Introduction

Among the notable kings of God’s covenant people, Israel, Solomon stands out more

than most. Son of the king who managed to unite the amphictyony-like tribal alliance of Israel

into a unified kingdom, Solomon benefitted greatly from the reign of his father; in fact, Solomon

came to the throne at a time of peaceful conditions that no king before or after him would enjoy.1

After an initial seven-year reign in Judah, David had successfully united the kingdom, but

constant warring with enemies—not least of which emerged from his own household—prevented

him to some extent from developing the Israelite infrastructure. Thus, Solomon served as the

first (and only) Israelite king to rule over a truly unified kingdom. As Bright states, “The tribal

confederacy with its sacral institutions and charismatic leadership had given way to the dynastic

state, under which all aspects of the national life had progressively been organized.”2

Solomon, then, had a unique position as Israel’s monarch. On the one hand, he was

favored by God and blessed with wisdom, wealth, and an established throne. Twice God

appeared to him, and during the former occurrence at the beginning of his reign Solomon

resolved to walk in the model of David—his father and the Lord’s servant. At the same time,

however, Solomon was obligated to manage the political and economic affairs of the emerging

Israelite state, whose geographic position between Assyria to the northeast and Egypt to the

southwest made it an important buffer-zone and throughway for commerce. Managing the

1

Indeed, one might note that while Solomon took considerable efforts to make Israel a more formidable military entity, the only true contest of his pre-apostate kingship involved his accession to the throne as recorded in 1 Kings 1-2.

2John Bright, A History of Israel, 4th ed. (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000), 233.

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balance between these inseparable aspects of kingships proved to be Solomon’s greatest

struggle.3

Thus, Solomon there is an unavoidably ambivalent presentation of Solomon within the

Deuteronomic History. From one perspective, Solomon is the son of David, builder of the

temple, and the wisest of earthly kings; from another, however, he is an apostate king whose

overambitious building projects and commercial enterprise caused considerable socioeconomic

instabilities and internal restlessness—both of which played a considerable role in the subsequent

breaking away of the northern tribes after his death. Yet, with such polar depictions of Solomon,

the curious reader might wonder how one of Israel’s greatest kings could simultaneously be one

of her worst. How can the same king whose God-given wisdom brought him more wealth and

renown than all the kings of the earth foolishly turn from the very God who blessed him?

Certainly, the editor of the Kings material is concerned with demonstrating that

Solomon’s apostasy was neither unpredictable nor unavoidable. His turn from God was gradual

—quite contrary to popular notions that Solomon did not turn from God until his old age, which

are inconsistent with the biblical text; rather, Solomon’s begins a tragic endeavor in 1 Kings 3:1.

Here Solomon’s marriage to the daughter of Pharaoh, who is not-so-accidentally referred to as

the “king of Egypt,” precedes his encounter with God via the dream by night at

3

See J. Alberto Soggin, Introduction to the Old Testament, The Old Testament Library (London, Great Britain: SCM Press Ltd., 1976), 199. He notes, “Thus it happens that politically less able kings with ‘orthodox’ theologies receive unconditional praise, whereas other monarchs, who were politically very able, but in religious terms failed to keep up with the requirements of the redactors, are severely censured…The reader may therefore begin from the presupposition that the criteria by which the person and work of a king are judged are not political or economic, but theological.”

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Gibeon4. In fact, the same verse mentions that Solomon brings Pharaoh’s daughter to the city of

David until he can finish building his house and the house of the Lord.5 There is considerable

irony in the situation. Though the marriage alliance was certainly beneficial for Solomon

politically and economically, it involved embedding Israel with Egypt and its king.

Egypt, the house of bondage and oppression of God’s people and the source of

polytheistic influences that constantly led Israel astray, became a primary ally through

Solomon’s marriage to Pharaoh’s daughter.6 Rather than return God’s people to Egypt, Solomon

resolved to honor God and rule as the Lord’s servant, his prior decision to embed his political

interests with Egypt causes recurring tension during his reign. As the narrative progresses, the

influence of Egypt is observable both in the fortification of Gezer in 9:15-17 and in Solomon’s

4

For historical perspective, see Eugene H. Merrill, Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 1996), 290-3. Merril states, “The pharaoh at this time was Siamun of Dynasty 21, who reigned from 978 to 959…Siamun soon realized that Solomon was to be ruler of a kingdom which would rival or even exceed his own in power and influence. He therefore decided it was to his best advantage to cultivate amicable relations with the young monarch, even to the extent of recognizing him as an equal. This is clear from his willingness to provide his own daughter as a wife for Solomon, a concession almost without parallel in Egyptian history since it was a candid admission to the world of Egypt’s weakness and conciliation. Normally Egyptian kings took foreign princesses but did not give up their own daughters to foreign kings. The reason for this arrangement, as has been suggested, may well have been that Siamun, fearing that the Israel-Tyre treaty might turn Solomon against Egypt, felt the need for a counterbalance.”

5Literally, “he caused her to come” (‘h'“a,ybiy>w:) to Jerusalem, from the

Hebrew root aAB.

6Indeed, even though Solomon went on to have hundreds of wives, Pharaoh’s daughter continues to be the most important, as she is referred to specifically among his wives in 11:1; she is also the only wife for whom Solomon built a palace. In fact, Solomon’s building of a house for Pharaoh’s daughter, mentioned in 1 Kings 7:8, is somewhat ironic given his original intention to build houses only for himself and the Lord in 3:1.

