kine%c’isotope’effects’ - github pages isotope... · 2020-02-04 ·...

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Kine%c Isotope Effects KIE = k H k D SM H k H ⎯→ PDT H SM D k D ⎯→ PDT D Ques%ons: What is the mechanism of a reac%on? Is a certain bond broken in the ratedetermining step? What is the transi%on state geometry? Ideas: Minimally perturb the reac%on by isotopically labeling one of the atoms in the reactants. Isotopic labeling cannot change the mechanism of the reac%on! Defini%on: The KIE is the rate constant ra%o, with the lighter isotopomer in the numerator. The most common isotopomers are pro%um and deuterium, but many other choices are possible.

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Page 1: Kine%c’Isotope’Effects’ - GitHub Pages isotope... · 2020-02-04 · The’means’the’transi%on’state’will’notbe’affected’by’the’isotope,’butthe’ground’state’

Kine%c  Isotope  Effects  

!KIE =

kHkD!

SMHkH⎯→⎯ PDTH

SMDkD⎯→⎯ PDTD

Ques%ons:    What  is  the  mechanism  of  a  reac%on?    

     Is  a  certain  bond  broken  in  the  rate-­‐determining  step?    

     What  is  the  transi%on  state  geometry?    Ideas:      Minimally  perturb  the  reac%on  by  isotopically  labeling  one  of  the  atoms  in  

     the  reactants.    

     Isotopic  labeling  cannot  change  the  mechanism  of  the  reac%on!    Defini%on:  The  KIE  is  the  rate  constant  ra%o,  with  the  lighter  isotopomer  in  the  

     numerator.    The  most  common  isotopomers  are  pro%um  and  deuterium,        but  many  other  choices  are  possible.  

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Defini%ons  Primary  KIE:  A  bond  is  broken  or  formed  to  the  isotope  in  the  rds.    

   e.g.  E2  elimina%on:          Secondary  KIE:  The  isotope  is  not  directly  involved  in  the  rds.    

   e.g.  Claisen  rearrangement:            Normal  KIE:  The  lighter  isotopomer  reacts  faster:  kH/kD  >  1.0.    Inverse  KIE:  The  lighter  isotopomer  reacts  slower:  kH/kD  <  1.0.      Equilibrium  Isotope  Effect  (EIE):  The  isotope  affects  the  posi%on  of  an  equilibrium,  rather  than  the  rate  of  a  reac%on.  

H/D

Cl

HOHO(H/D) + Cl+

O O

H/D H/D

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CH*3 Br2

kH/kD

CH*2-Br+ H*-Br 4.6

CH*3 Cl2 CH*2-Cl+ H*-Cl 1.5

H_T + H2O H_H + HO_T 6.26

H*6

HNO3/H2SO4 NO2 ca. 1

H*6

HgClO46.75

Hg(ClO4)2

H3C

OH

CH3H*

HCrO4

H3C

O

CH37.7

Primary  Isotope  Effects  

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Origin  of  the  KIE  The  KIE  mainly  arises  from  zero  point  energy  differences.    Quantum  harmonic  oscillator  model:    

                     The  frequency  of  the  oscillator  is:              

                     k  is  the  force  constant,  which  is                        how  s%ff  the  spring  is.  

                       µ  is  the  reduced  mass,  which  is                        the  effec%ve  mass  of  the  system                        in  the  center  of  mass  frame:                          

!!v = 1

2πkµ

!!µ =

m1m2m1 +m2

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Origin  of  the  KIE  The  energy  levels  are  given  by:  

                           For  n=0,  the  energy  is  0.5hv.    This  is  the  zero-­‐point  energy  (ZPE).    

                                             Frequency  depends  on  reduced                        mass,  so  isotopic  subs%tu%on  will                        change  the  ZPE.  

                       Since  the  ground  and  transi%on                        states  contain  different  amounts  of                      ZPE,  isotopic  subs%tu%on  will  change                        the  reac%on  barrier.  

!!En = n+ 12

⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟hv n=0,1,2,...

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Origin  of  the  KIE  Consider  a  homoly%c  bond  dissocia%on  of  a  C-­‐H  bond:  

                                                                 There  is  no  ZPE  in  the  transi%on  state,  so  the  barrier  to  homolysis  will  be  equal  to  the  difference  in  zero-­‐point  energy.    Because  the  lighter  isotope  has  more  ZPE,  it  has  a  smaller  barrier  and  reacts  faster.    This  means  most  KIEs  kH/kD  will  be  greater  than  1.0  (i.e.,  “normal”).      

