional leaders impact the organization’s culture by engaging in self-destructive behaviors, which negatively impact the organization and followers. These behaviors have been discussed earlier in this book. Such behaviors compromise the leader’s



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reputation along with the values and the reputation of the organization. When personal and organizational values no longer align, the results reflect negatively on work attitudes and outcomes. Little regard is paid to the good of the organization or the followers.

In many cases, the environment allows or creates a situation where these behaviors thrive. Goldman (2006) explained that in some cases where dysfunctional leadership behaviors are dominant, organizations have been known to alter their policies and cultures to indirectly support the dysfunction. If the leader is dysfunctional, they drive the environment and create a culture that encourages the dysfunction to thrive and multiply.

When the organization does not address the problem, others believe that these behaviors are the norm. Members of the organizations become convinced that this type of behavior is permitted. In other cases it demonstrates that the organization may lack the skill to address the situation. By ignoring these behaviors, it sends the message to others inside and outside the organization that this type of behavior is recognized and rewarded. Once a dysfunctional leader applies their dysfunctional values instead of the core values of the organization, then dysfunction will dominate the values and will become the new norm. When dysfunction comes from the top, it flows down throughout the organization.

Aquino and Thau (2009) found that most powerful predictors of workplace mistreatment were failures at higher levels of management, including the actual behavior of leaders. The quality of interactions between leadership and followers set the foundation and tone for the organizational culture. Leaders who are dysfunctional have learned their dysfunction from previous leaders. This is the same for followers within the organization – they are taught the same dysfunction and begin to emulate these behaviors as they are groomed for the next level of leadership. Followers may view this behavior as acceptable and as a strategy to use in order to be promoted within the organization. When this occurs, it allows for the behavior to infiltrate all layers of the organization. Organizations that encourage competition create an environment that is competitive, as tactics are used to achieve numbers, meet goals and compete for resources or recognition. This can create a breeding ground for dysfunctional behavior to occur, as this type of environment may encourage unhealthy competition. In some cases, employees who are mistreated by leadership are viewed by others as part of the out-group, while those who are friends with or are accepted by the dysfunctional leader are viewed as part of the in-group.



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ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS

Complexity within organizations is associated with increased stress for leaders and followers. When the environment becomes stressful, organizations encounter an increase in dysfunctional behaviors. Organizations facing a shortage of skilled workers, limited resources and experiencing demands for more work with fewer resources all cause additional stress for leaders. When this occurs, leaders may reach their tipping point, allowing for dysfunctional behaviors to emerge. In today’s workforce, organizations are asked to be leaner and constantly competing for resources, creating additional stress for the leader and allowing dysfunction to thrive.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Research studies have indicated that participants believed that the organization contributes to dysfunctional leadership. Deciphering dysfunctional leadership attributes can be difficult for any organization to do. Determining dysfunctional behavior may take months of data collection, interviews and observation of behaviors. Many organizations do not have the mechanisms in place to address dysfunctional behavior. In addition, they may lack the structure to formally go through the process of terminating a leader. They may struggle through potential legal issues, protocols and procedures to properly address the problem.

Kusy and Holloway (2010) stated that one way in which organizations may address dysfunctional leadership is through restructuring the organization. They stated that restructuring may be a code word for something being wrong with a unit or division and by restructuring it, it may be possible to fix the problem. The goal of restructuring is that the leader will be pressured and will eventually leave the organization on their own initiative. In other cases, we see many dysfunctional leaders moving up within an organization in order to provide additional responsibility for the dysfunctional leader in the hope that they will leave the organization. Another tactic for reassigning a dysfunctional leader is to provide relief from the immediate problem, causing time for the organization to regroup. In other cases, the organization may hope that by providing coaching, training or counseling, it will be able to help the leader change, that the leader will see what the problem is and what they can do to change, but that is not the case. The problem does not go away; it will still exist. All of these are just short-term solutions to address the problem and eventually the behavior will resurface.

Restructuring or reassigning a dysfunctional leader causes more problems within the organization. Followers within the organization see that the organization recognizes



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that there is a problem, yet doesn’t know or want to address the problem. It also sends the message that while the organization knows that the problem exists, it is willing to allow it to continue. Kellerman (2004: 45) explained that this type of leadership is often viewed as being very insular and suggests that upper leadership “is willing to minimize or disregard the health and welfare of others and the organization for which they are directly responsible.” Insular leaders tend to operate on the basis of a need to preserve the integrity of their organization at any cost – even at the cost of the employees working in the organization as well as the culture of the organization. This type of leadership results in employees feeling as though they do not matter or that their welfare is of no concern to the organization. They do not feel valued and as a result of not feeling valued, they in turn do not reciprocate any loyalty back to the organization.

RESULTS AND DYSFUNCTION

Many of the dysfunctional leaders who have been discussed in this book thrive on chaos and instability within organizations. An organization with strong structures and governance in place is not somewhere that the toxic leader will survive in. Having a chaotic system or work environment is typically conducive of this type of behavior and of followers who will support this behavior. These components make for fertile ground for a dysfunctional leader to be successful in an organization. By enabling this type of behavior to happen within it, the organization is enabling harm to happen to its employees.

Many people ask how it is possible that a dysfunctional leader can stay in place and still be in a leadership position. The answer to that question is that the leader produces results and that they are productive within the organization; simply stated, they are getting results. Typically senior leadership sees the results, but nothing else. They do not look at how the results are achieved or are offset by the consequences of having a dysfunctional leader. More than likely, results will be short-lived. Dysfunctional leaders strive for quick wins in order to draw focus away from their behavior. By producing results, it makes it extremely difficult for the organization to address the dysfunctional behavior. After all, the leader is performing, producing results and meeting the expectations of the position. Visible results in terms of metrics related to productivity, costs and revenue is something that leadership can view and often cause them to overlook the negative behavior that exists.



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FOLLOWERSHIP AND ENABLING

Enabling dysfunctional leadership cannot be blamed on the organization alone. Followers play a role in enabling this type of behavior. In order for a dysfunctional leader to be successful, they need followers to help them to maintain their persona and to allow for their dysfunction to develop. They will use their followers to promote their agenda and to achieve results. The methods used may include focusing on fear and intimidation, but the leader will take credit for the results that are achieved. If followers are not willing to help the leader, then the leader becomes powerless.

Followers may also receive something from the dysfunctional relationship. This may mean they are connecting with the leader, receiving recognition, or another basic need is being met. For example, the dysfunctional leader finds a person who wants to move up within the organization or has goals that they want to achieve. The dysfunctional leader may focus on supporting that person as a way to get what they want from them. The relationship then becomes a co-dependent relationship and they rely on each other to promote each other’s agenda. The follower learns leadership methods through their dysfunctional leader. Individuals typically mirror the behavior of people who are in authority positions, thereby leading them to learn and adopt dysfunctional behaviors from their leaders. Other followers may not want to engage with the dysfunctional leader and they become the brunt of negative interactions or are targeted. While the followers who are supporting the agenda of the leader are rewarded through promotions, monetary rewards or perks, others are being punished and targeted in order for the leader to retain their position of power. Followers who enable the dysfunctional behavior do so due to a survival instinct. In other cases, the organization does not have the structure for followers to report dysfunctional behavior. Often the follower is intimidated into not reporting the leader to individuals higher up in the leadership hierarchy and will just say nothing about what they experience or witness.

It is also difficult for followers to report dysfunctional behavior when the dysfunction is found at higher levels within the organization. Padilla, Hogan and Kaiser (2007) explain that dysfunctional leadership is most likely found in senior jobs where there is little supervision. When a follower or junior leader experiences dysfunctional leadership at the upper levels of the organization, they may find it difficult to report these behaviors and may just suffer in silence. If employees are suffering in silence, upper leadership may not even be aware that the behavior is happening. They see the dysfunctional leader producing results, but they are not hearing or seeing anything that would indicate that dysfunctional actions are taking place. Remember, the



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dysfunctional leader will often come across to senior leadership as charming, competent and capable. When they are out of sight of senior leadership, the situation may be very different and the dysfunction can thrive in other areas and go unreported. As organizations become leaner and flatter, they find that there are fewer structures in place to identify dysfunctional behavior or mechanisms for followers to report this type of behavior.

ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT AND DYSFUNCTION

Through the analysis of each of the dysfunctions examined in the previous chapters, we find that the dysfunctional leader loves to create and thrives on conflict and turmoil. Conflict is often referred to as counterproductive behavior impacting the normal functioning of productivity and efficiency (Boddy, 2014; Dunlop & Lee, 2004). Unhealthy conflict may cause dysfunction at all levels of the organization. For many, when negative conflict occurs, there is a need for revenge, sabotage and counterproductive behavior to take place. When an organization does nothing to address these behaviors, employees act out by fixing what is wrong and working against the leader, as well as the organization that they feel has wronged them. It does not mean that they will lash out at the dysfunctional leader, but they may instead lash out at the entire organization. This behavior can be subtle in terms of abusing sick time or work hours to outright sabotage within the organization and, in rare cases, can include acts of physical violence.