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building projects—such as the Hall of Pillars mentioned in 7:6.7 With his marriage to Pharaoh’s

daughter, Solomon opens the floodgate not only for political and economic expansion, but also

for the influence of other people groups and kingdoms that his political and economic endeavors

would bring. Thus, God’s warning to Solomon in 9:6ff is not purely theoretical; rather, Solomon

had already made decisions during his reign that would test his loyalty to God.

With the advent of 1 Kings 10, Solomon’s foreign expansion progresses to the next level.

Whereas an alliance with Egypt, Israel’s immediate neighbor and nearest world power, is easily

perceivable, the Queen of Sheba comes to Solomon from over 1,200 miles away.8 As with the

“coming” of Pharaoh’s daughter to Jerusalem, the editor depicts the queen’s coming to Solomon

by utilizing the verb aAB, which appears three times in the opening verses of chapter 10:

“aboïT'w:” to test him with hard questions, having heard of his wisdom (v. 1).

“aboïT'w:” to Jerusalem with exceedingly heavy might, camels bearing spices and very much gold and precious stones (v. 2).

“aboïT'w:” to Solomon and spoke to him all that was in her heart (v. 2).

Given the considerable exchange of gifts which occurs between the two royal parties, the nature

of the queen’s visit should not be mistaken. She does not come to initiate casual friendship but

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In fact, Solomon’s spending seven years building the Temple of the Lord at the end of 1 Kings 6 is immediately juxtaposed with his building his own house over the period of 13 years at the outset of chapter 7. There is likewise irony in Solomon’s dedication of the Temple in 1 Kings 8, during which several references are made to the Lord bringing the people of Israel out of Egypt. The Lord brought Israel out of Egypt only to have Solomon bring Egypt to Israel.

8Simon J. DeVries, 1 Kings, 2nd ed., Word Biblical Commentary 12, ed. Bruce M. Mezger (Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2003), 139. DeVries notes that the Queen of Sheba has had a “checkered history” in religious tradition. Here, however, she represents riches and glory coming from the heart of Africa (or possibly Arabia). She examines Solomon’s wisdom both through testing him and inspecting the minute details of how he governs his household and public affairs.

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rather political alliance and commercial exchange. Walsh notes the manner in which her gifts

are juxtaposed against the imports Solomon is already receiving through his commercial

endeavors in the Mediterranean via Hiram’s fleet:

A. The Queen of Sheba brings gold, spices, and stones to David (v. 10).B. Never again did such an abundance of spices come (v. 10).

A’. Hiram’s fleet brings gold, almug wood, and stones to David (v. 11).B’. Never again did such almug wood come (v. 12).9

The following verses describe the manner in which Solomon distributes his wealth; yet, just as

chapter 10 marks a progression of his international relations, so too it marks a progression in his

turn from the Lord. Whereas Solomon used his wisdom and wealth to benefit the people of

Israel in the early portion of his reign (1 Kings 3:16-4:34), chapter 10 demonstrates that his

wealth was largely used to enhance the glory of his own throne. Hence, the narrator has

carefully set the stage for the climactic, systematic apostasy of Solomon, which is recorded in the

final verses of chapter ten and the opening verses of chapter 11. Again, one should note that

Solomon’s intentions did not involve forsaking the Lord, but his preoccupation with the affairs

of state ultimately made such an outcome unavoidable.

Translation of 1 Kings 10:23-11:10

Before exploring Solomon’s apostasy, one must deal directly with the Hebrew text in

which it is recorded. To that end, any translation is inherently interpretative and as such reflects

the translator’s understanding of the larger narrative (and perhaps theological) setting in which

9

Jerome T. Walsh, 1 Kings, Berit Olam: Studies in Hebrew Narrative and Poetry, ed. David W. Cotter (Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1996), 127-8. One might also

note that, as in verses 1-2, the repetition involves forms of the verbal root awB. In verse 25,

the hiphil participle, ~yaiäbim., once again shows that God’s blessings on Solomon are the cause of others coming to see him (v. 24). Yet, Solomon’s openness to the manner of their coming, namely with riches and gifts, dooms his kingship to failure.

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the pericope is located. Furthermore, there may be need to clarify English words that represent a

nuanced rendering of the literal Hebrew text. Such is certainly the case for the present writer’s

translation of the Hebrew for 1 Kings 10:23-11:10, which follows the fifth edition of Biblical

Hebraica Stuttgartensia:

23 Thus Solomon became greater than all the kings of the earth in wealth

and in wisdom. 24 So all the world was earnestly seeking the Solomon’s presence to

hear his wisdom, which God put in his heart. 25 Year after year every man would

bring his tribute: vessels of silver and gold, clothing, weapons, spices, horses, and

mules. 26 And Solomon gathered chariots and horsemen. There were for him

1,400 chariots and 12,000 horsemen, and he stationed them in the chariot cities and

with the king in Jerusalem. 27 Then the king made silver in Jerusalem like stones,

and the cedars he made as abundant as the sycamores in the Shephelah. 28 Now

Solomon's import of horses were from Egypt and from Que; the king's traders took

them from Que at the going price. 29 And a chariot went up and went out from

Egypt for six hundred silver shekels and a horse for 150 shekels; and thus to all the

kings of the Hittites and to all the kings of Aram they (the king's traders) exported

them.

