khmer rouge - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Khmer Rouge

The flag of Democratic Kampuchea. The design was

used by Khmer guerrillas since the 1950s with the

building design varying.

Active 196896

Ideology Agrarian socialism

Cambodian nationalism

Left-wing nationalism

Headquarters Phnom Penh

Pol Pot, leader of the Khmer Rouge

and Prime Minister of Democratic

Kampuchea, in 1978.

Khmer RougeFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Khmers rouges (French for "Red Khmers"; French

pronunciation: [km u]; Khmer: Khmer

Kraham), more commonly known in English as 'KhmerRouge' (/kmr ru/) (corruption of 'Khmers rouges'),was the name given to the followers of the Communist Partyof Kampuchea in Cambodia. It was formed in 1968 as anoffshoot of the Vietnam People's Army from North Vietnam.It was the ruling party in Cambodia from 1975 to 1979, ledby Pol Pot, Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary, Son Sen, and KhieuSamphan. Democratic Kampuchea was the name of the stateas controlled by the government of the Khmer Rouge from1975 to 1979. It allied with North Vietnam, the Viet Cong,and Pathet Lao during the Vietnam War against theanti-Communist forces.

The organization is remembered especially for orchestratingthe Cambodian genocide, which resulted from the

enforcement of its social engineering policies.[1] Its attemptsat agricultural reform led to widespread famine, while itsinsistence on absolute self-sufficiency, even in the supply ofmedicine, led to the death of thousands from treatablediseases such as malaria. Arbitrary executions and torture carried out byits cadres against perceived subversive elements, or during purges of itsown ranks between 1975 and 1978, are considered to have constituted

genocide.[2]

The governments-in-exile (including the Khmer Rouge) still had a seatin the UN in 1979, but it was later taken away, in 1993, as the monarchywas restored and the country underwent a name change to the Kingdomof Cambodia. A year later thousands of Khmer Rouge guerrillassurrendered themselves in a government amnesty. In 1996, a newpolitical party, the Democratic National Union Movement, was formedby Ieng Sary, who was granted amnesty for all of his roles as the deputy

leader of the Khmer Rouge.[3] The organization (Khmer Rouge) waslargely dissolved by the mid-1990s, and finally surrendered completely

in 1999.[4] In 2014 two Khmer Rouge leaders Nuon Chea and KheiuSamphan were jailed by a UN backed court for life, which found themguilty of crimes against humanity and responsible for the deaths of up to2,000,000 Cambodians (Khmer), nearly a quarter of the country's thenpopulation, during the "Killing Fields" era between 1975-1979.

Contents

Khmer Rouge - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Rouge

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1 Name history2 Ideology3 Origins

3.1 Early history3.2 Paris student group

4 Path to power and reign4.1 KPRP Second Congress4.2 Sihanouk and the GRUNK4.3 Foreign involvement

5 The regime5.1 Rulers5.2 Life under the Khmer Rouge5.3 Language reforms5.4 Crimes against humanity

5.4.1 Number of deaths6 Fall

6.1 Place in the United Nations6.2 Ramifications of Vietnamese victory

7 Memorialization7.1 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia(ECCC)7.2 Museums7.3 Publications7.4 Dialogues7.5 Media coverage

8 Historic legacy9 See also10 References11 Further reading12 External links

12.1 Other online sources12.2 Genocide12.3 Uncategorized

Name history

The term "Khmers rouges", French for "Red Khmers", was coined by Cambodian head of state NorodomSihanouk and later adopted by English speakers (in the form of the corrupted version 'Khmer Rouge'). It wasused to refer to a succession of Communist parties in Cambodia which evolved into the Communist Party ofKampuchea (CPK) and later the Party of Democratic Kampuchea. The organization was also known as the

Kampuchea or Khmer Communist Party and the National Army of Democratic Kampuchea.[5]

Ideology

The Khmer Rouge's ideology combined elements of Marxism with an extreme version of Khmer nationalism


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and xenophobia. It combined an idealization of the Angkor Empire (8021431), with an existential fear for theexistence of the Cambodian state, which had historically been liquidated under Vietnamese and Siamese

intervention.[6] The spillover of Vietnamese fighters from the Vietnam War further aggravated anti-Vietnamesefeeling. The Khmer Rouge explicitly targeted the Chinese, Vietnamese, and even their partially Khmer offspringfor extinction; although the Cham Muslims were treated unfavorably, they were encouraged to "mix flesh andblood", to intermarry and assimilate. Some people with partial Chinese or Vietnamese ancestry were present in

the Khmer Rouge leadership; they either were purged or participated in the ethnic cleansing campaigns.[7]

The Khmer Rouge's social policy focused on working towards a purely agrarian society. Pol Pot stronglyinfluenced the propagation of this policy. He was reportedly impressed with how the mountain tribes ofCambodia lived, which the party interpreted as a form of primitive communism; as a result, those minoritiesreceived more lenient and sometimes even more favorable treatment than the urbanized "bourgeois" Chinese

and Vietnamese.[7] Pol Pot wanted to remove social institutions and to transform the society into an agrarianone. This was his way of "[creating] a complete Communist society without wasting time on the intermediate

steps" as the Khmer Rouge said to China in 1975.[8] The evacuation of the cities disproportionately affectedChinese and Vietnamese, who were not accustomed to agricultural work, segregated from Khmers in labor

camps, and forbidden to speak their own language.[7]

Origins

Early history

The history of the communist movement in Cambodia can be divided into six phases: the emergence of theIndochinese Communist Party (ICP), whose members were almost exclusively Vietnamese, before World WarII; the 10-year struggle for independence from the French, when a separate Cambodian communist party, theKampuchean (or Khmer) People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP), was established under Vietnamese auspices; theperiod following the Second Party Congress of the KPRP in 1960, when Saloth Sar (Pol Pot after 1976) andother future Khmer Rouge leaders gained control of its apparatus; the revolutionary struggle from the initiationof the Khmer Rouge insurgency in 196768 to the fall of the Lon Nol government in April 1975; theDemocratic Kampuchea regime, from April 1975 to January 1979; and the period following the Third PartyCongress of the KPRP in January 1979, when Hanoi effectively assumed control over Cambodia's government

and communist party.[9]

In 1930, Ho Chi Minh founded the Communist Party of Vietnam by unifying three smaller communistmovements that had emerged in northern, central, and southern Vietnam during the late 1920s. The name waschanged almost immediately to the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), ostensibly to include revolutionariesfrom Cambodia and Laos. Almost without exception, all the earliest party members were Vietnamese. By theend of World War II, a handful of Cambodians had joined its ranks, but their influence on the Indochinese

communist movement and on developments within Cambodia was negligible.[10]