HOW DYSFUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP IMPACTS FOLLOWERS

Kellerman (2004) suggests that followers need safety, security, group affiliation and some predictability. Traditionally, people are taught to respect people in positions of authority. Just as organizations are impacted negatively through dysfunctional leadership, the follower or the target experiences the brunt of the dysfunction. There are many ways that the target suffers, including job-related issues, physical distress and emotional distress. The following explores these concepts in further detail.

DYSFUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction is a well-researched area within organizational studies; however, definitions pertaining to job satisfaction have been elusive. They include the range of employee feelings, emotional, mental and physical demands. Others have defined job satisfaction as being connected to highest earnings with the least amount of effort, while



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others define it as “an attitude toward one’s job” (Brief, 1998: 10). Others have defined job satisfaction as an individual’s general attitude as it relates to their work environment (Robbins, 2003). Griffin and Ebert (2002) stated that satisfied employees experienced higher levels of morale and more commitment to their organizations. Research has found that there is a relationship between performance and job satisfaction. Ostroff (1992) explained that satisfied workers are productive and are more likely to engage in activities that are focused on collaboration and increased productivity. In contrast, unsatisfied employees fail to meet organizational goals and move away from efforts to achieve these goals. Ultimately, dissatisfied, unmotivated workers who struggle to reach organizational goals are detrimental to the life of the organization.

Research conducted by Aryee, Sun, Chen, and Deborah (2008) found that dysfunctional leadership affects personal and job satisfaction, including turnover intentions, health problems, psychological distress and lack of belonging within an organization. Research has found that the levels of commitment demonstrated by employees are critical components linked to performance, satisfaction and intention to leave. Tepper, Duffy, Henle and Lambert (2006) explained that followers who perceive that their supervisors are abusive are less satisfied with their jobs and are less willing to perform pro-social organizational behaviors. Pro-social behaviors include initiative, assisting and loyalty in relation to the organization. When employees demonstrate anti-social behavior, this is manifested as obstruction, sabotage, resistance and non-compliance with the rules and organizational goals of the organization.

EMOTIONAL IMPACT

All of the examples of dysfunctional leadership elicit some type of emotional response from their target. This could manifest itself in the form of fear, anxiety, anger, sadness or depression. The most common emotion experienced by targets relates to the stress caused by the dysfunction. Stress may manifest itself in emotional symptoms, physical symptoms or both. In this section, emotional impact related to stress will be explored.

WORK AND FAMILY CONFLICT

Targets exposed to dysfunctional leadership experience an increase in work and family conflicts. Relationships with peers suffer as targets are either isolated from them or begin to socially withdraw. Conversely, the target may seek out peers to talk



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about the experience and the peers may begin to withdraw from the target as a way to protect themselves. The target may choose to share experiences with family members who are unable to understand or relate to the situation, and slowly the relationship with family members may begin to suffer. Targets may go home and take their anger and frustrations out on their family members. In other cases, the target may talk obsessively about nothing but the experience and the dysfunctional leader. As the target continues to suffer from emotional distress, they begin to withdraw from social and family obligations. Friends start to distance themselves from the target and the target feels abandoned by friends and family, who by now are tired of discussing the issue repeatedly.

DEPRESSION

Targets typically experience depression along with feelings of hopelessness and darkness. They feel as though they are alone in their suffering. They feel stuck in a situation. A job that they once enjoyed and loved now becomes something that they dread. They start to apply for other positions or look for ways to leave the abusive situation, only to find that there may not be any opportunities for them. They feel as though they deserve what is happening to them. As in battered wife syndrome, the target believes that they deserve or have asked for this abuse to happen. Their world darkens and the lack of joy begins to seep into their personal lives as well. If the depression goes untreated, then the target may begin to contemplate methods to escape the situation. In some cases, the escape is contemplation of suicide. For some, the thought of death is better than living in this type of situation. In rare cases there are reported incidents of suicide related to interactions with a dysfunctional leader.

ANXIETY

Another form of emotional distress is anxiety in relation to the situation. The target is always afraid of when the next explosive episode will take place. They become anxious about their work and they start to question themselves and decisions they may make. Some have described the anxiety as waiting for the next shoe to drop. If nothing happens, they may let their guard down. They become anxious when they see the dysfunctional leader or anticipate an interaction with that leader. This anxiety may creep into their personal lives, interrupting their sleep as the anxiety keeps them awake, worrying about the next work day and what awaits them. Or they may replay interactions with the dysfunctional leader repeatedly and wonder how they could have handled the situation differently.



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HUMILIATION

Targets describe that they feel humiliation from events involving the dysfunctional leader, whether this is humiliation from being diminished or from repeated criticism, belittling or gossiping. In other cases the humiliation occurs when the target is let go from the organization or blocked from moving up within the organization as the dysfunctional leader holds them back. Humiliation occurs from having peers, other leaders and bystanders witnessing the behavior directed by the dysfunctional leader toward the target. False accusations regarding incompetence, blame, weaknesses and being unprepared are other examples of how the target may experience humiliation.

ISOLATION

Many targets will experience some form of isolation. This may be self-imposed isolation, where the target will intentionally distance themselves from others. They will first try to distance themselves from the person inflicting the pain. They will try to avoid them. Targets have stated: “When the leader is gone, it is usually a good day. When they return, I spend most of my day planning techniques to avoid them and finding ways where I don’t have to interact with that person” (research study conducted by Roter in 2016), Targets will also begin to isolate themselves from others within the organization. In some cases, they may experience humiliation and feel embarrassed or ashamed to interact with others, resulting in further isolation. In addition, they begin to distrust co-workers and other leaders. They start to question who they can and cannot trust. Barriers are built and trust is now replaced with mistrust, suspicion and barriers, which becomes their normal behavior.

LACK OF PERSONAL CONTROL

Targets begin to suffer from a lack of control in their lives. Ultimately the dysfunctional leader is the one who is in control at all times. Their main agenda is focused on controlling others, situations and events. The target on the other hand feels as though they have lost all control. The first loss of control is in their work life. Emotionally they feel as though they are unable to control anything in the workplace. The dysfunctional leader controls the target through their work. They begin to either overload them with work and demands or they start to remove responsibilities from them. The target does not dare challenge the control as they are afraid of how this will impact them further. Then the target begins to feel as though they are losing control over their professional lives. Opportunities do not exist for the target as their careers begin to derail. The dysfunctional leader will remove opportunities for



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development or they will prevent the target from moving up within the organization. Eventually, the target begins to lose control over their personal lives. In a sense, they feel as though everything around them is falling apart and they do not have any control over what is happening to them. They begin to wear themselves down as a result of the constant threats and tactics used against them. They start to doubt themselves, their abilities and their life. They question how another person could do this and then they question what they are doing wrong to provoke this behavior. When nothing happens to fix the situation and the organization appears to tolerate the behavior, they feel as though they have no control over anything in their lives. In order to gain some control over the situation, they find a way to leave the unit or the organization in order to escape the experience of being under the dysfunctional leader. Sometimes this exit is voluntary and sometimes it is involuntary. Most targets try to leave the organization on their own terms and will look for another job. It has been stated numerous times that people don’t quit their jobs, they quit their leaders. Employees exposed to a dysfunctional leader feel as though they have no choice but to leave the organization or mentally check out. A dysfunctional leader can destroy the careers and lives of many good employees. At other times, targets are pushed out of the organization through termination of employment.

POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is common for targets of dysfunctional leaders. PTSD does not go away quickly and can be with the target for many years, even after they have removed themselves from the situation. Targets can suffer for years with anxiety, nightmares, fears and constantly reliving the trauma by questioning what happened, experiencing feelings of anger and resentment toward the leader. Questions continue; they wonder how the leader could get away with what happened. They focus on the injustice and unfair treatment, reliving humiliating events with feelings of shame or guilt. There are feelings of concern for leaving others behind to deal with the dysfunctional leader (survivor guilt). Individuals will relive interactions with the dysfunctional leader. In their mind they will analyze how they should have dealt with the situation. They are also left to wonder why they were even targeted to begin with. Leymann (1990) stated that PTSD episodes associated with dysfunction in the workplace was actually more traumatic than train engineers who witnessed suicides of people jumping in front of trains.

SELF-HARMING BEHAVIOR

Targets of dysfunctional leadership often report that they will look to self-harming



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behaviors as a means of coping with the situation. Some report the over-use of recreational or pharmaceutical drugs, alcohol, abuse of food or eating, along with self-harming, including cutting, hair pulling and other forms of physical self-abuse. Additional destructive coping mechanisms include overspending, gambling, physically abusing others and sexual promiscuity.

Table 9.2 gives some other symptoms of emotional distress.

Table 9.2 • Psychological Symptoms

PHYSICAL IMPACT

There is a correlation between stress and emotional distress manifesting as physical symptoms. Targets typically can suffer from one or many forms of physical distress. The frequency and severity of this distress will depend on the individual and their tolerance to stress. The most common form of physical distress is associated with gastro-intestinal issues in the form of nausea, diarrhea, constipation, irritable bowel syndrome and colitis. Other common physical symptoms include headaches ranging from tension to migraine headaches. Table 9.3 provides a list of additional physical symptoms that may be experienced.