11:1 Then Solomon the king loved many foreign women, along with the

daughter of Pharaoh: Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Sidonians, and Hittites. 2

from the nations which the LORD had said unto the sons of Israel, "You will not go

in with them, and they (for their part) will not go in with you, for surely they will

incline your hearts after their gods with them!" Solomon, however, cleaved to love.

3 And so he had 700 wives—princesses—and 300 concubines. And his wives

turned his heart. 4 Now it came about in the old age of Solomon, his wives had

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intentionally turned his heart after other gods, so his heart was not at peace with

the LORD his God (as was the heart of David his father). 5 And Solomon went after

Ashtoreth—goddess of the Sidonians—and after Milcom—the abomination of the

Ammonites.

6 Thus Solomon did evil in the eyes of the LORD and did not wholly pursue

the LORD like David his father. 7 At that time Solomon built a shrine for Chemosh,

the abomination of Moab on the mountain east of Jerusalem, and for Molech the

abomination of the sons of Ammon. 8 And he did the same for all of his foreign

wives, who were causing to burn incense and making sacrifices to their gods. 9 So

the LORD angered himself against Solomon because he had turned his heart from

with the LORD God of Israel, who appeared to him twice. 10 And he had

commanded him concerning this very issue, not to go after other gods; but

Solomon did not observe what the LORD commanded.

Text and Translation Notes

Regarding the reliability of the Hebrew Text, as well as the nature of the translation

provided, a few comments should be made. First, given the chronicler’s repetition of the 1 Kings

10 pericope in 2 Chronicles 9, one should expect several variants attempting to further

harmonize these parallel accounts. Likewise, coexistence of the Septuagint (hence forth LXX)

and pre-Masoretic text should account for several of the more notable additions and omissions.

Finally, in addition to acknowledging the more notable textual variants, the present writer will

seek to justify those instances where his own translation offers a nuanced—rather than literal—

understanding of the Hebrew text.

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1 Kings 10:24-29

In 10:24, both the Syriac and LXX texts favor the addition of ykeäl.m; to the

introductory phrase #r<a'êh'-lk'’w>, resulting in the phrase “and all the kings of

the earth”; yet, this is most likely a later change to the original text. Given the nature of the

passage, whereby political authorities from far and wide seek to initiate alliance and trade with

Solomon, one can easily understand the desire to add the variant, but one can scarcely explain

why understand why it would be removed. Furthermore, both in 3:1 and 10:1, Solomon’s allies

are specifically denoted by their royal status; in the former passage, Solomon gains a formidable

ally through his marriage to the daughter of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and in the latter the Queen of

Sheba seeks an audience with him. More than likely, the variant is unoriginal to the text and

seeks to harmonize 1 Kings 10:24 with 2 Chronicles 9:23, which includes the variant. At the end

of verse 24, some medieval manuscripts add the definite article to ~yhiÞl{a/, resulting in

“the one true God.” This seems more in line with the LXX’s ku,rioj, which is generally

reserved for Israel’s God among national deities. In either case, the variant probably represents

an attempt to further distinguish Israel’s God, who blessed Solomon, from the gods of his wives,

who led him astray.

In verse 25, the uncorrected LXX text deletes the phrase yle’k.W •@s,k,,

possibly a result of homoioteleuton. Within the translation, the repetition within the Hebrew

phrase bh'Ûz" yle’k.W •@s,k, yleäK. is alleviated with the translation

“vessels of silver and gold.”10 Similarly, the same texts remove the opening phrase from verse

10

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26, è~yvir"p'W bk,r<å éhmol{v. @soåa/Y<w:, perhaps

because the phrase makes the verse somewhat redundant. Furthermore, LXX texts add the

beginning of 1 Kings 5:1 (4:27 in English translations) to the end the verse, probably to highlight

the scope of imports. In addition to the yearly tribute Solomon received from some kings, other

officials brought him supplies regularly, “each in his own month” (e[kastoj mh/na auvtou/)

so he would not lack anything. There is a slight addition to verse 27 in the LXX, which includes

to. crusi,on kai before mentioning the commonality of silver, resulting in the phrase, “The

king made gold and silver as common as stones in Jerusalem.”11

Verse 28 presents considerable difficulty, because the phrase ~yIr"+c.Mimi

may be an alteration to the text, which may have originally read “from Musri.”12 This is a

particularly difficult variant because the readings are very similar in Hebrew; given Israel’s past

experiences in Egypt, the variant may reflect theological motivations. Furthermore, the variant is

a credible reading geographically, because Musri is a village only slightly north from Que

(rendered Koa by Eusebius), the other city from which Solomon imported horses. Some of the

Greek manuscripts include Damascus as an additional city from which Solomon imported

horses. Yet, given the seemingly intentional manner by which verses 26-29 mirror the Mosaic

warning in Deuteronomy 17:14-20, the present writer favors the text as it stands. In verse 29, the

Given the nature of the activities described, the Hebrew At‡x'n>mi has been rendered “his tribute,” acknowledging the purpose for such gifts.11

This is more than likely seeking a closer antithesis of the Mosaic warning in Deuteronomy 17:17.