Viet Minh units occasionally made forays into Cambodian bases during their war against the French, and, inconjunction with the leftist government that ruled Thailand until 1947, the Viet Minh encouraged the formationof armed, left-wing Khmer Issarak bands. On April 17, 1950 (25 years to the day before the Khmer Rougecaptured Phnom Penh), the first nationwide congress of the Khmer Issarak groups convened, and the UnitedIssarak Front was established. Its leader was Son Ngoc Minh, and a third of its leadership consisted of membersof the ICP. According to the historian David P. Chandler, the leftist Issarak groups, aided by the Viet Minh,occupied a sixth of Cambodia's territory by 1952; and, on the eve of the Geneva Conference, they controlled as

much as one half of the country.[11]


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In 1951, the ICP was reorganized into three national units the Vietnam Workers' Party, the Lao Itsala, and theKampuchean (or Khmer) People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP). According to a document issued after thereorganization, the Vietnam Workers' Party would continue to "supervise" the smaller Laotian and Cambodianmovements. Most KPRP leaders and rank-and-file seem to have been either Khmer Krom, or ethnic Vietnamese

living in Cambodia. The party's appeal to indigenous Khmers appears to have been minimal.[12]

According to Democratic Kampuchea's version of party history, the Viet Minh's failure to negotiate a politicalrole for the KPRP at the 1954 Geneva Conference represented a betrayal of the Cambodian movement, whichstill controlled large areas of the countryside and which commanded at least 5,000 armed men. Following theconference, about 1,000 members of the KPRP, including Son Ngoc Minh, made a "Long March" into North

Vietnam, where they remained in exile.[10]

In late 1954, those who stayed in Cambodia founded a legal political party, the Pracheachon Party, whichparticipated in the 1955 and the 1958 National Assembly elections. In the September 1955 election, it won

about four percent of the vote but did not secure a seat in the legislature.[13]

Members of the Pracheachon were subject to constant harassment and to arrests because the party remainedoutside Sihanouk's political organization, Sangkum. Government attacks prevented it from participating in the1962 election and drove it underground. Sihanouk habitually labelled local leftists the Khmer Rouge, a term thatlater came to signify the party and the state headed by Pol Pot, Ieng Sary, Khieu Samphan, and their

associates.[9]

During the mid-1950s, KPRP factions, the "urban committee" (headed by Tou Samouth), and the "ruralcommittee" (headed by Sieu Heng), emerged. In very general terms, these groups espoused divergentrevolutionary lines. The prevalent "urban" line, endorsed by North Vietnam, recognized that Sihanouk, by virtueof his success in winning independence from the French, was a genuine national leader whose neutralism and

deep distrust of the United States made him a valuable asset in Hanoi's struggle to "liberate" South Vietnam.[14]

Advocates of this line hoped that the prince could be persuaded to distance himself from the right wing and toadopt leftist policies. The other line, supported for the most part by rural cadres who were familiar with the

harsh realities of the countryside, advocated an immediate struggle to overthrow the "feudalist" Sihanouk.[15]

Paris student group

During the 1950s, Khmer students in Paris organized their own communist movement, which had little, if any,connection to the hard-pressed party in their homeland. From their ranks came the men and women whoreturned home and took command of the party apparatus during the 1960s, led an effective insurgency against

Lon Nol from 1968 until 1975, and established the regime of Democratic Kampuchea.[16]

Pol Pot, who rose to the leadership of the communist movement in the 1960s, was born in 1928 (some sourcessay 1925) in Kampong Thum Province, northeast of Phnom Penh. He attended a technical high school in thecapital and then went to Paris in 1949 to study radio electronics (other sources say he attended a school forprinters and typesetters and also studied civil engineering). Described by one source as a "determined, ratherplodding organizer", he failed to obtain a degree, but, according to the Jesuit priest, Father Franois Ponchaud,

he acquired a taste for the classics of French literature as well as a taste for the writings of Karl Marx.[17]

Another member of the Paris student group was Ieng Sary, a Chinese-Khmer born in 1925 in South Vietnam. Heattended the elite Lyce Sisowath in Phnom Penh before beginning courses in commerce and politics at theInstitut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (more widely known as Sciences Po) in France. Khieu Samphan,


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considered "one of the most brilliant intellects of his generation", was born in 1931 and specialized ineconomics and politics during his time in Paris. In talent he was rivalled by Hou Yuon, born in 1930, who wasdescribed as being "of truly astounding physical and intellectual strength", and who studied economics and law.

Son Sen, born in 1930, studied education and literature; Hu Nim, born in 1932, studied law.[18]

Two members of the group, Khieu Samphan and Hou Yuon, earned doctorates from the University of Paris; HuNim obtained his degree from the University of Phnom Penh in 1965. Most came from landowner or civilservant families. Pol Pot and Hou Yuon may have been related to the royal family. An older sister of Pol Pot hadbeen a concubine at the court of King Monivong. Pol Pot and Ieng Sary married Khieu Ponnary and KhieuThirith (also known as Ieng Thirith), purportedly relatives of Khieu Samphan. These two well-educated women

also played a central role in the regime of Democratic Kampuchea.[19]

A number turned to orthodox Marxism-Leninism. At some time between 1949 and 1951, Pol Pot and Ieng Saryjoined the French Communist Party. In 1951, the two men went to East Berlin to participate in a youth festival.This experience is considered to have been a turning point in their ideological development. Meeting withKhmers who were fighting with the Viet Minh (and whom they subsequently judged to be too subservient to theVietnamese), they became convinced that only a tightly disciplined party organization and a readiness for armedstruggle could achieve revolution. They transformed the Khmer Students Association (KSA), to which most of

the 200 or so Khmer students in Paris belonged, into an organization for nationalist and leftist ideas.[20]

Inside the KSA and its successor organizations, there was a secret organization known as the Cercle Marxiste(Marxist circle). The organization was composed of cells of three to six members with most members knowingnothing about the overall structure of the organization. In 1952 Pol Pot, Hou Yuon, Ieng Sary, and other leftistsgained notoriety by sending an open letter to Sihanouk calling him the "strangler of infant democracy." A yearlater, the French authorities closed down the KSA. In 1956, however, Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan helped to

establish a new group, the Khmer Students Union. Inside, the group was still run by the Cercle Marxiste.[20]

The doctoral dissertations written by Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan express basic themes that were later tobecome the cornerstones of the policy adopted by Democratic Kampuchea. The central role of the peasants innational development was espoused by Hou Yuon in his 1955 thesis, The Cambodian Peasants and TheirProspects for Modernization, which challenged the conventional view that urbanization and industrialization are

necessary precursors of development.[21]

The major argument in Khieu Samphan's 1959 thesis, Cambodia's Economy and Industrial Development, wasthat the country had to become self-reliant and end its economic dependency on the developed world. In itsgeneral contours, Khieu's work reflected the influence of a branch of the "dependency theory" school, which

blamed lack of development in the Third World on the economic domination of the industrialized nations.[22]