Table 9.3 • Physical Symptoms



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FINANCIAL/ECONOMIC IMPACT

Along with emotional and physical distress, targets begin to experience financial and economic issues as well. As their physical and psychological distress escalates, targets will increase their use of sick time and paid time off. In order to survive, they will begin to use “mental health days” to escape the situation. Sick days are used because of an increase in physical symptoms that makes it difficult for them to cope or function in the workplace. Eventually, they will exhaust their balance of time off and will begin to take time off without pay or apply for unpaid family medical leave. Alternatively, they may just take time off in order to avoid the dysfunctional leader. They may be faced with either termination, quitting or accepting a position with lower pay. In extreme cases employees will leave the organization without a job to go to. Personal savings, retirement savings and funds from house sales are used to supplement lost wages and unpaid doctors’ bills until another job is found. Depending on their levels of PSTD and their physical and emotional issues, they may not return to work as quickly as is financially necessary. In cases of unemployment, it is not uncommon for the dysfunctional leader to dispute unemployment claims as the final insult to the target. In some cases the target may file harassment and discrimination suits against the organization and/or the dysfunctional leader, resulting in costly legal fees and dragged-out legal disputes.

BYSTANDERS

The target is not the only one who is impacted by the dysfunctional leader. Bystanders who witness the dysfunction often experience negative fallout from the dysfunctional leader. Though their experience may not be the same as that of the target, they do see the pain inflicted on one of their co-workers as well as others in the unit. They may experience feelings of regret, helplessness at not being able to help and guilt. They may also experience anxiety, wondering whether they will be identified as a target. Many bystanders often say that they keep their heads down and try to stay out of the line of fire. Often they are just as much a target as the target because they feel as though they are unable to report it and are helpless. They fear retribution or retaliation if they act out. They also fear becoming a target.

STAGES OF UNDERSTANDING

Ultimately employees are faced with a myriad of emotions when dealing with a dysfunctional leader. While feeling controlled, manipulated and used, employees look to



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find a place to discuss these feelings. However, in the majority of cases, employees feel that they have no place to go to report dysfunctional leadership behavior. Often, they suffer in silence for long periods of time. Suffering can last longer than a year as the employee goes through different stages of understanding. The first stage is questioning the behavior. Questions asked by the target include “Is it me or is it them?” and “How can a person act this way?” During the second phase, the person starts questioning themselves. They see that the leader continues to get away with their behavior, in many cases being praised by upper leadership. Then the employee starts to ask questions like “Maybe they are right – they are being recognized by some of the smartest people in the organization – maybe I am incompetent.” Next they move into a phase of wanting to fix the problem by changing their work performance so that perhaps the leader will leave them alone. They start to work harder and second-guess their every step, resulting in more mistakes or being called out again for being indecisive. This only increases the focus of the dysfunctional leader on the target even further and the cycle escalates. Eventually, the target surrenders and gives up. They move into a phase of realizing there is nothing that can be done. They start to look for ways to leave the organization or to give in to the continued abuse from the dysfunctional leader, hoping that in time it will stop or maybe the leader will go somewhere else.

CONCLUSION

Dysfunctional leadership damages the organization’s culture by violating the interests of the organization and diminishing the commitment and motivation of members within that organization. The behavior of dysfunctional leaders causes lasting harm to the organization’s culture, values and norms. This damage impacts how members are guided through the navigation of proper protocols within the organization. Culture influences the way employees feel about the organization and how they interact with one another. The way in which the organization addresses issues of dysfunctional leadership has a lasting impact on the culture of the organization, whether in the short term or the long term. The impact of dysfunctional leadership as it relates to members of the organization also has a damaging impact in relation to the physical and psychological toll on followers. Whether directly or indirectly impacted by dysfunctional leaders, all of them suffer as a result of the behavior of a dysfunctional leader. The cost is high in terms of a person’s mental and physical well-being. In some cases, the cost can be a life, when an employee feels as though they can no longer cope with dysfunctional leadership and feel that the only escape or relief is by taking their own life.



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Ashforth, B. 1997. Petty tyranny in organizations: A preliminary examination of antecedents and consequences. Canadian Journal of Administrative Services, 14(2), 126–140.

Aubrey, D. 2012. The effect of toxic leadership. Carlisle, PA: United States Army War College.

Boddy, C. 2014. Corporate psychopaths, conflict, employee affective well-being and counterproductive work behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 121(1), 107–121.

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Kindness in Leadership

By Gay Haskins, Michael Thomas and Lalit Johri ©2018 Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

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KINDNESS IN LEADERSHIP AT WORK

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KINDNESS IN LEADERSHIP AT WORKGay Haskins and Mike Thomas

Excerpted from Kindness in Leadership

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In order for companies to improve, the people of the organization have to become smarter and more resourceful and work together more effectively over time. For this to work, people actually have to care about their work, the company, and one another. This requires the expert orchestration of a kind leader.

(William Baker & Michael O’Malley, Leading with Kindness, 2008: 21)

INTRODUCTION

In 2008, Dr Willian Baker, President Emeritus of Educational Broadcasting Corporation and Dr Michael O’Malley, Executive Editor for Business, Economics and Law at Yale University Press published a thought-provoking and practical book, Leading with Kindness: How Good People Consistently Get Superior Results (Baker & O’Malley 2008). This was certainly one of the first management books to point to kindness as a sign of organisational strength and as a key characteristic of excellence in leadership.

Nonetheless, many people we have talked with, perceive kindness to be lacking in their work environment. “There was never much kindness when I worked in the hospitality sector,” said one of our friends, “Work long hours and get paid – and don’t expect much else! It was a tough regime to work in.” A senior manager in a well-known high-technology company could hardly wait to retire: “It’s all about cost-cutting and short-term results,” he said. Society, particularly in the western world, seems highly focussed on competitive individualism, freedom and independence. In free-market capitalism, there is no place for the kind-hearted (Phillips & Taylor 2009).

Professor Raj Sisodia of Babson College in Boston is particularly critical of the state of business in the United States. He writes: “Business has become dehumanized and impersonal. Human beings are treated as functions or objects, as interchangeable and disposable as machine parts…. The vast majority of people are dispirited and uninspired at work. They feel disrespected, not listened to, and devalued” (Sisodia quoted in Worline & Dutton 2017: ix).

Others are more optimistic and point to signs of change. Over the last 25 years, there has been an increasing articulation of the importance of emotional intelligence, mindfulness and compassion and their positive role in organisations. They are seen to be important in alleviating stress and encouraging greater awareness of emotions, feelings and well-being. Attributes like collaboration, teamwork, and interpersonal



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relations are also increasingly seen to contribute positively to performance. There has been little mention, however, of the specific importance of kindness to organisational functionality.

There has also been a sharp rise in the number of social enterprises, frequently with a double or triple bottom line objective of sustainable financial performance, positive social impact and positive environmental impact. Movements like Conscious Capitalism and Inclusive Capitalism have emerged, calling for greater awareness of values and the higher purpose of business and a capitalism that is more equitable, sustainable and inclusive. (For more detailed information, see Chapter 9.)

We move forward in this chapter, therefore, to an initial consideration of kindness as an organisational value and how it can be exemplified. It is based primarily on research and our own experience, rather than surveys or focussed discussions, the approach taken in the four chapters that follow. We want to throw some light on the types of organisation which do place an emphasis on kindness and some of the traits that the leaders of kind organisations exemplify. We will also provide some initial evidence of the impact of kindness on organisational functionality, operations and performance. Our intention is not to provide definitive answers but to offer some background on organisational kindness which will be explored further in the chapters that follow. In this chapter, we shall:

• Look at some organisations that have compassion, empathy and/or kindness as a core value or that exemplify kindness;

• Consider what it means to be a kind leader at work as well as what a kind leader is not;

• Examine the costs of leading with kindness;

• Discuss the benefits that kindness might bring to the workplace, its culture, functionality and performance.

KINDNESS AS AN ORGANISATIONAL VALUE

Just over 20 years ago, the well-known business writer Jim Collins and Stanford Professor Jerry Porras authored a paper in the Harvard Business Review, called “Building your Company’s Vision.” They described core values as, “A small set of timeless guiding principles.” Values strongly complement the purpose of the organisation, endure over time and can be described in behavioural terms (Collins & Porras 1996). In this section, we will look at six UK and US organisations (two from



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the public sector and four from the private sector) that formally emphasise kindness or compassion as a core value or that were set up for kind purposes.

UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL LANCASHIRE: KINDNESS AS A QUALITY AND AN ACT

We begin with a live case of Mike’s own experience as Vice Chancellor at the University of Central Lancashire (UCLAN) in Preston, UK. Founded in 1828, Central Lancashire is one of the UK’s largest universities, with a student and staff population approaching 38,000.

At UCLAN, kindness as both a quality and an act has been embodied in the university values, its People Plan and within the Senior Executive Team weekly meetings. In 2016, following extensive discussion and debate, the University adopted five values which support the organisational culture and provide guidance for its activities. These are:

• Common sense: we are empowered to use judgement to do the right thing.

• Compassion: we treat students, staff and the wider community with consideration, care and honesty.

• Teamwork: we think and act together, valuing collective as highly as individual achievements.

• Attention to detail (attentiveness): we take personal and professional pride in the quality of our work.

• Trust: we rely on each other, showing respect and integrity in all of our activities.