12See DeVries, 140. He states, “Musri has been misunderstood as Egypt in Deuteronomy 17:16, 2 Kings 7:6; it was actually the Cappadocian seacoast in Asia Minor. Que is nearby, close to the Taurus Mountains.”

10

LXX altars the cost of chariots and horses, reducing the former to 100 shekels and the latter to

50, but such changes are negligible.

11

1 Kings 11:1-10

Several minor variants occur for 11:1; most notably, grammatical concerns make it

probable that either h[o+r>P;-tB;-ta,w> or tYO*Tixi

tYOànId>ce tYOëmidoåa] ‘tAYnIM\[; tAYÝbia]Am is a

later gloss to the text. If the former phrase is to be removed, there is smooth transition from the

discussion of Solomon’s love for foreign women to an actual catalogue of those nations from

which he married. If the latter phrase is to be removed, the daughter of Pharaoh, having been

married earlier, is merely listed alongside the “many foreign wives” that Solomon marries later

in his kingship. Nevertheless, though the grammar is suspicious, one cannot conclusively prove

that either phrase is unoriginal to the text. Furthermore, the LXX adds Arameans (Su,raj) and

Amorites (Amorrai,aj) to those nations already listed in the Hebrew text.

In verse 2, the LXX, Syriac texts, and Targums substitute !P, (Grk. mh.) for ‘!

kea', providing a more natural transition from warning to potential effect. Syriac and Arabic

versions of the Old Testament add the phrase “and after Chemosh the abomination of the

Moabites” before ~ynI)Mo[; #QUßvi ~Koêl.mi yrEåx]a;w>.

Because the phrase ~ØIl'_v'Wry> ynEåP.-l[; rv,Þa] is not in the

uncorrected LXX, it is quite probably a gloss. Two additional factors support such an idea; first,

the editor of the Kings material does not list a specific site for the shrine of any other foreign

deity. Similarly, for Solomon to build a shrine on a mountain directly opposite Jerusalem might

have been viewed as the institution of a rival or equal deity; more probably, the gloss seeks to

highlight that Solomon’s apostasy calloused him to the commandments of Israel’s God.

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Additional changes in verse 7 involve the worship of deities. The LXX changes Molech to

“Milcom,” probably because the form appears for the Ammonite god in verses 5 and 33.

Furthermore, the LXX text also adds kai. th/| VAsta,rth| bdelu,gmati Sidwni,wn, which

would be rendered “to Astarte (or Ashtoreth), the abomination of the Sidonians.”

In verse 10, the LXX omits the phrase rm;êv' al{åw> with the Greek kai.

fula,xasqai poih/sai, extending the command of the Lord rather than showing Solomon’s

disobedience to it; yet, the variant is largely insignificant, as Solomon’s disobedience has been

well established in the preceding verses. In addition, the LXX, Syriac text, and Vulgate add a

third-person masculine singular suffix to the final verbal form, hW"ßci-rv,a]. On the

whole then, the passage does not contain considerable changes among the various scripts.

Rather, most changes seek harmony with the parallel passage in 2 Chronicles 9 or include

additions found in the LXX text.

Exegetical Outline

Having established a working version of the text at hand through translation and textual

criticism, one is prepared to deal with the passage directly. To that end, one should be attentive

to themes, structures, and intentional wordplay not only within the passage, but also incorporated

from the broader narrative setting. To that end, one of the most beneficial exegetical endeavors

one can undertake involves forming a working outline of the text, one that is sensitive to the

passage with regard to literary and theological developments:

I. The Surpassing Glory of Solomon, 10:23-25i. A Genesis: Blesser and Blessing (v. 23)

ii. A Global Expansion: Solomon’s Renown (v. 24)iii. A Gifting God and a Gifted Solomon: The King’s Glory (v. 25)

II. The Rejection of the Mosaic Warning 10:26-11:3i. All the King’s Wealth: Solomon’s Riches (10:27)

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ii. All the King’s Horses: Solomon’s Might (10:26, 28-9)iii. All the King’s Women: Solomon’s Wives (11:1-3)

III. The Climax of Solomon’s Apostasy 11:4-10i. A King Unlike David: Solomon’s Final Turning (11:4-6)

ii. A King Like the Nations: Solomon’s Open Apostasy (11:7-8)iii. A King Unlike God: Solomon’s Sin and God’s Anger (11:9-10)

Exegetical Notes and Discussion

Having provided a framework for discussion of the text, one is prepared to explore the

final stage of Solomon’s apostasy. To that end, several introductory remarks should be

reiterated. First, Solomon’s turn from following God was neither unpredictable nor unavoidable;

rather, his decision to imbed Israel with Egypt indicates an early struggle between faithfully

serving the Lord and tending to the political and economic interests of the emerging Israelite

state. The influence of Egypt is evident throughout Solomon’s reign, as is his growing concern

with international expansion and matters of kingship. When one reaches chapter ten, the narrator

begins a new level of development, both for Solomon’s glory and for his turning away, with the

coming of the Queen of Sheba. Similarly, verses 23 and following represent not only the

fulfillment of God’s promises to Solomon, but also the beginning of his complete turning away

from the Lord.

The Surpassing Glory of Solomon, 10:23-25

As the narrative progresses from the Sheba pericope, 13-22 describe the incredible wealth

that Solomon amassed through his trade arrangements as well as the manner in which he used it.