Path to power and reign

KPRP Second Congress

After returning to Cambodia in 1953, Pol Pot threw himself into party work. At first he went to join with forcesallied to the Viet Minh operating in the rural areas of Kampong Cham Province (Kompong Cham). After theend of the war, he moved to Phnom Penh under Tou Samouth's "urban committee" where he became animportant point of contact between above-ground parties of the left and the underground secret communist

movement.[23]

His comrades, Ieng Sary and Hou Yuon, became teachers at a new private high school, the Lyce Kambuboth,


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which Hou Yuon helped to establish. Khieu Samphan returned from Paris in 1959, taught as a member of thelaw faculty of the University of Phnom Penh, and started a left-wing, French-language publication,L'Observateur. The paper soon acquired a reputation in Phnom Penh's small academic circle. The followingyear, the government closed the paper, and Sihanouk's police publicly humiliated Khieu by beating, undressingand photographing him in publicas Shawcross notes, "not the sort of humiliation that men forgive or

forget".[24]

Yet the experience did not prevent Khieu from advocating cooperation with Sihanouk in order to promote aunited front against United States activities in South Vietnam. As mentioned, Khieu Samphan, Hou Yuon, andHu Nim were forced to "work through the system" by joining the Sangkum and by accepting posts in the

prince's government.[10]

In late September 1960, twenty-one leaders of the KPRP held a secret congress in a vacant room of the PhnomPenh railroad station. This pivotal event remains shrouded in mystery because its outcome has become an objectof contention (and considerable historical rewriting) between pro-Vietnamese and anti-Vietnamese Khmer

communist factions.[10]

The question of cooperation with, or resistance to, Sihanouk was thoroughly discussed. Tou Samouth, whoadvocated a policy of cooperation, was elected general secretary of the KPRP that was renamed the Workers'Party of Kampuchea (WPK). His ally, Nuon Chea (also known as Long Reth), became deputy general secretary;however, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary were named to the Political Bureau to occupy the third and the fifth highestpositions in the renamed party's hierarchy. The name change is significant. By calling itself a workers' party, theCambodian movement claimed equal status with the Vietnam Workers' Party. The pro-Vietnamese regime of thePeople's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) implied in the 1980s that the September 1960 meeting was nothing

more than the second congress of the KPRP.[10]

On July 20, 1962, Tou Samouth was murdered by the Cambodian government. In February 1963, at the WPK'ssecond congress, Pol Pot was chosen to succeed Tou Samouth as the party's general secretary. Tou's allies, NuonChea and Keo Meas, were removed from the Central Committee and replaced by Son Sen and Vorn Vet. Fromthen on, Pol Pot and loyal comrades from his Paris student days controlled the party centre, edging out older

veterans whom they considered excessively pro-Vietnamese.[25]

In July 1963, Pol Pot and most of the central committee left Phnom Penh to establish an insurgent base inRatanakiri Province in the northeast. Pol Pot had shortly before been put on a list of 34 leftists who weresummoned by Sihanouk to join the government and sign statements saying Sihanouk was the only possibleleader for the country. Pol Pot and Chou Chet were the only people on the list who escaped. All the others

agreed to cooperate with the government and were afterward under 24-hour watch by the police.[20]

Sihanouk and the GRUNK

The region where Pol Pot and the others moved to was inhabited by tribal minorities, the Khmer Loeu, whoserough treatment (including resettlement and forced assimilation) at the hands of the central government madethem willing recruits for a guerrilla struggle. In 1965, Pol Pot made a visit of several months to North Vietnam

and China.[20]

Pol Pot received some training in China, which had enhanced his prestige when he returned to the WPK's"liberated areas". Despite friendly relations between Norodom Sihanouk and the Chinese, the latter kept PolPot's visit a secret from Sihanouk. In September 1966, the party changed its name to the Communist Party ofKampuchea (CPK).


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The change in the name of the party was a closely guarded secret. Lower ranking members of the party andeven the Vietnamese were not told of it and neither was the membership until many years later. The partyleadership endorsed armed struggle against the government, then led by Sihanouk. In 1967, several small-scaleattempts at insurgency were made by the CPK but they had little success.

In 1968, the Khmer Rouge was officially formed and its forces launched a national insurgency across Cambodia(see also Cambodian Civil War). Though North Vietnam had not been informed of the decision, its forcesprovided shelter and weapons to the Khmer Rouge after the insurgency started. Vietnamese support for theinsurgency made it impossible for the Cambodian military to effectively counter it. For the next two years theinsurgency grew as Sihanouk did very little to stop it. As the insurgency grew stronger, the party finally openly

declared itself to be the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK).[20]

The political appeal of the Khmer Rouge was increased as a result of the situation created by the removal ofSihanouk as head of state in 1970. Premier Lon Nol, with the support of the National Assembly, deposedSihanouk. Sihanouk, in exile in Beijing, made an alliance with the Khmer Rouge and became the nominal headof a Khmer Rougedominated government-in-exile (known by its French acronym, GRUNK) backed by China.The Nixon administration, although thoroughly aware of the weakness of Lon Nol's forces and loath to commitAmerican military force to the new conflict in any form other than air power, announced its support of the

newly proclaimed Khmer Republic.[26]

On 29 March 1970, the North Vietnamese launched an offensive against the Cambodian army with documentsuncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the invasion was launched at the explicit request of the

Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea.[27] A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran largeparts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles (24 km) of Phnom Penh before being pushed back. ByJune, three months after the removal of Sihanouk, they had swept government forces from the entirenortheastern third of the country. After defeating those forces, the North Vietnamese turned the newly wonterritories over to the local insurgents. The Khmer Rouge also established "liberated" areas in the south and the

southwestern parts of the country, where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese.[28]

After Sihanouk showed his support for the Khmer Rouge by visiting them in the field, their ranks swelled from6,000 to 50,000 fighters. Many of the new recruits for the Khmer Rouge were apolitical peasants who fought in

support of the King, not for communism, of which they had little understanding.[29] Sihanouk's popular supportin rural Cambodia allowed the Khmer Rouge to extend its power and influence to the point that by 1973 itexercised de facto control over the majority of Cambodian territory, although only a minority of its population.Many people in Cambodia who helped the Khmer Rouge against the Lon Nol government thought they werefighting for the restoration of Sihanouk.