The contours of kindness can be seen in trust, compassion and teamwork whilst the pragmatic application of kindness can be seen in the emphasis on common sense and attentiveness. In the context of kindness, the emphasis is on ‘common’ sense, using one’s thinking and reflection to bring people together and agree. The word ‘common’ is not to do with its frequency, but to do with its sense of commonality, working together for the common good. Attentiveness is focussed on empathy, emotional intelligence and self-awareness of one’s own professional role to care for and help others.

The University has a reputation for being friendly and welcoming and, in the most recent staff survey (2017) carried out by an independent external organisation, 92 per cent of staff stated that they are happy in their work and nearly 90 per cent said they are happy in the organisation. During the period of embedding the values, the University has risen in all league tables and in 2017 was viewed as one of the most improved universities and the 5th highest riser by The Guardian: positive results both internally and externally.



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However applying such values within the organisational activities has not been easy. The University has adopted compassion as a core value rather than kindness because early consultation indicated that some managers perceived the word kindness as associated with weakness or a lack of resolution. Putting forward kindness was a risk for some and compassion, even though it is a kindness attribute, was seen as an acceptable first step in the University journey towards a more relational leadership approach.

Getting different constituents within the University to agree on definitions was also challenging. Human Resources, Trade Unions, the Student Union, academic leaders and academic experts in ethics, management, psychology, health, business, science and the arts had to thrash out a form of words that have real practical and applied meaning. And all within a culture of retaining focus as core activities and on students and following major structural change. Applying kindness requires resilience, patience and pragmatism.

An example of how the University of Central Lancashire’s team acted to demonstrate true kindness was their response to helping staff and students from the American University of the Caribbean, (AUC) who had experienced the impact of Hurricane Irma in September 2017 which devastated the Island of St Maarten where they were based. Hearing of the damage done and the risk to ongoing medical education, the University proposed to bring nearly 700 students and staff with their families to Preston, Lancashire so they could continue their medical studies uninterrupted whilst the island was repaired. The logistics and organisational challenge were huge but the situation was made manageable as staff drew together (many volunteering to help across disciplines and specialisms) so AUC colleagues and students could access accommodation, schools, timetables, learning resources, health registration and many other requirements. Preston City, civic groups, the private sector and government agencies also joined in and a real sense of focused support, teamwork, compassion and kindness in action was demonstrated across the university and the local community. The whole transfer was completed in just nine days. The impact on the University of Central Lancashire staff and student morale as they put the University values into effect has been hugely positive and a real sense of lifelong friendships and long-term collaboration has been planted between the AUC and UCLAN.

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON HOSPITALS (UCLH): PUTTING THE VALUE OF

KINDNESS INTO PRACTICE

University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust (UCLH) is one of the largest NHS trusts in the United Kingdom, committed to “delivering top-quality



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patient care, excellent education and world class research” (www.uclh.nhs.uk). When you enter the huge atrium on the main site, you will see the values of UCLH emblazoned all over the walls: Safety; Kindness; Teamwork; Improving. (See Figure 2.1) The values were launched in 2012 following consultation with over 1,500 staff and patients and the aim is to ensure that all UCLH hospitals live to the same philosophy. In 2017, newly appointed CEO, Marcel Levi, summarised their importance as follows: “By living our values we can help ensure that UCLH is a fantastic place both to work and be treated.”

Figure 2.1 • The Values of University College London Hospitals Source: Photograph taken at UCLH’s main site in 2017.

A short and easy to remember statement goes alongside each value:

• We put your safety and well-being above everything

• We offer you kindness that we would want for a loved one

• We achieve through teamwork

• We strive to keep improving.

The expectations required to put the value of kindness into practice are shown in Figure 2.2.

It can be seen that several of the actions shown in Figure 2.2 are specific to the healthcare sector and very much based on actions towards patients: those in the boxes called “Protect your dignity,” for instance. These read (in the column “Love to see”): “creates an environment of privacy and dignity and is an active advocate for the vulnerable, both patients and colleagues.” However, other suggested acts of kindness could resonate in many other types of organisations. These include: “Remembers people’s names, faces or facts to ‘personalise’ service; makes others feel special and individual; goes the extra mile, putting themselves out for the benefit of others.”



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Figure 2.2 also points out a number of negative behaviours: these are listed in the column “Don’t want to see.” They include behaviours like insensitivity to the needs/preferences of others, being dismissive of the views of others and being rude, aggressive and impolite. It is important to understand what an organisation that aspires to be kind should and should not do.

As a fairly frequent visitor/patient at UCLH, Gay can attest to seeing the value of kindness in action on numerous occasions. Little things seem to happen there: staff show you the way to a section of the hospital; a hand therapist spends lots of time explaining the procedure required to heal a minor injury; an oncologist is the embodiment of kindness.

Figure 2.2 • Putting the value of kindness into practice at University College London Hospitals. Source: UCLH www.uclh.nhs.uk (20 October 2017).



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But perhaps kindness should be expected as a core value for hospitals and their staff? Among London hospitals, kindness is also a core value at the hospitals administered through Imperial College Healthcare and St George’s University Hospitals, while compassion is a core value of The Royal Marsden and Wellington Hospitals. Similarly top US hospitals, the Mayo Clinic and Massachusetts General Hospital both have compassion as a core value. A number of empathy training programmes have been developed for hospital staff, reflecting the importance the medical profession is placing on empathy, compassion and kindness. (Further details of these are given in Chapter 9.) It makes sense for kindness and compassion to be valued in sectors like education and healthcare. (See also Chapters 3 and 9.)

It is less easy to find examples of kindness and compassion as core values in the private sector or of organisations that were founded with kind action at their core. But they do exist.

As we have already mentioned, a number of social enterprises have been established solely for the purpose of societal betterment: in the UK, social enterprises are growing fast, with close to half five years old or less. In 2015, 50 per cent reported a surplus, almost all of which is used to further social or environmental goals (www.socialenterprise.org.uk). Several Asian social enterprises like the Aravind Eye Hospitals, Grameen Bank, and Barefoot College are now legendary and admired around the world. We start our exploration by looking at a company that was founded for good – as an act of kindness to the underprivileged – and that has now been in business for over 170 years.

NATIONWIDE BUILDING SOCIETY: A COMPANY BUILT FOR GOOD

The Southern Co-operative Permanent Building Society (SCPBS) was formed in 1884, initially to provide the members of the co-operative movement the opportunity to purchase homes. To begin with, the Society built the houses, but soon changed its direction to lend money to members to build their own, or to purchase existing properties. Through rapid expansion and strategic planning, SCPBS grew to become a major competitor. It was renamed the Nationwide Building Society by a members’ vote in 1970 and is now the world’s largest mutual financial institution, still owned and run for the benefit of its members. It is the UK’s second largest mortgage provider and one of the UK’s largest savings providers and has performed well, even following the financial crises of 2008/9.

In 2016, poet Jo Bell was commissioned to write a poem about the history of Nationwide for an advertising campaign that the company was launching. She had



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expected “the usual patter – ‘We are passionate about financial products etc. Instead, I found myself talking to people who really believe in the company” (www.writeoutloud.net 2017). Her poem, “Building the Building Society” begins with a description of London in 1884, a city where fortune favours the fortunate. In the second part of the poem she focusses on the words of Charles Cooper, a life-long advocate for the co-operative movement, who proposed the initial founding of a building society in London, became its first secretary and then in 1886, became director.

Mr Cooper says. Put sixpence in the tin and start to climb. We all have a share. We all get a vote. We’re in the same boat. Stand together and build; a nation of helpers, a nation of houses with hopers inside. The currency of kindness: Nationwide.

(Bell 2007)

Charles Cooper proposed the idea of the building society out of a social need to offer ordinary people the chance to save or own property. It offered a “currency of kindness.” This still resonates today. In an interview for the Spring 2017 edition of the Journal of the UK Building Societies Association, Nationwide CEO Joe Garner said: “For more than one hundred years Nationwide has been driven by the principles of mutuality, care and security, At their best, building societies make a difference to our members’ and colleagues lives…and help improve the living conditions of what our founders called the ‘industrious classes’” (Garner 2017).

THE JOHN LEWIS PARTNERSHIP: PULLING TOGETHER FOR COMMON ADVANTAGE

Our second private sector example is an established and admired UK department store, owned by its employees. With annual gross sales of over £11 billion, The John Lewis Partnership belongs to its 86,700 employee partners and owns 48 John Lewis department stores and 383 Waitrose Supermarkets across the UK. The Partnership was formed in 1950 by John Spendan Lewis, son of the founder John Lewis. Spendan Lewis joined the company in 1914 and was put in charge of his father’s second shop, Peter Jones in Sloane Square. He soon realised that the salaries of himself, his brother and his father were the same amount as the combined salaries of everyone employed in the John Lewis stores. In a video clip made towards the end of his life, he recalled the establishment of the Partnership as:

An experiment…with an idea for a better way of managing business so that instead of the many being exploited by the few, there would be genuine partnership for all, managers and



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managed alike all pulling together for their Common Advantage. General change this way would I believe give us a vast increase of production and a much healthier, happier world. Experiments like these are very much needed. To help in one of them can be a very good use of one’s life. I hope that as the years pass, you will feel this more and more.