However, unlike earlier in his reign when Solomon used his wisdom and wealth to benefit the

people of Israel (1 Kings 3:16-4:34), chapter 10 demonstrates that his wealth was largely used to

enhance his glory as king. Indeed, Solomon uses his massive amounts of gold for drinking

vessels, shields, and the building of an elaborate throne. Hence, the narrator carefully sets the

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stage for Solomon’s apostasy in the closing verses of chapter 10 and the opening verses of

chapter 11.

Yet one might wonder why God’s name and God’s blessing are constantly reinserted into

the narrative—as in verse 24—especially if the narrative is moving in a negative direction. Here

the skill of the editor is more important than anywhere else, for while God’s blessings are the

proximal causes of Solomon’s wisdom and—by extension—his wealth, they are also means that

enable Solomon’s apostasy. The narrator must therefore show God’s faithfulness to bless on the

one hand and Solomon’s misappropriation of the blessing on the other.

A Genesis: Blesser and Blessing (v. 23). In verse 23, the narrator notes that Solomon

surpassed all the kings of the earth in wisdom and in wealth, so much so that in the subsequent

verse one learns that “all the earth” sought an audience with Solomon. The statement of

Solomon’s status is clearly a reference to 1 Kings 3:12-13, where God promised Solomon that no

king would be his equal—a promise that has now been fulfilled. Yet, God’s blessings in 3:12-13

were accompanied by a condition in verse 14. Solomon’s kingship will not ultimately be

measured by wealth, wisdom, or political influence, but rather by the measure of his faithfulness

to God. In order to succeed as king, he must walk in the ways, statutes, and commandments of

the Lord—just as his father David did.13 Though Solomon surpasses all of his contemporaries by

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In fact, walking in the ways of David his father is an important concept for Solomon’s kingship. Prior to the theophany at Gibeon, the narrator states that “Solomon loved the Lord,

walking in the statues of David his father” (wybi_a' dwIåD" tAQßxuB. tk,l,¨l' hw"ëhy>-ta, ‘hmol{v. bh;Ûa/Y<w:). Similar vocabulary and thought emerges in 3:14 as the condition for Solomon’s success and again in 11:4-6, 10-11, where Solomon’s love of foreign women (juxtaposed against his former love for God) leads him to walk—or go—after their gods (juxtaposed against the model of David).

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the standards of surrounding nations, he will receive a negative assessment from the Israelite

chronicler precisely because of his inability to keep the commandments of the Lord.

A Global Expansion: Solomon’s Renown (v. 24). Here, the narrator clearly demonstrates

the tension between the God who blessed Solomon and the outworking of that blessing in

Solomon’s reign. On the one hand, the kings of the earth come to Solomon because of the

blessing given to him by God; on the other hand, the nature of their coming involves Solomon’s

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desires for continuing political expansion and commercial activity. To that end, the reason for

their coming is directly contrasted with the nature of their coming. Yet, this verse marks a

transition in Solomon’s endeavors. In 3:1, his marriage alliance with Pharaoh is quite

understandable; Egypt is Israel’s closest powerful neighbor. In 10:1-12, Solomon’s wisdom is

the cause for the Queen of Sheba’s coming to Jerusalem from 1,200 miles away—both to hear

his wisdom and initiate international relations. With verse 24, the expansion of Solomon’s

influence occurs on a global level—which will be directly indicated in verse 25.

A Gifting God and a Gifted Solomon: The King’s Glory (v. 25). Verse 25 is the crucial

foreground for the remainder of the passage, for it makes explicit what was implicit in verse 24.

Solomon’s expansion brings all the king’s of the earth to Israel, but not so the Lord might be

glorified; rather, Solomon is glorified through the payment of gifts (t‡x'n>mi)—which

should be understood in terms of tribute—by other royal parties seeking to ally themselves with

Solomon or join his trade circuit.14 Thus, the hiphil masculine plural participle

~yaiäbim. is of the utmost importance, demonstrating the expansion of Solomon’s

activities. When Solomon’s expansion (and relationship with God) was in its rudimentary

stages, Solomon caused the daughter of Pharaoh to come (‘h'“a,ybiy>w:) to

Jerusalem.

At the beginning of chapter 10, Solomon’s expansion (and turning from God) reaches a

new phase as the Queen of Sheba comes (aboïT'w:) to Jerusalem from some 1,200 miles

14

See John Gray, I & II Kings, 2nd Rev. ed., The Old Testament Library, ed. Peter Ackroyd (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Westminster Press, 1970), 268.

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away; she comes (aboïT'w:) to hear Solomon’s God-given wisdom, but she comes

(aboïT'w:) with gold, spices, and precious stones—for the economic and political

purposes. In 10:25, all the kings of the earth cause their gifts or tribute to come

(~yaiäbim.) to Solomon on a yearly basis. Hence, the verbal root awB emerges as

the indicator of Solomon’s ever-expanding influence; however, the coming of foreign powers

with their wealth, political alliances, and trade opportunities is accompanied by the coming of

their polytheistic influence on King Solomon.

Furthermore, one might note the gradual scenario shift that occurs across the three

expansion episodes in 1 Kings 3:1, 10:1, and 10:25. In the first episode, Israel’s power is

embedded in an obviously superior Egypt. In 10:10-12, the Queen of Sheba’s endowment to

Solomon, impressive as it is, is listed alongside the Hiram’s import from Solomon’s preexisting

commercial activity in the Mediterranean:

A. The Queen of Sheba brings gold, spices, and stones to David (v. 10).B. Never again did such an abundance of spices come (v. 10).