By 1975, with the Lon Nol government running out of ammunition, it was clear that it was only a matter of timebefore the government would collapse. On April 17, 1975 the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh. During thewar, the Khmer Rouge caused several times more civilian casualties than the entire U.S. bombing of

Cambodia.[30]

Foreign involvement

The relationship between the massive carpet bombing of Cambodia by the United States and the growth of theKhmer Rouge, in terms of recruitment and popular support, has been a matter of interest to historians. Somehistorians have cited the U.S. intervention and bombing campaign (spanning 19651973) as a significant factor

leading to increased support of the Khmer Rouge among the Cambodian peasantry.[31] However, Pol Potbiographer David P. Chandler argues that the bombing "had the effect the Americans wanted it broke the


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Communist encirclement of Phnom Penh".[32][33] Peter Rodman and Michael Lind claimed that the US

intervention saved Cambodia from collapse in 1970 and 1973.[34][35] Craig Etcheson agreed that it was"untenable" to assert that US intervention caused the Khmer Rouge victory while acknowledging that it may

have played a small role in boosting recruitment for the insurgents.[36] William Shawcross, however, wrote thatthe US bombing and ground incursion plunged Cambodia into the chaos that Sihanouk had worked for years to

avoid.[37]

The North Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, launched at the request of the Khmer Rouge,[38] has also been

cited as a major factor in their eventual victory, including by Shawcross.[39] Communist Vietnam later admitted

that it played "a decisive role" in their seizure of power.[40] China "armed and trained" the Khmer Rouge during

the civil war and continued to aid them for years afterward.[41]

The UN sided with the CGDK, which included the Khmer Rouge, against the Vietnamese-backed People'sRepublic of Kampuchea.

The regime

Rulers

The leadership of the Khmer Rouge remained largely unchanged from the 1960s to the mid-1990s. The leaderswere mostly from middle-class families and had been educated at French universities.

The Standing Committee of the Khmer Rouge's Central Committee during its period of power consisted of:

Pol Pot (Saloth Sar) (died 1998), "Brother number 1", General Secretary from 1963 until his death,effectively the leader of the movementNuon Chea (Long Bunruot), "Brother number 2", Prime Minister, arrested in 2007, high status made himPol Pot's "righthand man", sentenced to life in prison on 7 Aug 2014Ieng Sary (Pol Pot's brother-in-law) (died in custody awaiting trial for genocide, March 14, 2013),"Brother number 3", Deputy Prime Minister, arrested in 2007Khieu Samphan, "Brother number 4", President of Democratic Kampuchea, arrested in 2007, sentencedto life in prison on 7 Aug 2014Ta Mok (Chhit Chhoeun) (died July 21, 2006), "Brother number 5", Southwest Regional Secretary, finalKhmer Rouge leader, died in custody awaiting trial for genocideSon Sen (died 1997), Defense Minister, Superior of Kang Kek Iew. Assassinated on Pol Pot's orders fortreason.Yun Yat (died 1997)Ke Pauk (died 2002), "Brother number 13", former secretary of the Northern zoneIeng Thirith, arrested in 2007, sister-in-law of Pol Pot, former Social Affairs Minister, deemed unfit to

stand trial due to dementia in 2012.[42]

Life under the Khmer Rouge

In power, the Khmer Rouge carried out a radical program that included isolating the country from all foreigninfluences, closing schools, hospitals, and factories, abolishing banking, finance, and currency, outlawing allreligions, confiscating all private property and relocating people from urban areas to collective farms whereforced labour was widespread. The purpose of this policy was to turn Cambodians into "Old People" through


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Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide

Museum contain thousands of photos

taken by the Khmer Rouge of their

victims.

agricultural labour.[20]

In Phnom Penh and other cities, the Khmer Rouge told residents that they would be moved only about "two orthree kilometers" outside the city and would return in "two or three days". Some witnesses say they were toldthat the evacuation was because of the "threat of American bombing" and that they did not have to lock theirhouses since the Khmer Rouge would "take care of everything" until they returned. People who refused toevacuate would have their homes burned to the ground and would be killed immediately. The evacuees were

sent on long marches to the countryside, which killed thousands of children, elderly people, and sick people.[43]

These were not the first evacuations of civilian populations by the Khmer Rouge; similar evacuations of

populations without possessions had been occurring on a smaller scale since the early 1970s.[43]

The Khmer Rouge attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities and forcing theurban population ("New People") into agricultural communes. The entire population was forced to becomefarmers in labour camps. Cambodians were expected to produce three tons of rice per hectare; before the KhmerRouge era, the average was only one ton per hectare. The total lack of agricultural knowledge by the former citydwellers made famine inevitable. Rural dwellers were often unsympathetic or too frightened to assist them.Such acts as picking wild fruit or berries was seen as "private enterprise" and punished by death. The KhmerRouge forced people to work for 12 hours non-stop, without adequate rest or food. These actions resulted inmassive deaths through executions, work exhaustion, illness, and starvation. They did not believe in westernmedicine but turned to traditional medicine instead; because of the famine, forced labour, and the lack of access

to appropriate services there was a high number of human losses.[43]

Money was abolished, books were burned, teachers, merchants, and almost the entire intellectual elite of thecountry were murdered to make the agricultural communism, as Pol Pot envisioned it, a reality. The plannedrelocation to the countryside resulted in the complete halting of almost all economic activity: even schools andhospitals were closed, as well as banks, and even industrial and service companies. Banks were raided and all

currency and records were destroyed by fire thus eliminating any claim to funds.[44]

During their four years in power, the Khmer Rouge overworked andstarved the population, at the same time executing selected groups whothey believed were enemies of the state or spies or had the potential toundermine the new state. People who they perceived as intellectuals oreven those who had stereotypical signs of learning, such as glasses,would also be killed. People would also be executed for attempting toescape from the communes or for breaching minor rules. If caught,offenders were taken quietly off to a distant forest or field after sunset

and killed.[45]

All religion was banned by the Khmer Rouge. Any people seen takingpart in religious rituals or services would be executed. Several thousandBuddhists, Muslims, and Christians were killed for exercising their

beliefs.[46] Family relationships not sanctioned by the state were alsobanned, and family members could be put to death for communicatingwith each other. Married couples were only allowed to visit each other on a limited basis. If people were seenbeing engaged in sexual activity, they would be killed immediately. Almost all freedom to travel was abolished.Almost all privacy was eliminated during the Khmer Rouge era. People were not allowed to eat in privacy;instead, they were required to eat with everyone in the commune. All personal utensils were banned, and peoplewere given only one spoon to eat with. In any case, family members were often relocated to different parts of

the country with all postal and telephone services abolished.[43][46]


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Skulls of Khmer Rouge victims.

Remains of victims of the

Khmer Rouge in the Kampong

Trach Cave, Kiry Seila Hills,

Rung Tik (Water Cave), or

Rung Khmao (Dead Cave).

Language reforms

The Khmer language has a complex system of usages to define speakers' rank and social status. During the ruleof the Khmer Rouge, these usages were abolished. People were encouraged to call each other "friend" or"comrade" (; mitt), and to avoid traditional signs of deference such as bowing or folding the hands in

salutation, known as samphea.[20]

Language was also transformed in other ways. The Khmer Rouge invented new terms. People were told to"forge" (lot dam) a new revolutionary character, that they were the "instruments" (; opokar) of theruling body known as "Angkar" (, "The Organization"), and that nostalgia for pre-revolutionary times(chheu satek arom, or "memory sickness") could result in execution. Also, rural terms like Mae (; mother)replaced urban terms like Mak (; mother).