(BBC 2014)

Since its foundation, the John Lewis Partnership has generally performed well, with profits growing steadily in the 15 year period between 1999/ 2000 and 2014/2105, from £194.7 million to £342.7 million. In January 2017, the Partnership recorded gross sales up by 3.2 per cent and profit before Partnership bonus, tax and exceptional items up by 21.2 per cent. Employee benefits are many and include: the Partnership annual bonus scheme, a non-contributory, final salary pension scheme, product discounts, generous holiday allowances (six weeks for all Partners after ten years’ service), life assurance, subsidised dining facilities, holiday and leisure facilities, subsidised clubs, societies and tickets for theatre, opera and music, volunteering secondments for up to six months, education subsidies and bursaries for the pursuit of excellence (see www.johnlewispartnership.co.uk). The Partnership has become the standard by which other businesses are measured. It is known for its kindness and generosity to its employees.

There are signs, however, that top management salaries at the Partnership might not now meet with the approval of its founder. In Spendan Lewis’ time, top management salaries were fixed at four times the average wage of a man in London with four children. Today, the Chairman receives a significantly higher differential in pay, although still far less than the differentials in many other major UK firms (Burgess 2017). We will return to the question of fair pay in Chapter 8.

AGENCY H5, CHICAGO: ALWAYS LEAD WITH KINDNESS

We turn now to a mid-sized company and focus on Kathleen Kenehan Henson, who founded Henson Consulting (now Agency H5) in 2001. Since that time, this boutique PR agency has grown to be a mid-sized company with some 50 ‘team members.’ It has received numerous accolades and features some major US brands among its clients. Kindness is the company’s first and foremost core value and an important feature of its culture, both internally among colleagues and externally with clients and contacts.



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Agency H5 has worked to cultivate a unique culture propelled by kindness, and we demonstrate that in the way we treat our clients, media contacts, industry colleagues and each other, which isn’t always a common business practice today.

(www.agencyh5.com)

Kathleen Kenehan Henson describes herself as a leader who has “always led by kindness” as her secret for success. She has said that kindness makes her business associates feel a “sense of trust and comfort” and will also “benefit the bottom line.” Clients, she contends, are impressed that kindness is the firm’s top core value, particularly in an industry sector that is known to be tough, fast-paced and not known for its kindness. She advocates the following five policies and actions in support of kindness.

Hire the Person, not the Position….The individuals who exhibit a kind, genuine, happy personality are the ones who usually have the longest tenure.

Practice Gratitude in All Situations….It’s sure easy to be thankful and nice when the good stuff happens at work, but it’s just as important to be thankful and kind when a bad situation hits you squarely on the jaw.

Stop Trying to Control Everything….I’ve come to realise that I am not in control of 90 per cent of what happens in my work day. I can only control how I react and respond.

Be Your Authentic Self….I’ve seen first-hand that the seeds of kindness you plant in the past will often bloom when you least expect it.

Practice Kindness Everywhere….Optimism and a grateful heart are actually quite contagious.

(Kenehan Henson 2017)

Agency H5 has kindness both in its values and its policies. This makes it rather unusual in comparison to many other organisations. It is possible that the ability to exemplify kindness both internally and in the eyes of its customers has something to do with its size. In Chapter 6, we focus on Independent Owner Managed Businesses. We suggest in that chapter that the ‘smallness’ of the majority of such businesses



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creates the opportunity for wider and more intimate understanding of personal circumstance and character of employees, and therefore the possibility of kindness, compared with larger firms.

Kathleen Kenehan Henson’s story of a company ‘founded on kindness’ provides the Epilogue to this book.

KINDNESS AND COMPASSION: ON THE AGENDA AT LINKEDIN

Our final example is LinkedIn. In the USA, compassionate management seems to be on the agenda of some of the best-known high-tech companies. The annual Wisdom 2.0 conference each February in San Francisco brings together over 2,500 people from around the world to discuss challenges related to living connected through technology in ways that are beneficial to well-being, work and building a better world (www.wisdom2summit.com). The topic of Compassion has featured quite frequently at the events and high-tech leaders like eBay founder Pierre Omidyar, Karen May, VP of Talent at Google, and LinkedIn CEO Jeff Weiner have all attended.

In 2013, Jeff Weiner informed the conference that he had made the practice of compassionate management a core value at LinkedIn. He said that showing compassion to an employee and spending time with them paid off: in that person’s greater efficiency, productivity and effectiveness (Fryer 18/09/2013). This followed a blog that he had posted on LinkedIn in 2012 called ‘Managing Compassionately.’ He wrote: “Of all the management principles I have adopted over the years, either through direct experience or learning from others, there is one I aspire to live by more than any other….The principle is managing compassionately” (Weiner 2012).

Jeff Weiner’s short article, which is strongly recommended reading, goes on to discuss the meaning of compassion as both being in the shoes of a sufferer and doing everything you can to alleviate their suffering. He then writes about the fact that compassion can and should be taught, not only in schools but also in adult learning. At the end of January 2017, he issued his own LinkedIn Learning course, On Compassionate Management, emphasising the links between compassionate behaviour and achieving results.

I think that one of the most important drivers of long-term value within an organization is the speed and quality of its decision making. When you cultivate trust, when you cultivate compassionate management, you put yourself and your team in a position where you can be making high quality decisions faster.

(Weiner cited in Staples 2017)



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ATTRIBUTES OF THE KIND LEADER AT WORK

What then are the attributes that a kind leader should exemplify? LinkedIn’s Jeff Weiner stresses compassion and empathy, the importance of putting yourself in the shoes of other people. Kathleen Kenehan Henson, has a number of practical suggestions including being authentic, showing gratitude, not trying to control everything and consistently practicing kindness.

BAKER AND O’MALLEY’S SIX INGREDIENTS OF KINDNESS

In their book, Leading with Kindness, cited at the opening to this chapter, William Baker and Michael O’Malley see kindness as closely linked to a basic connection among people engaged in meaningful, reciprocal relationships. These relations, they suggest are cultivated by six ‘virtues’, which can be viewed as the ‘ingredients’ of kindness within the workplace context.

• Compassion: “because it provides employees with that extra amount of strength they need to perform, whether it’s overcoming personal problems, trouble at home, or job-specific challenges.”

• Integrity: “People with integrity reliably, consistently, and predictably act on a set of values that ensures safety in interpersonal encounters. They keep promises and confidences, remain forthright and non-evasive, and are un-biased and even-handed”

• Gratitude: “To appreciate is to recognise that you are not alone in this world and that there are many things of value beyond one’s self.”

• Authenticity: “When leaders… give authenticity a central place in leadership, they understand what distinguishes genuine leaders from forgers.”

• Humility: “The value of humility to leadership… owes to the ‘groundedness’ of the people who have it….It’s what keeps them down-to-earth.”

• Humor: “a sense of humor has been related to interpersonal competencies such as warmth, ability to listen, flexible thinking and perspective-taking, openness, maturity and kindness.”

(Baker & O’Malley 2008: Chapter 2, 41–71)

The idea of ‘ingredients’ of kindness is intriguing and parallels that of ‘contours’ of kindness outlined in Chapter 1. It suggests that there is a range of attributes that the kind leader exemplifies and for Baker and O’Malley, “These are not optional character traits, that are simply nice to have, but are required if you want to be an



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effective leader” (Baker & O’Malley 2008: Chapter 2, 41). It will be noted that a number of the ‘virtues’ above (for instance, compassion, gratitude, authenticity) have been mentioned by Kathleen Kenechan Henson and Jeff Weiner. Compassion must also have played a big role in the decisions that Charles Cooper and Spendan Lewis took when setting up their companies. A number (perhaps particularly compassion, gratitude, humility and humour) are also characteristics of the servant leadership approach which combines a motivation to lead with a motivation to serve.

THE SERVANT LEADERSHIP APPROACH: PUTTING OTHERS FIRST

The phrase ‘servant leadership’ was coined by Robert Greenleaf in an essay published in 1970. He wrote that servant leaders are ‘servant first’ and behave differently from those who are ‘leader first.’ He wrote:

The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served…. A servant leader focuses primarily on the growth and well-being of people and the communities to which they belong….The servant leader shares power, puts the needs of others first and helps people develop and perform as highly as possible.

(Greenleaf 1970: 6)

Professors Dirk Van Dierendonck and Kathleen Patterson (2015) suggest that the servant leadership approach provides leaders with a perspective of organisational virtues and may encourage more effective and meaningful working relations, providing a strong sense of organisational community and enhancing performance. They see compassion as value-laden with the kind leader demonstrating humility, gratitude, forgiveness, empowerment and altruism. This appears to provide leaders with more authority than the charismatic, authoritarian or heroic models of leadership. This is because staff ascribe moral intelligence to a kind leader and perceive them as more authentic and more able to provide direction.

This conclusion is supported by earlier research findings that kind and compassionate leaders provided stronger organisational vision, had more credibility, were trusted more by others and had higher levels of influencing skills (Farling, Stone & Winston 1999). Leaders who exhibit kindness appear to be more motivated to put the needs and interests of others ahead of their own and also have a higher sense of civic responsibilities, seeing themselves as stewards orientated to spend



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their time as leaders to serve for the benefit of the community (Barbuto & Wheeler 2006). However, it takes courage to be kind.