A’. Hiram’s fleet brings gold, almug wood, and stones to David (v. 11).B’. Never again did such almug wood come (v. 12).15

By the time of her arrival in Jerusalem, then, Solomon is already an established monarch—both

politically and economically. As such, he is receptive but not dependent upon the queen’s good

gestures. In the final episode, all the kings of the earth are seeking Solomon, highlighting his

magnificence; however, each episode also marks the gradual reduction of the emphasis placed on

God. In chapter 3, mention of Solomon’s marriage alliance with Egypt is followed by a lengthy

story highlighting his resolve to follow God.

15

Walsh, 127-8.

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In the Sheba story, acknowledgement of God plays a noticeably smaller role;

nevertheless, the Lord is mentioned—albeit rather briefly—three times in the pericope. While

emphasis undeniably belongs to Solomon, the Lord’s blessing provides the true reason for the

queen’s coming (v.1). Likewise, Solomon offers sacrifice in the Lord’s temple, but even in its

most immediate context this gesture appears as a display of magnificence rather than an act of

humble servitude (v. 5). In fact, when God receives praise during his final appearance in the

pericope in verse 9, he is praised not by Solomon but rather by the queen. In the final story, the

transition matures as God’s name and blessing on Solomon appear only once in verse 24. Hence,

Solomon’s overzealousness for expanding Israel parallels his increasing unconcern for the God

who blessed him—and made such expansion possible.

The Rejection of the Mosaic Warning 10:26-11:3

Having reached the height of his political and economic renown, Solomon fully engages

in the activities of a king. Yet, his model for kingship is decidedly not like that of his father, but

rather like that of the surrounding nations—whose influences consume Solomon. To that end,

Solomon ceases to walk after the Lord as David his father did; instead, he walks after other gods

under the sway of his foreign wives. Whereas 1 Kings 3:3 states that Solomon “loved the Lord”

(hw"ëhy>-ta, ‘hmol{v. bh;Ûa/Y<w:), 11:1 concedes that he “loved

many foreign women” (tABßr: tAY°rIk.n" ~yvión" bh;úa'

hmoªl{v. %l,M,äh;w>). In 10:26-11:3, Solomon systematically rejects the

model of kingship provided by Moses in Deuteronomy 17:14-20. In fact, Solomon’s actions are

the exact antithesis of the behavior Moses prescribes for Israel’s human kings. For each of the

three prohibitions Moses lists, Solomon provides an accompanying act of disobedience:

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Moses’ Warning: Solomon’s Response:The king must not greatly increase gold and silver for himself (Deuteronomy 17:17).

Solomon amassed great wealth, most of which was used for himself (1 Kings 10:14-29)

The king should not gather horses or cause return to Egypt (Deuteronomy 17:16).

Solomon gathered thousands of chariots and horsemen from Egypt (1 Kings 10:26-29).

The king must not multiply wives for himself, for they will turn his heart from God (Deuteronomy 17:17).

Solomon married many foreign wives, the first of which was Pharaoh’s daughter (1 Kings 11:1ff).

In all fairness, one should acknowledge the possibility that the record of Moses’ warning

in Deuteronomy postdates Solomon’s kingship—yet such a possibility in no way detracts from

the severity of Solomon’s action as understood by the Kings editor; rather, if Solomon’s kingship

does predate Deuteronomy, his kingship is intentionally presented as the model for failure. In

either scenario, Solomon’s actions—each associated with a very real aspect of national

leadership—become the antithesis for Godly kingship.

Hence, Solomon represents the realization of what Moses—as he is represented in

Deuteronomy—warns against. In Solomon, Israel truly gains a king “like all the nations that are

surrounding [them].”16 While such a figure would certainly be popular among the elite few, his

economic endeavors were more of a burden than a blessing to the majority of the nation. While

he fortified considerable cities, Israel was inescapably located at a crossroads between world

powers in the Ancient Near East. Indeed, as in the conquest, Israel’s truest military security

always resided with God. Hence, the same Solomon who built the Jerusalem Temple caused

considerable social injustice, political strife, and false security among God’s people—precisely

because he was a king like those in the nations surrounding Israel.

All the King’s Wealth: Solomon’s Riches (10:27). In Deuteronomy 17:17, Moses tells the

Israelites that their future kings “must not acquire very large amounts of silver and gold.” The

emphasis is not upon the king’s accumulation of wealth, but rather his accumulation of wealth

16

See Deuteronomy 17:14.

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for himself. In the early portion of Solomon’s kingship, described in 3:16-4:34, Solomon’s God-

given gifts are utilized for the benefit of the people. 1 Kings 4:20 states that “Judah and Israel

abounded like the abundance of sand on the seashore; they were eating and drinking and

rejoicing.”