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Origin  of  the  KIE  Consider  a  homoly%c  bond  dissocia%on  of  a  C-­‐H  bond:  

                                                                 C-­‐H  vs  C-­‐D  stretch:  3000  cm-­‐1  and  2200  cm-­‐1,  a  difference  of  800  cm-­‐1.    The  ZPE  difference  is  0.5*h*c*800  =  1.15  kcal/mol.    The  molar  gas  constant  is  0.002  kcal/K•mol.    At  298  K,  this  is  0.6  kcal/mol.    The  rate  difference  is  exp(–1.15/0.6)  =  6.8.    This  is  the  maximum  primary  KIE.  

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Origin  of  the  KIE  In  most  reac%ons,  the  bond  is  not  completely  broken  in  the  transi%on  state:                                  The  KIE  will  be  the  difference  between  the  ground  and  transi%on  state  ZPEs.    If  the  transi%on  state  retains  some  ZPE,  the  difference  in  ZPEs  will  be  smaller.    This  means  that  most  KIEs  will  be  less  than  6.8.  

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Non-­‐linear  Transi%on  States  Linear  transi%on  states  have  larger  KIEs  than  non-­‐linear  transi%on  states.                                  When  the  central  atom  has  a  small  displacement,  the  frequency  of  the  vibra%on  will  be  hardly  affected  by  which  isotope  is  present.      The  means  the  transi%on  state  will  not  be  affected  by  the  isotope,  but  the  ground  state  will  be.    This  leads  to  a  larger  KIE.  

A BHsymmetric stretch of

linear transition state:central atom is fixed

A B

H asymmetric stretch ofnonlinear transition state:central atom moves a lot

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Hammond  Postulate  In  highly  exothermic  reac%ons,  the  transi%on  state  resembles  the  star%ng  material.    This  means  bonds  are  mostly  s%ll  formed  in  the  transi%on  state.    The  difference  in  KIEs  will  be  small,  so  a  small  KIE  will  be  observed.                                    The  bonds  in  a  thermoneutral  reac%on  will  largely  broken,  so  larger  KIES  are  expected.  

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Hammond  Postulate  A  classic  example  is  from  Bruice  (JACS  1969  92  905),  who  studied  the  KIEs  of  nitroethane  deprotona%on  by  various  amines:    

                     Amines  whose  pKa  is  closest  to                        that  of  nitroethane  (8.5)  will                        undergo  a  thermoneutral                        deprotona%on  reac%on.    These                        are  the  reac%ons  with  the  largest                        KIEs.  

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O

O

O

O

N N

OMn

PhPh

t-Bu

XCl

X

t-Bu

O

N N

OMn

t-Bu

XCl

X

t-Bu

σpara

X = OCH3, CH3, H, Cl, NO2

log

( rat

io o

f en a

n tio

mer

s)

ρ = -1.37, r = 0.989

X = OMe (96% ee)

X = NO2 (22% ee)

-0.4 0.2 0.80.0

1.0

2.0

nn

nn

n

Electronic Tuning of Enantioselectivity

Jacobsen JACS 1991, 113, 6703

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Ar R

X X X XMnIIIMnV

O O

RArX XMnIVO

RAr

X = MeOX = H

X = NO2

X = NO2

X = H

X = MeO

ΔE

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1

2

3

4

5

6

0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Ph H(D)

H(D)H

O

N N

OX

t-Bu

X

t-Bu

Mn

H H

Cl

X

NO2ClHCH3OCH3

H H(D)

H(D)Ph O+ NaOClX = OCH3, CH3, H, Cl, NO2

Basis for the Electronic Effect

kH / kD

0.950.890.860.840.82

kH/kD

enantio-facial

selectivity

Jacobsen JACS 1998, 120, 948Theoretical analysis: H Jacobsen JOC 2003, 68, 6202

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Rehybridiza%on  Considering  bends  as  well  as  stretches  allows  us  to  understand  secondary  KIEs:                              Changing  from  sp3  to  sp2  decreases  the  bend  frequency  from  1350  cm-­‐1  to  800  cm-­‐1.    This  means  the  transi%on  state  has  less  ZPE  than  the  ground  state  and  a  normal  SKIE  is  observed  (typical:  1.1-­‐1.2).    Changing  from  sp2  to  sp3  increases  the  bend  frequency,  leading  to  an  inverse  SKIE  (typical:  0.8-­‐0.9).  

OH(D)

O

O

+kH/kD = 0.95

O

O

OH(D)

H

In-plane Bend Out-of-plane Bend

H

H

sp3

sp2

H

H

1350 cm-1

800 cm-1

1350 cm-1

1350 cm-1

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Secondary  Isotope  Effects  

OTfH*H*

H*H*

HOAcOAc

H*H*

H*H*

2.06

MeO+ HCN

O

H*

MeO

OH

H*CN

Me

H* H*

0.73

Cl H2O

EtOH Me

H* H*OH 1.30

H*2CCH*2 50 ºC

H*2C CH*2

+

1.37

kH/kD

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Tunnelling  Some  reac%ons  proceed  by  passing  directly  through  the  barrier.    H/D  KIEs  of  up  to  100  can  be  observed!  