HAVE COURAGE: BE KIND

“Have Courage: Be Kind,” says Cinderella’s mother to Cinderella in Kenneth Branagh’s 2015 film. That mantra has now become well known to many children and adults around the world. It is also thought to apply to leading with kindness.

Clinical psychologist, Neil Rothwell (2014) suggests that kindness takes courage, a courage that is productive and is for the best of the many rather than the loudest or those in the front of the queue. The psychotherapist Carl Rogers (1996) alludes to courage and kindness in his person-centred approach with its emphasis on warmth, genuineness and empathy. Professor of Organisational Behaviour Peter Frost (2016) also emphasises courage and appears to support Cardinal John Henry Newman’s (1856) view of moral responsibility by stating that compassion goes beyond technical skill or knowledge and also requires compassionate love, a readiness to connect with others and the demonstration of kindness. This can, however, drain our energy, so courage has to be accompanied with resilience and stamina otherwise ‘burnout’ will occur.

In addition, as was stressed in many conversations we have held about kindness, it is important for the kind leader to have the courage to be straightforward in dealing with those he/she works with, which sometimes means having difficult conversations. As will be indicated in a number of other chapters of this book, tough love can sometimes be required. This leads us into a consideration of what a kind leader is not.

WHAT A KIND LEADER IS NOT

One of the most valuable sections of the book, Leading with Kindness is the one entitled, ‘What Kindness is Not’ (Baker & O’Malley 2008: 17–20). Firstly, they say we should not see kindness in a vacuum: leaders exhibit many qualities besides kindness. It is possible to be hard-nosed and kind, analytical and kind and even cantankerous and kind!

Secondly, they underline that “Kind Leaders Aren’t Sissies.” Sometimes, when we think of kind people, we think of people who are overly kind. But for Baker & O’Malley, the kind leader is not a ‘sucker’ or ‘pushover.’ They suggest that kindness has an optimal level that makes it a virtue rather than a vice.

As frequently mentioned in our interviews and discussions on kindness, it is vital for the kind leader to be honest, forthright and clear, especially when involved in challenging



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discussions with colleagues. Tough love can be the best approach. Hamlet famously said, “I must be cruel, only to be kind…” (Shakespeare 1601). We may not all agree with Hamlet’s use of the word ‘cruelty.’ However, as shown in Chapter 7, ‘Kindness in sports performance and leadership,’ kindness does require mental toughness.

Certainly, the kind leader is not a person who turns a blind eye to or condones ill behaviour. Research carried out in 2011 found that over half of US employees had experience of rudeness at work in 2011 compared to a quarter in 2008 in an earlier study (Porath, Overbeck & Pearson 2008; Porath and Pearson 2012). They found that rudeness made the recipient feel less valued and powerless whilst those that were rude or uncivil elevated such behaviours as aspirational for the achievement of career goals, power and authority over others. Conversely, research carried out four years later found that when a person demonstrated civility and respect for others they were sought out by colleagues for advice. This, in turn, increased their individual performance. Incivility, on the other hand, decreased individual and organisational performance and spread rapidly amongst the workforce with negative impact (Porath, Gerbasi & Schorch 2015). The kind leader therefore, confronts incivility and rudeness and consistently seeks to build and exemplify a culture of civility, decency and respect.

This is not a call for micro-management. As we have seen in the earlier advice from Kathleen Kenehan Henson, CEO of Agency H5, the kind leader does not try to control everything. He/she encourages others to take personal responsibility for their work and gives them the space to do so. A kind leader is not a control freak.

THE COSTS OF BEING A KIND LEADER

We wrote in an earlier section that kindness requires courage, resilience and stamina. Being a kind leader is not an easy option. It involves valuing others at a fundamental level, not just as a colleague or employee but for who they are as a person in their own right. Empowerment means giving others choice and responsibility and being emotionally engaged means having a degree of empathetic skills, emotional intelligence, compassion and wisdom in order to listen and understand effectively.

Being open and receptive brings its own challenges for the leader as well. These can include being overloaded with the concerns of others, being manipulated by those who are self-serving and allowing others to see when mistakes or errors occur. ‘Beat Generosity Burnout’ was the cover story of the January 2017 Harvard Business Review. Kind leaders need to learn to manage their time and create space for themselves.



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Acts of kindness can be at a cost to the individual carrying out the action: that cost can be psychological, emotional, physical or material (or a mixture of one or more). Kindness is not necessarily in and by itself rewarding, nor about achieving a level of self-gratification through feeling good by doing good (Armstrong 2015). There is also a perceived negativity in acts of kindness for personal gain. Professor Kim Cameron (2011) has drawn on Aristotle’s teaching that virtue is an end in itself rather than a means. He suggests that if virtuous behaviours are demonstrated within an organisation for personal ends (for instance, to increase influence or to enhance productivity), they cease to be virtuous. Instead, they are manipulative, instrumental behaviours. Virtuousness and true kindness, on the other hand, are directed towards societal or social betterment that extends beyond advantage to the individual (Ibid.).

THE BENEFITS OF KINDNESS IN LEADERSHIP

Kim Cameron and colleagues at the Ross School of Business have devoted many years to the study of positivity and compassion in organisations. (For more about Positive Leadership, see Chapter 9.) Their research suggests that having compassion as part of the values of an organisation makes a measurable positive difference to productivity and financial performance. In their 2017 book, Awakening Compassion at Work, Monica Worline and Jane Dutton provide two specific examples to illustrate this finding.

In a study of eighteen organizations that had recently engaged in downsizing, the extent to which employees characterised their organizations as more virtuous was correlated with higher profitability, greater productivity, and enhanced customer retention.

Another study examined performance over two years across forty business units in the financial services industry. It found that, when compassion was part of the values of the business units as rated by the members, the compassionate units exhibited better financial performance, executives perceived the compassionate unit as more effective, and those units realized higher employee and customer retention.

(Worline & Dutton 2017: 14, 15)

Further examples of the positive effect of compassion can be found on the website www.thecompassionlab.com. Initiated through the Ross School, the Compassion Lab is a group of organisational researchers who strive to create a new vision of



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organisation as sites for the development and expression of compassion, human growth and the development of human strengths.

Compassion and kindness can also have a strong impact on employee motivation. Ashridge Business School’s Amy Armstrong (2015) found that in a business or organisational environment, compassionate staff were happier, more engaged with work, more willing and able to foster teamwork and kept customers longer and better satisfied with the service (Armstrong 2015). Management Professors Sigal Barsade and Olivia O’Neill (2016) showed that employees who were kind gained extra performance motivation from working in an organisation which shared their values.

Interestingly families and close relatives of workers in a more compassionate and kind organisation also displayed more loyalty and commitment to the employing organisation, indicating that kindness can have a beneficial impact beyond the immediate work environment.

Dr Emma Seppala, Science Director of Stanford’s Centre for Compassion and Altruism Research & Education has found that compassionate leadership breeds trust and innovation. “Trust is a crucial aspect of our lives because it makes us feel safe….We prefer leaders who are warm to those who project tough characteristics…observing kind behaviour significantly reduces our brain’s stress reactivity….In turn, trust increases a spirit of innovation” (Seppala 2016).

For the individual leader, kindness has been shown to have a positive energising effect, on both the kind individual and the recipient. Psychologists Abraham Maslow (1971), Barbara Fredrickson (2009), and Sara Algoe and Jonathan Haight (2009) all observed that when individuals carry out acts of virtuous kindness, they appear to instigate feelings of compassion. This creates improved interpersonal relationships and reinforces good deeds that drive and further reinforce more kindness behaviours. Researchers Nicholas Christakis and James Fowler (2014) have shown that kindness can be contagious (www.kindness-is-contagious.com).

When others see acts of kindness in leaders that they perceive as authentic, they undergo a complex series of emotional responses which can be summarised as increasing feelings of loyalty towards the leader and commitment to their objectives. Collectively loyalty and commitment can be seen as respect, defined by Professor Therese Lysaught (2004) as regarding another person highly, valuing their individuality and uniqueness, considering their feelings and attending to their needs and well-being.



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CONCLUSIONS

Among organisations that have kindness and compassion as a core value, the healthcare and education sectors are particularly frequently represented. This is evidenced through a focus on kindness to service users: patients, their families and friends in hospitals and to children and students in educational institutions. “We offer you the kindness that we would want for a loved one,” is the aim at the University College London Hospitals. Kindness and compassion can also be exemplified in kindness to staff and the wider community. At the University of Central Lancashire for instance, the value of ‘compassion’ involves treating students, staff and the wider community with consideration, care and honesty.

The example of the Nationwide Building Society shows that organisations that are set up for kind purposes can survive and prosper. In the case of Nationwide this means a service for the common good, giving the opportunity for ordinary people to save or own property and trading in ‘the currency of kindness.’ This is also exemplified in a growing number of social enterprises, particularly, but not only, in developing countries. A strong commitment to the well-being of employees can also be highly beneficial with the founding and development of the John Lewis Partnership as a “partnership for all” a case in point. In this famous retailing business, the objective of service to employees has combined with service to customers to lead to sustained financial performance. The Partnership has been described as a “model for economic and social reform” (Hill 2012).