Many Cambodians crossed the border into Thailand to seek asylum. From there, they were transported torefugee camps such as Sa Kaeo or Khao-I-Dang, the only camp allowing resettlement in countries such as theUnited States, France, Canada, and Australia. In some refugee camps, such as Site 8, Phnom Chat, or Ta Prik,the Khmer Rouge cadres controlled food distribution and restricted the activities of international aid

agencies.[47]

Crimes against humanity

The Khmer Rouge government arrested, tortured, and eventuallyexecuted anyone suspected of belonging to several categories of

supposed "enemies",[20] including:

Anyone with connections to the former Cambodian government orwith foreign governments.Professionals and intellectuals in practice this included almosteveryone with an education, people who understood a foreignlanguage and even people who required glasses (which, accordingto the regime, meant that they spent too much time reading booksinstead of working). Ironically, Pol Pot himself was an educatedman with a taste for French literature and spoke fluent French.Many artists, including musicians, writers, and filmmakers wereexecuted. Some like Ros Serey Sothea, Pan Ron, and Sinn Sisamouthgained posthumous fame for their talents and are still popular withKhmers today.Ethnic Vietnamese, ethnic Chinese, ethnic Thai, and other minorities inthe Eastern Highlands, Cambodian Christians (most of whom wereCatholic, and the Catholic Church in general), Muslims, and theBuddhist monks. The Roman Catholic cathedral of Phnom Penh wasrazed. The Khmer Rouge forced Muslims to eat pork, which they regardas forbidden (arm). Many of those who refused were killed. Christianclergy and Muslim imams were executed.

"Economic saboteurs" many former urban dwellers were deemedguilty of sabotage due to their lack of agricultural ability.

Those who were convicted of treason were taken to a top-secret prison called S-21. The prisoners were rarely


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given food, and as a result, many people died of starvation. Others died from the severe physical mutilation that

was caused by torture.[48]

Examples of the Khmer Rouge torture methods can be seen at the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum. The museumoccupies the former grounds of a high school turned prison camp that was operated by Khang Khek Ieu, morecommonly known as "Comrade Duch", together with his subordinates Mam Nai and Tang Sin Hean. Some17,000 people passed through this centre before they were taken to sites (also known as The Killing Fields),outside Phnom Penh such as Choeung Ek where most were executed (mainly with pickaxes to save bullets) andburied in mass graves. Of the thousands who entered the Tuol Sleng Centre (also known as S-21), only twelveare known to have survived. These survivors are thought to have been kept alive due to their skills, judged by

their captors to be useful.[49]

The buildings of Tuol Sleng have been preserved as they were left when the Khmer Rouge were driven out in1979. Several of the rooms are now lined with thousands of black-and-white photographs of prisoners that were

taken by the Khmer Rouge.[49]

On 7 August 2014, when announcing convictions and handing down life sentences for two former KhmerRouge leaders, Cambodian judge Nil Nonn said there were evidences of "a widespread and systematic attackagainst the civilian population of Cambodia." He said the leaders, Nuon Chea, the regime's chief ideologue andformer deputy to late leader Pol Pot, and Khieu Samphan, the former head of state, together in a "joint criminalenterprise" were involved in murder, extermination, political persecution and other inhumane acts related to the

mass eviction of city-dwellers, and executions of enemy soldiers.[50]

Number of deaths

Modern research has located 20,000 mass graves from the Khmer Rouge era all over Cambodia. Various studieshave estimated the death toll at between 740,000 and 3,000,000, most commonly between 1.4 million and2.2 million, with perhaps half of those deaths being due to executions, and the rest from starvation and

disease.[51]

The U.S. State Department-funded Cambodian Genocide Program at Yale University estimates the number of

deaths at approximately 1.7 million (21% of the population of the country).[52] R. J. Rummel, an analyst of

historical political killings, gives a figure of 2 million.[53] A UN investigation reported 23 million dead, while

UNICEF estimates that 3 million had been killed.[54] Demographic analysis by Patrick Heuveline suggests that

between 1.17 and 3.42 million Cambodians were killed,[55] while Marek Sliwinski estimates that 1.8 million is

a conservative figure.[30] Researcher Craig Etcheson of the Documentation Center of Cambodia suggests thatthe death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a "most likely" figure of 2.2 million. After five years ofresearching grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of

execution".[51]

An additional 300,000 Cambodians starved to death between 1979 and 1980, largely as a result of the after-

effects of Khmer Rouge policy.[56]

Fall

On April 18, 1978, Pol Pot, fearing a Vietnamese attack, ordered a pre-emptive invasion of Vietnam. HisCambodian forces crossed the border and looted nearby villages, mostly in the border town of Ba Chc. Of the

3,157 civilians who had lived in Ba Chc,[57] only two survived the massacre. These Cambodian forces were


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Photo images of the Ba Chc

massacre at a Vietnamese museum.

The massacre was one of the events

that prompted the 1978 Vietnamese

invasion of Kampuchea.

repelled by the Vietnamese.[58]

By December 1978, due to several years of border conflict and the floodof refugees fleeing Kampuchea, relations between Cambodia and Vietnamcollapsed. On December 25, 1978, the Vietnamese armed forces, alongwith the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation, anorganization that included many dissatisfied former Khmer Rouge

members,[59] then invaded Cambodia, capturing Phnom Penh on January7, 1979. Despite a traditional Cambodian fear of Vietnamese domination,defecting Khmer Rouge activists assisted the Vietnamese, and, withVietnam's approval, became the core of the new People's Republic ofKampuchea, quickly dismissed by the Khmer Rouge and China as a

"puppet government".[58]

At the same time, the Khmer Rouge retreated west, and it continued to

control certain areas near the Thai border for the next decade.[60] Theseincluded Phnom Malai, the mountainous areas near Pailin in the Cardamom Mountains, and Anlong Veng in the

Dngrk Mountains.[61]

These Khmer Rouge bases were not self-sufficient and were funded by diamond and timber smuggling, bymilitary assistance from China channeled by means of the Thai military, and by food smuggled from markets

across the border in Thailand.[62]

Place in the United Nations

Despite its deposal, the Khmer Rouge retained its United Nations seat, which was occupied by Thiounn Prasith,an old compatriot of Pol Pot and Ieng Sary from their student days in Paris, and one of the 21 attendees at the1960 KPRP Second Congress. The seat was retained under the name "Democratic Kampuchea" until 1982, andthen under the name "Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea". Western governments voted in favorof the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea retaining Cambodia's seat in the organization over thenewly installed Vietnamese-backed PRK, even though it included the Khmer Rouge. Margaret Thatcher stated:"So, you'll find that the more reasonable ones of the Khmer Rouge will have to play some part in the futuregovernment, but only a minority part. I share your utter horror that these terrible things went on in

Kampuchea."[63] Sweden on the contrary changed its vote in the U.N. and withdrew its support for the KhmerRouge after a large number of Swedish citizens wrote letters to their elected representatives demanding a policy

change towards Pol Pot's regime.[64]