Yet, as early as Solomon’s building projects, one notes the king’s inclination toward

propagating his own magnificence.17 Whereas the Temple of the Lord is built in seven years,

Solomon’s palace is built in thirteen. When one reaches chapter 10, Solomon is wealthy enough

to exchange elaborate gifts with the Queen of Sheba; yet, verses 14-22 catalogue the manner in

which his wealth was utilized. Rather than benefit the people, Solomon used his fortunes to

build golden shields, golden utensils and drinking vessels, and an elaborate throne—all in an

effort to enhance public perception of his glory. One might note that verses 14-22 say nothing

about the general Israelite public—the focus is entirely on Solomon. Thus, when verse 27 states

that “the king made silver as common in Jerusalem as stone, and he made cedar as plentiful as

the sycamore of the Shephelah,” one should understand the scope of the wealth in terms of the

manner in which it was utilized by the king. Solomon demonstrates an increasing concern for

his own renown at the expense of the people.

All the King’s Horses: Solomon’s Magnificence (10:26, 28-9). Solomon’s accumulation

of horses might be understood as an attempt to increase Israel’s formidability as a military entity.

After all, the horses are sent to fortified “chariot cities” as well as Jerusalem—the city of the

king. Yet, Smith notes:

17

See Norman K. Gottwald, The Hebrew Bible: A Socio-Literary Introduction (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press, 1987), 322. Gottwald notes that the royal palace exceeded the Temple in both size and scope. See also Merrill, 296, who dates the completion of the Temple to 959 B.C. and that of the palace to 946.

21

His force of 1,400 chariots would appear to have been maintained largely for the sake of pomp and display. The chariot is of little tactical value in the hilly terrain of Palestine and, furthermore, Solomon’s reign was peaceful. Hence, he did not

22

actually need such a large chariot force. The maintenance of 12,000 cavalry troops is further indication of Solomon’s materialistic disposition.18

Interestingly enough, the narrator casually remarks that Solomon’s horses were from two

primary locations: Que and Egypt; the latter is obviously more significant. In Deuteronomy

17:16, Moses warns, “He must not acquire many horses for himself or send the people back to

Egypt to acquire many horses, for the LORD has told you, ‘You are never to go back that way

again.’” Yet, horses obtained by Solomon’s traders were not entirely for use within Israel.

In addition to Solomon’s 1,400 chariots and 12,000 horsemen, the king imported several

horses for commercial purposes. To that end, Solomon initiated and sustained a considerable

industry by selling horses to surrounding peoples like the Hittites and the Arameans (v. 29).

Solomon demonstrates a willingness to compromise the Lord’s commands to further his own

military and—more importantly—economic endeavors.

All the King’s Women: Solomon’s Wives (11:1-3). The third and final aspect of the

Mosaic command broken by Solomon is unquestionably the most severe. Solomon’s

accumulation of personal wealth represented a preoccupation with personal glory. His

importation of horses from Egypt for military and economic matters demonstrated unconcern for

the commands of God. In these verses, Solomon’s marriage of many foreign women shows the

turning of his heart and subsequent apostasy. Indeed, as Preuss oberseves, “It is a rare

occurrence in the Old Testament writings when something positive is said about the

18

James E. Smith, The Books of History, Old Testament Survey Series (Joplin, Missouri: College Press, 1995), 411. See also Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000-586 B.C.E., The Anchor Bible Reference Library, ed. David Noel Freedman (New York, New York: Doubleday Publishers, 1990), 477. Mazar notes that the remains of what appear to have been royal stables in fron of the southern complex at Megiddo are large enough to have accommodated some 450 horses. Hence, there is some probability that the narrator has exaggerated Solomon’s activity for theological effect (contra Gray, 268, who argues that such bold figures need not represent exaggeration).

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‘foreigner’…Foreign women represent a danger to Israel’s loyalty to YHWH, something that can

be seen in the case of Solomon.”19

Whereas 1 Kings 3:3 states that Solomon loved the Lord, 11:1 expresses his new love—

that of many foreign women. 11:2 is particularly interesting in that it pits a direct command from

God against Solomon’s response—he cleaves to his (new) love, foreign wives. As verse 3

implicitly suggests, his marriages to foreign women are primarily political. DeVries adds, “The

marriages were mainly political alliances, securing sundry enclaves as vassals and powerful

neighbor states (like Egypt) as allies.”20 Whatever the additional motivations for Solomon’s

marriages, his actions in taking foreign wives are decidedly against God’s revealed will for him.

The note that Solomon’s wives turning his heart thus fails to surprise the reader. In fact, Walsh

suggests that the structure of these verses indicates that, upon marrying his foreign wives, the

turning of Solomon’s heart was unavoidable:

A. “King Solomon loved many foreign women” (11:1 a)B. Description of the women (11:1b)

C. “they will turn away your mind”(11:2a)A’. “Solomon clung to these in love” (11:2b)

B’. Description of the women (11:3a)C’. “and his women turned away his mind” (11:3b)21

19

Horst Dietrich Preuss, Old Testament Theology, Volume II, The Old Testament Library, ed. James L. Mays (Translated by Leo G. Perdue from Theologie des Alten Testaments, Band II: Israel’s Weg mit JHWH; Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), 295.

20DeVries, 143.21

Walsh, 133-4.