It is worthy of note that new young companies like Agency H5 and LinkedIn are emphasising the importance of kindness and compassion and its positive impact on clients (Agency H5) and decision-making (LinkedIn).

Academic research also suggests that a kind leadership approach can benefit an organisation. Compassion, kindness and virtuousness can contribute positively to productivity, innovation and financial performance. Customers appreciate organisations that will go the extra mile: these organisations stand out. Employees appear to enjoy working in kind organisations and feel respect and loyalty to kind leaders. Their motivation has been shown to increase, alongside their ability to foster teamwork. This can extend beyond the immediate work environment to the families and close relatives of workers. Kindness does appear to provide the building blocks for the type of company called for by William Baker and Michael O’Malley at the beginning of this chapter, an organisation in which “people care about their work, the company and one another.”

A number of “ingredients” or character traits are believed to make up the kind leader. In this chapter, altruism, authenticity, compassion, courage, forgiveness,



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generosity, gratitude, humility, humour, integrity, putting others first, resilience and warmth have been mentioned. These parallel what we have called “the contours of kindness” in Chapter 1.

It is important to understand what kindness is not. Kathleen Kenehan Henson of Agency H5 stresses that kindness is not about control. On the other hand, it is not about being a pushover. It requires an ability to be straightforward in dealing with others, to hold difficult conversations, to not condone rudeness and to face up to difficult decisions. Resilience is needed.

Being a kind leader also requires balance. A doctor, for instance, needs to demonstrate both a knowledge of medicine and kindness towards the suffering of his/her patient. As Vice Chancellor of a university, Mike Thomas has to balance trust, teamwork and compassion (which may be perceived by some as ‘soft’ values) with the pragmatism of common sense and attention to detail.

A kind leader also needs to take care not to become overloaded with the concerns of others. Kind leaders need to learn to manage their time and create space for themselves. On the other hand, kindness has been shown to have a positive energising effect, create improved interpersonal relations, increase commitment and to be contagious! Acts of kindness, it seems, can improve interpersonal relations, drive others to good deeds and reinforce further kindness behaviours.

In the three chapters that follow, we shall offer further insights into what kindness is and how it is exemplified. All are based on interviews or survey questionnaires: Chapter 3, focussing on the UK private and public sectors, throws more light on the meaning of kindness and experiences of how it is seen in action. Chapter 4 provides a global perspective and gives additional insights into kindness-based behaviours, the contexts that influence kindness and the impact of kindness in leadership. Chapter 5 is based on the experiences of women leaders of kindness in their lives and at work.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

1. From your own experiences, do you feel that kind and compassionate leaders make their organisations better places to work for? Why do you hold that view? What evidence do you have to support your view?

2. Do you see kindness as an organisational strength, or can it be a weakness?

3. Think of a kind leader you have known. What were the key characteristics and behaviours that he/she exemplified?



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REFERENCES

Algoe, S.B. & Haight, J. (2009) ‘Witnessing Excellence in Action: The Other-praising Emotions of Elevation, Gratitude and Admiration.’ Journal of Positive Psychology 4: 105–127.

Armstrong, A. (2015) ‘Compassion at Work – What’s your Business Case?’ 17 July. www.hrzone.com/engage/managers/compassion-at-work-whats-your-business-case.

Baker, W.F. & O’Malley, M. (2008) Leading with Kindness: How Good People Consistently Get Superior Results. AMACOM.

Barbuto, J.E. & Wheeler, D.W. (2006) ‘Scale Development and Construct Clarification of Servant Leadership.’ Group and Organisational Management 31(3): 300–326.

Barsade, S. & O’Neill, O.A. (2016) ‘Manage your Emotional Culture.’ Harvard Business Review, Jan./Feb. 2016 Issue. https://hbr.org/2016/01/manage-your-emotional-culture.

Bell, J. (2007) ‘Building the Building Society.’ https://www.alternativefuture.co.uk/buil ding-the-building-society/.

BBC (2014) Video clip, ‘John Spendan Lewis on “a better way of managing business.”’ 2 May. www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-wales-27245930/john-spedan-lewis-on-a-better-wa y-of-managing-business.

Burgess, K. (2017) ‘John Lewis Structure Complicates Pay Scrutiny.’ 15 January. www.ft. com/content/e54063d4-d8f4-11e6-944b-e7eb37a6aa8e.

Cameron, K. (2011) ‘Responsible Leadership as Virtuous Leadership.’ Journal of Business Ethics 98: 25–35 doi:10.1007/s10551-10011-1023-1026.

Christiakis, N. & Fowler, J. (2014) “Social Networks and the Spread of Altruism,” 23 March. www.kindness-is-contagious.com/social-networks-spread-altruism.

Collins, J. & Porras, J. (1996) ‘Building Your Company’s Vision.’ Harvard Business Review, September–October.

Farling, M.L.Stone, P.G. & Winston, B.E. (1999) ‘Servant Leadership; Setting the stage for empirical research.’ Journal for Leadership Studies 6: 49–72.

Fredrickson, B.L. (2009) Positivity. New York: Crown.

Frost, P.J. (2016) ‘Why Compassion Counts!’ Journal of Management Inquiry 20(4): 395–401. Fryer, B. (2013) ‘The Rise of Compassionate Management (Finally)’ 18 September. www.hbr.org/2013/09/the-rise-of-compassionate-management-finally.

Garner, J. (2017) ‘Building society, Nationwide.’ Interview in Society Matters, Nationwide Journal of Building Societies Association (BSA), Spring 2017, p. 6. www.bsa.rg.uk.

Greenleaf, R. (1970) ‘The Servant Leader’, Robert E. Greenleaf Centre for Servant Leadership, Atlanta. https://www.greenleaf.org/what-is-servant-leadership/.

Henson, K. (2017) ‘One CEO’s Secret of Success: Always Lead with Kindness.’ 4 March. www.nbcnews.com/better/careers/one-ceo-s-secret-success-always-lead-kindness-n728771.

Hill, A. (2012) ‘A Rather Civil Partnership.’ Financial Times. 20 January. www.ft.com/con tent/30ca497e-438a-11e1-9f28-00144feab49a.

Lysaught, M.T. (2004) ‘Respect: Or, How Respect for Persons becomes Respect for Autonomy.’ Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 29(6): 665–680.

Maslow, A. (1971) The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. New York: Viking.

Newman, J.H. (1856) The Office and Work of Universities. Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans.

Phillips, A. & Taylor, B. (2009) On Kindness, London: Penguin Books.

Porath, C.L., Gerbasi, A. & Schorch, L. (2015) ‘The Effects of Civility on Advice, Leader- ship and Performance.’ Journal of Applied Psychology 100(5): 1527–1541.



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Porath, C.L. & Pearson, C.M. (2012) ‘Emotional and Behavioural Responses to Workplace Incivility and the Impact of Hierarchical Status.’ Journal of Applied Social Psychology 42 (Supp. 1), E326–E357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.01020.x.

Porath, C.L., Overbeck, J.R. & Pearson, C.M. (2008) ‘Picking up the Gauntlet: How Individuals Respond to Status Challenges.’ Journal of Applied Social Psychology 38: 1945– 1980 http://dx.doi.orig/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00375.x.

Rogers, C. (1996) A Way of Being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Rothwell, N. (2014) ‘Kind Leadership: How to Make a Difference Whatever your Position in the Organisation.’ https://kindleadership1.files.worldpress.com.

Seppala, E. (2016) ‘Why Nice Guys really do Finish First.’ Posted 2 February 2016. https:// www.psychologytoday.com/blog/feeling-it/201602/why-nice-guys-really-do-finish-first.

Shakespeare, W. (1601) Hamlet. Act 3, Scene 4.

Staples, T. (2017) ‘LinkedIn’s CEO Jeff Weiner Teaches how to Manage Compassionately in New LinkedIn Learning Course.’ 31 January. https://blog.linkedin.com/2017/janua ry/31/linkedin-ceo-jeff-weiner-teaches-how-to-manage-compassionately-learning-course.

Van Dierendonck, D. & Patterson, K. (2015) ‘Compassionate Love as a Cornerstone of Servant Leadership: An Integration of Previous Theorising and Research.’ Journal of Business Ethics 128(1): 119–131.

Weiner, J. (2012) ‘Managing Compassionately.’ 12 October. www.linkedin.com/pulse/ 20121015034012-22330283-managing-compassionately.

Worline, M. & Dutton, J. (2017) Awakening Compassion at Work. Oakland, CA: Berrett Koehler.

www.writeoutloud.net (2017) ‘“Help Each Other Up the Ladder”: Jo Bell Goes Nationwide in Latest Poetic TV Ad.’ 9 February.



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How to Succeed as a Leader

By Ruth Chambers, Kay Mohanna, Richard Jones and David Wall ©2007 Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.

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LEADING THE WAY AS A GOOD EMPLOYER

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LEADING THE WAY AS A GOOD EMPLOYERRuth Chambers


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INTRODUCTION

Your greatest asset is your staff. As practices and trusts become larger, good human resources management is essential to the delivery of your care and services. So you will want to select and recruit staff in a fair and equitable way to complement your practice or departmental ethos and match your team’s needs.