Ramifications of Vietnamese victory

Vietnam's victory, supported by the Soviet Union, had significant ramifications for the region; the People'sRepublic of China launched a punitive invasion of northern Vietnam and retreated (with both sides claimingvictory). China, the U.S. and the ASEAN countries sponsored the creation and the military operations of aCambodian government-in-exile known as the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea which

included, besides the Khmer Rouge, republican KPNLF and royalist ANS.[64]

Eastern and central Cambodia were firmly under the control of Vietnam and its Cambodian allies by 1980,while the western part of the country continued to be a battlefield throughout the 1980s and millions oflandmines were sown across the countryside. The Khmer Rouge, still led by Pol Pot, was the strongest of thethree rebel groups in the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea which received extensive military


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Photos of the victims of the Khmer

Rouge.

aid from China, Britain, and the United States and intelligence from the Thai military. Britain and the United

States in particular gave aid to the two non-Khmer Rouge members of the coalition.[65]

In an attempt to broaden its support base, the Khmer Rouge formed thePatriotic and Democratic Front of the Great National Union ofKampuchea in 1979. In 1981, the Khmer Rouge went as far as to

officially renounce Communism[61] and somewhat moved theirideological emphasis to nationalism and anti-Vietnamese rhetoricinstead. However, some analysts argue that this change meant little inpractice, because, as historian Kelvin Rowley puts it: "CPK propaganda

had always relied on nationalist rather than revolutionary appeals."[64]

Although Pol Pot relinquished the Khmer Rouge leadership to KhieuSamphan in 1985, he continued to be the driving force behind the KhmerRouge insurgency, giving speeches to his followers. Journalists such asNate Thayer who spent some time with the Khmer Rouge during thatperiod commented that, despite the international community's near-universal condemnation of the KhmerRouge's brutal rule, a considerable number of Cambodians in Khmer Rouge-controlled areas seemed genuinely

to support Pol Pot.[66]

While Vietnam proposed to withdraw from Cambodia in return for a political settlement that would exclude theKhmer Rouge from power, the rebel coalition government, as well as ASEAN, China, and the US, insisted that

such a condition was unacceptable.[61] Nevertheless, in 1985 Vietnam declared that it would complete thewithdrawal of its forces from Cambodia by 1990 and it did so in 1989, having allowed the government that it

had installed there to consolidate its rule and gain sufficient military strength.[64]

After a decade of inconclusive conflict, the pro-Vietnamese Cambodian government and the rebel coalitionsigned a treaty in 1991 calling for elections and disarmament. In 1992, however, the Khmer Rouge resumedfighting, boycotted the election and, in the following year, rejected its results. It now fought the new Cambodiancoalition government which included the former Vietnamese-backed Communists (headed by Hun Sen) as wellas the Khmer Rouge's former non-Communist and monarchist allies (notably Prince Rannaridh). In July 1994 a"Provisional Government of National Union and National Salvation of Cambodia" was established by KhmerRouge authorities.

There was a mass defection from the Khmer Rouge in 1996, when around half of its remaining soldiers (about4,000) left. In 1997, a conflict between the two main participants in the ruling coalition caused PrinceRannaridh to seek support from some of the Khmer Rouge leaders, while refusing to have any dealings with Pol

Pot.[64][66] This resulted in bloody factional fighting among the Khmer Rouge leaders, ultimately leading to PolPot's trial and imprisonment by the Khmer Rouge. Pol Pot died in April 1998. Khieu Samphan surrendered inDecember.

On December 29, 1998, the remaining leaders of the Khmer Rouge apologized for the 1970s genocide. By1999, most members had surrendered or been captured. In December 1999, Ta Mok and the remaining leaderssurrendered, and the Khmer Rouge effectively ceased to exist. Most of the surviving Khmer Rouge leaders livein the Pailin area or are hiding in Phnom Penh.

Memorialization

Since 1990 Cambodia has gradually recovered, demographically and economically, from the Khmer Rouge


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Kang Kek Iew before the Cambodian

Genocide Tribunal on July 20, 2009.

regime, although the psychological scars affect many Cambodian families and migr communities. It isnoteworthy that Cambodia has a very young population and by 2003 three-quarters of Cambodians were tooyoung to remember the Khmer Rouge era. Nonetheless, their generation is affected by the traumas of the

past.[67]

Members of this younger generation may know of the Khmer Rouge only through word of mouth from parentsand elders. In part, this is because the government does not require that educators teach children about Khmer

Rouge atrocities in the schools.[68] However, Cambodia's Education Ministry started to teach Khmer Rouge

history in high schools beginning in 2009.[69][70] China has defended its ties with the Khmer Rouge. ChineseForeign Ministry spokeswoman Jiang Yu said, "[T]he government of Democratic Kampuchea had a legal seat at

the United Nations, and had established broad foreign relations with more than 70 countries".[71]

Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)

The ECCC was established as a Cambodian court with internationalparticipation and assistance to bring to trial senior leaders and thosemost responsible for crimes committed during the Khmer Rouge

regime.[72] It has been handling four cases since 2007.[72] ECCC'sefforts for outreach toward both national and international audienceinclude public trial hearings, study tours, video screenings, schoollectures, and video archives on the web site.

At present, the Khmer Rouge Case trials are taking place, with thecharges accusing the Khmer Rouge regime of genocide and crimes

against humanity.[73] After claiming to feel great remorse for his part inKhmer Rouge atrocities, Kaing Guek Eav (alias Duch), head of a torturecentre from which 16,000 men, women and children were sent to their deaths, surprised the court in hisgenocide trial on November 27, 2009 with a plea for his freedom. His Cambodian lawyer, Kar Savuth, stunnedthe tribunal further by issuing the trial's first call for an acquittal of his client, even after his French lawyer

denied seeking such a verdict.[74] On July 26, 2010, he was convicted and sentenced to thirty years. Many

condemned the sentence as too lenient.[75] Theary Seng responded: "We hoped this tribunal would strike hard atimpunity, but if you can kill 14,000 people and serve only 19 years 11 hours per life taken what is that? It's ajoke." She also stated: "My gut feeling is this has made the situation far worse for Cambodia. It has taken a lot

of faith out of the system and raised concerns of political interference."[76] }}

Duch appealed against his sentence, but the tactic backfired. In February 2012, Judge Kong Srim dismissed theappeal, saying that Duch's crimes were "undoubtedly among the worst in recorded human history" and deserved

"the highest penalty available". He increased Duch's sentence to life imprisonment.[77]

Public trial hearings in Phnom Penh are open to the people of Cambodia over the age of 18 including

foreigners.[78] In order to assist people's will to participate in the public hearings, the court provides free bus

transportation for groups of Cambodians who want to visit the court.[78] Since the commencement of Case 001

trial in 2009 through the end of 2011, 53,287 people have participated in the public hearings.[72] ECCC also hashosted Study Tour Program to help villagers in rural areas understand the history of the Khmer Rouge regime.The court provides free transport for them to come to visit the court and meet with court officials to learn about

its work, in addition to visits to the genocide museum and the killing fields.[79] ECCC also has visited village tovillage to provide video screenings and school lectures to promote their understanding of the trial

proceedings.[72] Furthermore, trials and transcripts are partially available with English translation on the


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Skulls displayed in the memorial

tower.