                        Left: tunnelling in a [1,2]-shift of a carbene, which has a half-life of one hour at 11 K, despite a barrier of 28 kcal. The deuterated analog is completely stable, which is an infinite KIE! Schreiner and Allen, 10.1126/science.1203761

         The  tunnelling  rate  depends  on  barrier  width  and  mass,  rather  than  the  barrier  height.    This  results  in  temperature-­‐independent  rates.    Tunnelling  is  common  in  proton  transfers.  

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Heavy  Atom  Isotope  Effects  Heavy  atom  isotope  effects  can  also  be  measured,  but  are  much  smaller  because  of  the  much  smaller  difference  in  reduced  mass.    For  example,  a  primary  12C/13C  KIE  is  1.03-­‐1.05.    These  can  be  measured  by  absolute  rates:            That  is,  the  rates  are  measured  in  separate  flasks  and  then  compared.    There  are  two  drawbacks  to  this  method:    -­‐  Isotopically  pure  sta%ng  materials  must  be  prepared.  

-­‐  The  result  is  inaccurate  because  the  error  bar  in  the  measurement  is  on  the  order  of  the  expected  isotope  effect.  

!

SMHkH⎯→⎯ PDTH

SMDkD⎯→⎯ PDTD

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Heavy  Atom  Isotope  Effects  Alterna%vely,  one  can  measure  the  rates  by  intermolecular  compe%%on:        That  is,  an  isotopic  mixture  of  star%ng  materials  are  reacted  in  the  same  flask,  and  the  KIE  inferred  from  the  product  distribu%on.    Specifically,  for  a  normal  KIE,  we  expect:    -­‐  the  product  to  be  enriched  in  the  faster-­‐reac%ng  light  isotopomer  -­‐  the  star%ng  material  to  be  enrinched  in  the  slower-­‐reac%ng  heavy  isotopomer  

The  advantages  are  that:    -­‐  product  distribu%ons  can  be  determined  much  more  accurately  than  absolute  rates  -­‐  the  ini%al  isotopic  distribu%on  can  be  arbitrary  

In  fact,  Singleton  has  shown  that  heavy  atom  carbon  isotope  effects  can  be  measured  for  many  reac%ons  at  natural  abundance  (JACS  1995  117  9357).  

!!SMH + SMDkH ,kD⎯ →⎯⎯ PDTH +PDTD

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Heavy  Atom  Isotope  Effects  For  example,  consider  the  Bayer–Villiger  oxida%on  of  cyclohexanone:            This  reac%on  has  two  steps:  nucleophilic  addi%on  and  migra%on.    For  the  nucleophilic  addi%on  step,  we  expect  reac%on  to  be  slightly  faster  with  the  unlabeled  isotopomer:                      If  we  recover  star%ng  material,  it  should  be  enriched  in  the  slower  reac%ng  13C  isotopomer.    (The  KIE  in  the  second  step  doesn’t  maner  because  the  first  step  is  irreversible.)    This  is  the  same  principle  as  that  for  kine%c  resolu%ons.  

O

+ HO O

O

Raddition

HO O O

O

R migration O

O

O

+ HO O

O

Rslow

HO O O

O

R**

O

+ HO O

O

Rfast

HO O O

O

R

* = 13C label

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Heavy  Atom  Isotope  Effects  The  enrichment  is  related  to  the  KIE  by  the  following  equa%on:            where  R  is  the  isotopic  ra%o  in  the  recovered  star%ng  material,  R0  is  the  original  isotopic  ra%o,  1-­‐F1  is  the  conversion,  and  k2/k1  is  1/KIE.    Using  quan%ta%ve  13C  and  2H  NMR:                There  is  a  large  primary  kine%c  isotope  effect  at  the  carbonyl  carbon  and  an  inverse  secondary  KIE  from  the  hybridiza%on  change  at  the  adjacent  protons.    

!!RR0

= 1−F1( )k2k1

−1⎛

⎝⎜

⎠⎟

O1.048

1.0031.00 (assumed)

H

HH 1.00 (assumed)

0.97

0.96

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Heavy  Atom  Isotope  Effects  If  we  apply  the  same  analysis  to  product  arer  running  the  reac%on  to  low  conversion,  we  will  find  an  en%rely  different  result!                These  measure  the  intramolecular  KIE!    We  are  actually  measuring  a  post-­‐rate-­‐determining  selec%vity:                    (The  natural  abundance  of  carbon-­‐13  is  1.1%,  so  we  can  assume  there  is  only  one  label  per  molecule.)  

O

OH

H1.00 (assumed) 1.043

1.010.997

O

+ HO O

O

R

rate-determiningaddition HO O O

O

R*KIE=1 *

either of the enantiotopiccarbons can migrate

O

O

*

O

O

*fast

slow

primary KIE