As the leader you will tackle any discrimination, harassment or bullying in your workplace. You’ll know that the quality of the induction you arrange for new staff is an important facet in determining how quickly and safely they become established in any new healthcare setting.

The results of your good employment practices and responsive management will be high standards of performance by happy, well motivated staff. The whole team must function appropriately at all levels for the quality of care and services you provide to be assured. You will design jobs and roles so that people perform well. You will invest time and energy in supporting and listening to people, and know how to motivate people and encourage high standards.

A positive culture and good employment practices will include regular feedback to staff about their performance, clear leadership from you and other leaders at all levels, good communication to everyone about everything. So you will be responsive and as priorities alter, recognise the pressures that people are under when there is uncertainty and change and help them to acclimatise to new ways of working.

Context is important because it raises the question not of whether leaders make a difference, but more importantly under what conditions they can make a difference.

Neil Goodwin, Chief Executive, Greater Manchester Strategic Health Authority

HSJ columnist, 2006.

LEADING THE WAY TO GOOD EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES

Your developmental approach to the staff. Achieving continuous improvement in performance requires that you adopt a developmental approach that encourages staff, rather than issue ‘top down’ directives that are resented by staff and difficult to implement. So try to include the whole team in discussing the need to make changes and in evolving your plans for change. Listen to and act on their views as



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far as possible – their frontline perspectives are invaluable in solving problems and improving your systems and processes.

The three components of good organisational management are:

1. people

2. environment

3. process.

People. Consider the number of skilled and experienced staff you will need to deliver your vision of care and services. Concentrate on building up cohesive teams that function effectively under good leadership. Create the environment and processes within your practice or trust that breed well motivated staff with high levels of job satisfaction.

Environment. The environment includes the physical structure of your premises and contents, and the technical capacity such as medical equipment and IT hardware and software. Regular and thorough risk assessment, followed by risk reduction and monitoring are essential aspects of good organisational management of the environment in your workplace. So review what statutory and mandatory training should be in place for your staff; and check your systems for monitoring that staff are attending and/or being assessed as to their knowledge and skills as expected or required.

Process. Process includes policies, procedures and systems. Good organisational management of the process of planning and delivering care and services will reduce the chances of mistakes happening at work. Errors should be picked up by fail-safe systems before there is any opportunity for harm. Good processes will ensure that staff only undertake activities for which they are competent – important when a great deal of training happens in the workplace such as for healthcare assistants who need to be trained and assessed by supervising nurses or allied health professionals (AHPs) before they take on tasks that were previously within the remit of the nurse or AHP. Well-disseminated policies allow everyone in the workplace to know how systems and procedures work and give consistent messages to patients.

Equity is an important end point that can be used as a measure of a good employer.

Equity might concern:

• equal access to opportunities for staff development

• equal treatment about covering least favourite duties, e.g. covering public holidays

• allowances for staff with disabilities, e.g. special chairs



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• that staff working in branch surgeries or peripheral clinics are not disadvantaged

• balance and interest of workload between health professionals and managers and other staff

• proportional share of responsibilities

• democratic decision making.

Release others’ talents. Identify and overcome barriers for individuals, teams and organisations in achieving their potential. Ensure that individuals’ learning and development needs are identified and met. Training for all staff should:

• be based on their personal and professional needs

• be available to all in an equitable way depending on professional and service needs

• reflect multidisciplinary working

• be delivered or available in an appropriate format for what they need to learn (e.g. e-learning, plenary presentations, small group work, reading and reflecting).

Appraisal. Good employment practice includes regular job appraisal, at least annually. This gives individuals an opportunity to review how well they are doing in their own view and that of the person who is appraising them. Employed staff can agree learning needs and how they will be met in the context of their current job or agreed changes to their roles and responsibilities.

Under-performance can cover a range of issues such as people’s knowledge, skills, behaviour and attitudes. As a leader you will have to create or oversee systems to diagnose, assess and support those for whom you are responsible who may be under-performing. Under-performance is about achieving less than expected, or performing below required levels or explicit standards. Sometimes under-performance is defined in terms of consistently placing patients or others at risk. A single incident will not normally constitute under-performance but repeated less important infringements may. Sometimes the issue is about the work environment or culture leading to a lack of performance, rather than a deficit in someone’s knowledge or skills or application.

Individuals who under-perform may:

• be generally passive

• find challenge frightening and avoid it whenever possible

• lack insight about their shortcomings

• find feedback and criticism threatening



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• have low reserves of energy

• have poor motivation

• resent others’ success

• fail to realise their potential

• be part of a dysfunctional team.

Sometimes the problem arises from a malfunctioning organisation such as:

• poor management of quality processes

• inadequate infrastructure and insufficient resources to undertake tasks

• poor communication within the work setting

• an unhealthy culture within the organisation

• a culture of fear and lack of openness

• a lack of leadership, or inappropriate style of management or poor organisational structure.

TOP TIPS

• Investigate cases of possible under-performance within well defined time-scales in a proper way: specific to the individual concerned and the area of concern, with measures based on agreed indicators that are clear, simple and understood.

• In proven cases of under-performance: consider providing support through mentorship; assess training and development needs; agree a programme to meet these needs; agree short-term action plans with performance targets. Think more widely about the relevance of a programme to build the individual’s self-esteem or develop their assertiveness skills, providing training to change their attitudes, or changing the environment to suit the needs of the individual. Use formal disciplinary measures as a last resort or reserve them for serious cases.

• Develop skills in delegating and trusting people to attend to the detail while you keep to the overall direction.

• Set out the ultimate and intermediate goals for your team; don’t drift along as that reduces motivation and drive.

• Ensure that everyone is well informed about any employment issues. Squash unsubstantiated rumours so that they do not unsettle people.

• Try new ways of coping with change and your new circumstances so that the team learns fresh ways of functioning.



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• Be available to colleagues, your team and other staff. Some people need little support or supervision. Others need a lot, particularly when they are new to an organisation.

• Acknowledge and praise people’s achievements. If all you do is pile on more work, people will become demotivated.

• Resist going for the quick fix rather than understanding and finding solutions that will work in the longer term. The immediate and obvious solution is often wrong because the implications of that change have not been thought through. Further changes are then necessary and people start to doubt that anything will improve.

• Establish good relationships with your team and others so that people feel that they can bring problems to your attention without fear of blame or giving offence.

• Maintain high standards of ethical behaviour, e.g. giving factual, true references; noting, investigating and addressing other people’s unacceptable performance or behaviour; or being honest and transparent in financial dealings.

• Encourage a culture where creativity and innovation are welcomed and people learn from past successes and failures.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q. My team are pretty confused by all the changes in the health service and concerned that their previous work in planning new services has been wasted. What can I do to help them?

A. As the leader you should understand the rationale for your practice’s or trust’s vision – or that of the NHS in general, be able to articulate it and show your staff how the vision can be realised. Then you’ll be able to engage people in developing the vision and reflect that vision in your strategies and action plans. Everyone working in your practice or unit should be clear about their goals, roles and responsibilities, the timetables of programmes for improvements, and the standards of performance required of them. With that sort of surety they will be able to progress.

Q. You talk of allocating funds and opportunities for learning in an equitable way. But that doesn’t happen in real life does it when the more powerful professions like doctors dominate and scoop training funds for themselves at the expense of others. Is that fair?

A. The way that training funds are allocated in your organisation should be an open and transparent process. Allocations should be based on an overview of all staff’s training needs; priorities are going to be matched to service needs and professional



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requirements so that you can provide a safe and effective service for patients. The relative costs of training various types of staff and the nature of what mode of learning they need will all be factors to be considered in dividing up training funds. An organisational policy might specify what proportions of training costs or work/personal time should be covered by the recipient. That proportion might relate to the extent to which training is imperative for the organisation or results in knowledge and skills that are transferable and useful for someone’s career progression.

INTERACTIVE EXERCISE: LISTENING BUT NOT HEARING

One of the most common complaints of individuals who are diagnosed as under-performing is that their seniors do not listen to their concerns. This exercise demonstrates the effects of not listening and provides a practical method to improve your listening skills.

You will have to undertake this exercise with another person, or do the exercise with a group of people. You can explore the feelings generated by not listening to someone and demonstrate the powerful technique of ‘mirroring’ where you actively mirror someone else’s body language, eye contact, tone of voice, types of words used and even breathing.

Let’s call you person A and the person with whom you are working on this exercise is person B. You as person A sit opposite person B and describe your last major holiday to them in no more than five minutes. Your partner, B, should actively try not to hear what you are saying. They can do anything except leave the chair and make it obvious that they are not ‘hearing’ you. They should wriggle in the chair, pick up a book and thumb through it, hum, look away at another part of the room.

After five minutes you as person A should repeat your holiday story again to your partner. This time person B should mirror your body language and actively listen to what you are saying. Your partner, B, should respond in the same tone of voice as you’re using, copy your posture, maintain eye contact etc.

Then you can both switch roles and your partner B will tell you about their holiday, first without you paying any attention and then with you mirroring them in the same way as described.

Finally you should discuss what feelings were generated by you or your partner in the first half of the exercise compared with when you were individually mirroring each other in turn. If you can see the benefits of this exercise, practise mirroring and active listening in your everyday working life.



key skills for library managers: leadership

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