ECCC's website.[80]

Museums

The Tuol Sleng Museum of Genocide and Choeng Ek Killing Fields are two major museums to learn the historyof the Khmer Rouge.

The Tuol Sleng Museum of Genocide is a former high school building,which was transformed into a torture, interrogation and execution center

between 1976 and 1979.[81] The Khmer Rouge called the center

"S-21".[81] Of the estimated 15,000 to 30,000 prisoners,[82] only seven

prisoners survived.[81] The Khmer Rouge photographed the vastmajority of the inmates and left a photographic archive, which enables

visitors to see almost 6,000 S-21 portraits on the walls.[81] Visitors canalso learn how the inmates were tortured from the equipment andfacilities exhibited in the buildings. In addition, one of the sevensurvivors shares his story with visitors at the museum.

The Choeng Ek killing fields are located about 15 kilometers outside of

Phnom Penh.[83] Most of the prisoners who were held captive at S-21 were taken to the fields to be executed

and deposited in one of the approximately 129 mass graves.[83] It is estimated that the graves contain the

remains of over 20,000 victims.[83] After the discovery of the site in 1979, the Vietnamese transformed the site

into a memorial and stored skulls and bones in an open-walled wooden memorial pavilion.[83] Eventually, these

remains were showcased in the memorial's centerpiece stupa, or Buddhist shrine.[83]

Publications

The Documentation Center of Cambodia (DC-Cam), an independent research institute,[49] published A History

of Democratic Kampuchea 1975 - 1979,[84] the national first textbook on the Khmer Rouge history.[85] The

74-page textbook was approved by the government as a supplementary text in 2007.[86] The textbook is aimingat standardising and improving the information students receive about the Khmer Rouge years because the

government-issued social studies textbook devotes eight or nine pages to the period.[86] The publication was apart of their genocide education project that includes leading the design of a national genocide studiescurriculum with the Ministry of Education, training thousands of teachers and 1700 high schools on how to

teach about genocide, and working with universities across Cambodia.[85]

Youth for Peace,[87] a Cambodian NGO that offers education in peace, leadership, conflict resolution, andreconciliation to Cambodian's youth, published a book titled "Behind the Darkness:Taking Responsibility orActing Under Orders?" in 2011. The book is unique in that, instead of focusing on the victims as most books do,it collects the stories of former Khmer Rouge, giving insights into the functioning of the regime and

approaching the question of how such a regime could take place.[88]

Dialogues

While the tribunal contributes to the memorialization process at national level, some civil society groups

promote memorialization at community level. The International Center for Conciliation (ICfC)[89] beganworking in Cambodia in 2004 as a branch of the ICfC in Boston. ICfC launched the Justice and History


15 of 24 8/4/2015 9:12 PM

Outreach (JHO) project in 2007 and has worked in villages in rural Cambodia with the goal of creating mutual

understanding and empathy between victims and former members of the Khmer Rouge.[90] Following thedialogues, villagers identify their own ways of memorialization such as collecting stories to be transmitted to

the younger generations or building a memorial.[91] Through the process, some villagers are beginning to acceptthe possibility of an alternative viewpoint to the traditional notions of evil associated with anyone who worked

for the Khmer Rouge regime.[90]

Media coverage

Radio National Kampuchea (RNK),[92] as well as private and NGO radio stations, broadcast programmes on the

Khmer Rouge and trials.[93] ECCC has its own weekly radio program on RNK, which provides an opportunity

for the public to interact with court officials and deepen their understanding of Cases.[94]

Youth for Peace,[87] a Cambodian NGO that offers education in peace, leadership, conflict resolution, andreconciliation to Cambodian's youth, has broadcast the weekly radio program "You also have a chance" since

2009.[95] Aiming at preventing the passing on of hatred and violence to future generations, the program allows

former Khmer Rouge to talk anonymously about their past experience.[95]

All Cambodian television stations include regular coverage of the progress of the trials.[93] The followingstations feature special programming:

Cambodian Television Network (CTN) (http://www.ctn.com.kh/) (English/Khmer) maintains a special

van at the court for live transmission of the proceedings.[93]

National Television Kampuchea (TVK) (http://www.tvk.gov.kh) (Khmer)Apsara TV (http://www.apsaratv.fr/article/view-1/Apsara_TV_en_France.html) (English/French/Khmer)

targets viewers in Europe, Australia, and North America.[93]

International television stations such as the BBC, Al Jazeera, CNN, NHK, and Channel News Asia also cover

the development of trials.[93]

ECCC also uses various social media to update the development of the tribunal.[96]

Historic legacy

After taking power, the Khmer Rouge leadership renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea. The KhmerRouge subjected Cambodia to a radical social reform process that was aimed at creating a purely agrarian-based

Communist society.[97] The Khmer Rouge forced around two million people from the cities to the countrysideto take up work in agriculture. They forced many people out of their homes and ignored many basic humanfreedoms; they controlled how Cambodians acted, what they wore, to whom they could talk, and many otheraspects of their lives. Over the next three years, the Khmer Rouge killed many intellectuals, city-dwellers,

minority people, and many of their own party members and soldiers who were suspected of being traitors.[98]

The Khmer Rouge wanted to eliminate anyone suspected of "involvement in free-market activities". Suspectedcapitalists encompassed professionals and almost everyone with an education, many urban dwellers, and people

with connections to foreign governments.[99]

The Khmer Rouge believed that parents were tainted with capitalism, so they separated children from their


16 of 24 8/4/2015 9:12 PM

parents, indoctrinated them in communism, and taught them torture methods with animals. Children were a

"dictatorial instrument of the party"[100] and were given leadership in torture and executions.[1]

One of their mottos, in reference to the New People (usually urban civilians), was: "To keep you is no benefit.

To destroy you is no loss."[101] The philosophy of the Khmer Rouge had developed over time. It started as a

communist party[98] that was working together and searching for direction from the Vietnamese guerrillas who

were fighting their own civil war.[102]

Pol Pot was a key leader in the movement after he returned to Cambodia from France, where he had become a

member of the French Communist Party (PCF) and a left-wing Cambodian students' group.[98]

The movement gained strength and support in the northeastern jungles and established firm footing whenCambodia's leader Prince Sihanouk was removed from office during a military coup in 1970. The former princethen looked to the Khmer Rouge for backing, and with the threat of civil war looming, the Khmer Rouge were

able to supplant the Lon Nol led Khmer Republic in most of the Cambodian countryside.[103]

After four years of rule, the Khmer Rouge regime was removed from power in 1979 as a result of an invasionby the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and was replaced by moderate, pro-Vietnamese Communists. The KhmerRouge survived into the 1990s as a resistance movement operating in western Cambodia from bases inThailand. In 1996, following a peace agreement, their leader Pol Pot formally dissolved the organization. Pol

Pot died on the 15th of April, 1998,[104] having never been put on trial.[105]

See also

Alive in the KillingFields (book)Cambodian Civil WarCambodian genocidedenialKilling FieldsCambodia TribunalCham peopleChoeung EkCold WarCommand responsibilityCrimes against humanityDap Prampi MesaChokchey

Democratic KampucheaDith PranGenocides in historyJoseph StalinKhmer Rouge Tribunal (Court for Khmer Rouge crimes, only fiveaccused through this)MaoismOperation MenuStalinismTheary Seng, president of the Center for Cambodian Civic Education(CIVICUS)TotalitarianismTuol Sleng Genocide MuseumEnemies of the People, a documentary film depicting co-director ThetSambath's quest to find truth and closure in the Killing Fields ofCambodia.The Missing Picture, a documentary film illustrating the cruelty done toCambodians when Pol Pot came to power through news footage and clayfigurines.

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Vickery, Michael (1984). Cambodia : 19751982. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-189-3.59. Daniel Bultmann (2015) 'Inside Cambodian Insurgency. A Sociological Perspective on Civil Wars and Conflict',Ashgate: Burlington, VT/Farnham, UK, ISBN 9781472443076.

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Further reading

Affono, Denise. To the End of Hell: One Woman's Struggle to Survive Cambodia's Khmer Rouge.London: Reportage Press, 2007.Becker, Elizabeth. When the War Was Over: Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge Revolution. New York:PublicAffairs, 1998.Bizot, Francois. The Gate. New York: Knopf, 2003.Bultmann, Daniel. "Irrigating a Socialist Utopia: Disciplinary Space and Population Control under theKhmer Rouge, 19751979 (http://www2.hu-berlin.de/transcience/Vol3_Issue1_2012_40_52.pdf),"Transcience, vol. 3, no. 1 (2012), pp. 4052.

Chanda, Nayan, Brother Enemy: The War After the War. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986.Chandler, David P.: A History of Cambodia. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8133-3511-6.Chandler, David P. Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot. Boulder, Colo.: WestviewPress, 1992. ISBN 0-8133-3510-8


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Wikimedia Commons has

media related to Khmer

Rouge.

Criddle, JoAn D. To Destroy You Is No Loss: The Odyssey of a Cambodian Family. New York: AtlanticMonthly Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-9632205-1-6Him, Chanrithy. When Broken Glass Floats: Growing up under the Khmer Rouge, A Memoir. New York:W.W. Norton, 2000.Kiernan, Ben. The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge,197579. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-300-09649-6.Kiernan, Ben. How Pol Pot Came to Power: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Communism in Cambodia,19301975. 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-300-10262-3.Ngor, Haing. A Cambodian Odyssey. New York: Macmillan, 1987.Nhem, Boraden. Khmer Rouge: Ideology, Militarism, and the Revolution that Consumed a GenerationPraeger, 2013. ISBN 978-0-313-39337-2.Pran, Dith (Comp.). Children of Cambodia's Killing Fields: Memoirs by Survivors. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1997.Panh, Rithy with Bataille, Christopher. The Elimination: a Survivor of the Khmer Rouge Confronts hisPast. Clerkenwell, 2013. A dispassionate interview and analysis of "Duch", who was head of security forthe Khmer regime. Written by a surviving victim.Shawcross, William. Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon, and the Destruction of Cambodia. New York: Simonand Schuster, 1979.Swain, Jon. River of Time. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997. ISBN 0-425-16805-0.Ung, Loung. First They Killed My Father: A Daughter of Cambodia Remembers. New York:HarperCollins, 2000. ISBN 0-06-093138-8Olivier Weber, Les Impunis, Un voyage dans la banalit du mal (Robert Laffont, 2013)Piergiorgio Pescali, S-21 Nella prigione di Pol Pot La Ponga Edizioni, Milan, 2015. ISBN978-8897823308

External links

The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force (http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/)Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)(http://www.eccc.gov.kh/)The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Cambodia (http://cambodia.ohchr.org/)Selected Documents of the Khmer Rouge (http://www.archive.org/details/SelectedDocumentsOfTheKhmerRouge)Cambodia Tribunal Monitor (http://www.cambodiatribunal.org/)Khmer Rouge S21 art exhibition at Tuol Sleng Jan 26, 2011 Apr 26, 2011 by Peter Klashorst(http://www.peter-klashorst.com/)

Other online sources

Cambodia Tribunal Monitor (http://www.cambodiatribunal.org/), a consortium of academic,philanthropic, and non-profit organizations, provides free access to videos of the proceedings, relevantnews and statements, as well as an overview of each case.Cambodian Genocide Program (CGP) at Yale University (http://www.yale.edu/cgp/) offers acomprehensive set of resources on the Khmer Rouge and the tribunal including news updates,photographs, databases, literature, maps, overview of US involvement in the Cambodian war andgenocide, and links to other organizations.


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Cambodian Genocide Project by Genocide Watch (http://www.genocidewatch.org/cambodiaproject.html)updates the development of the tribunal on the website.

Genocide

Khmer Rouge and the Cambodian Genocide (http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552628) from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives(http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494)Yale University: Cambodian Genocide Program (http://www.yale.edu/cgp/)Digital Archive of Cambodian Holocaust Survivors (http://www.cybercambodia.com/dachs/)PBS Frontline/World: Pol Pot's Shadow (http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/cambodia/index.html)Survivor of the killing fields describes her experience (http://www.docsonline.tv/Archives/description.php?doc=185), from the Deacon of deathCambodia Tales: Khmer Rouge torture and killing paintings (http://web.archive.org/web/20070621175821/http://www.btinternet.com/~andy.brouwer/vannnath.htm)Khmer Rouge Tribunal Updates (http://web.archive.org/web/20070618100356/http://www.genocidewatch.org/news/CAMBODIA.htm) from Genocide WatchGenocide of Cham Muslims (http://www.cambodiangenocide.org/hopes_fears_genocide_bp.htm)PROSECUTING STARVATION AT THE EXTRAORDINARY CHAMBERS IN THE COURTS OFCAMBODIA (http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=solomon_bashi)A Search For Justice by the Women Forced to Marry Strangers (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/a-search-for-justice-by-the-women-forced-to-marry-strangers-2303228.html)State Violence in Democratic Kampuchea (1975-1979) and Retribution (1979-2004)(http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/cambodia/locard.pdf)

Uncategorized

Documentation Center of Cambodia (http://www.dccam.org/) Accessed February 6, 2005Chigas, George (2000). "Building a Case Against the Khmer Rouge: Evidence from the Tuol Sleng andSantebal Archives" (http://www.asiaquarterly.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=61&Itemid=5). Harvard Asia Quarterly 4 (1): 4449.

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