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The Climax of Solomon’s Apostasy 11:4-10

Having established Solomon’s culpability for the negative assessment his kingship

receives, the narrator turns to demonstrate the full extent of his apostasy. In Solomon’s old age,

the ironically imprudent decisions made throughout his reign culminate in open apostasy. For

the Deuteronomic historian, Solomon’s apostasy cannot be blamed on God; rather, his failures

resulted from his disregard of the Mosaic warning in Deuteronomy 17:14-20; to that end, one

might note that while Solomon systematically disobeys the prohibitions of that passage, he also

fails to heed the positive counsel. Indeed, in Deuteronomy 17:18-20, Moses states:

When he is seated on his royal throne, he is to write a copy of this instruction for himself on a scroll in the presence of the Levitical priests. It is to remain with him, and he is to read from it all the days of his life, so that he may learn to fear the LORD his God, to observe all the words of this instruction, and to do these statutes. Then his heart will not be exalted above his countrymen, he will not turn from this command to the right or the left, and he and his sons will continue ruling many years over Israel (HCSB).

There is no record of Solomon engaging in such activity; as a result, he fails to fear the Lord,

disobeys the Mosaic warning, becomes increasingly self-consumed, and turns from God—

resulting in the tearing away of the kingdom from his son Rehoboam.

In these final verses before Solomon’s judgment and punishment, the narrator

demonstrates the full measure of his apostasy. Though Solomon was granted every conceivable

blessing as king, his disobedience separates him from the positive (even idealistic) assessment of

David. He is the very antithesis of his father. As a result, Solomon (hmoêl{v.)—whose

name derives from the Hebrew word for “peace”—was not “at peace” (‘~lev') with God

(11:4). Solomon truly emerges as a king like those of other nations—building rival shrines to

their gods and forsaking his faithful worship of the one true God of Israel.

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A King Unlike David: Solomon’s Final Turning (11:4-6). Here, Solomon’s disobedience

juxtaposes him against the faithfulness of his father. Though blessed by God and unparalleled in

wisdom and wealth among men, Solomon’s poor stewardship and self-indulgence lead to

punishment rather than the blessings one might anticipate for him. Tragically, Solomon’s

preoccupation with being a king like the nations prevents him from being a king like his father,

and—more importantly—a king like Israel’s God. As the chiastic structure of verses 4-6

indicates, Solomon emerges as the antithesis of godly, Davidic kingship:

A. Solomon’s heart completely turned in his old age.B. Solomon not at peace (fullness) with the Lord his God.

C. As David his father had been.

D. Solomon went after (%l,YEåw:) idols of the Ammonites and Sidonians.

C’. Not like David his father.B’. Solomon did evil in the eyes of the Lord.

A’. He did not completely follow the Lord.

The turning of Solomon’s heart directs him away from the statutes of his father and the

commandments of the Lord. As a result of forsaking humanly counsel and divine command,

Solomon goes (%l,YEåw:) after other gods. The imperfect form of %l;h' is very

telling indeed, for it reminds the reader of 1 Kings 3:3; in that passage, Solomon “loved” the

Lord, “walking” (tk,l,¨l') in the statutes of David his father. In both instances, the verbal

root connotes a pattern of behavior to which Solomon adhered.22 Yet, even in the early period of

his kingship—having already made alliance with Egypt by marrying Pharaoh’s daughter—the

groundwork for his later apostasy had been laid. Solomon’s heart turns in his old age because he

22

See William Lee Holladay, A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament: Based upon the Lexical Work of Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner (Boston, Massachusetts: Brill Publishers, 2000), 80.

26

now “loves” (bh;úa') his many foreign wives—a love to which he clings despite the Lord’s

commands. House notes:

Other than their link to his wives, Solomon’s choice of gods makes no sense. In the ancient world polytheists tended to worship the gods of nations who had conquered their armies or at least the gods of countries more powerful than their own. Ironically, Solomon worships the gods of people he has conquered and already controls. 23

Forsaking the father who chose him to reign and the God who enabled him to reign well,

Solomon goes after the abominable idols of other nations. His love of lesser persons promotes

his worship of lesser gods. Solomon’s terrible actions are the outworking of terrible changes

within him—the primary thrust of these verses.

A King Like the Nations: Solomon’s Open Apostasy (11:7-8). Having established the

causes and culpability of Solomon’s apostasy, the narrator demonstrates the full extent to which

it was embodied through his actions. Building the Temple was a primary way by which

Solomon had demonstrated his love for the Lord. Here, however, Solomon builds shrines

(hm'ªB') for all of the gods of his foreign wives, whom he now loves.24 At this juncture in

Solomon’s reign, his apostasy had so calloused him toward God that he builds these detestable

shrines on the hill opposite (to the east) of Jerusalem—as if the importance of these false gods

rivaled that of Yahweh.25 Furthermore, one must wonder if the narrator’s discussion of the high

23

Paul R. House, 1-2 Kings, The New American Commentary 8, ed. E. Ray Clendenen (Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1995), 168.

24See Volkmar Fritz, 1 & 2 Kings, Continental Commentaries Old Testament Series (Translated by Anselm Hagedorn; Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress Press, 2003), 131. Fritz notes, “The sanctuaries built for Chemosh and Milcom…could have been situated near Jerusalem on the hill Baten el-Hawa above Silwan east of the city.”

25See Smith, 417. He notes the text never explicitly asserts that Solomon personally worshiped false deities in the temples; however, at the very least, Solomon’s building these

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places and sacrifices is an intentional allusion to 1 Kings 3:3-4, where such activity preceded

Solomon’s covenant with the Lord during the theophany at Gibeon. Here, such action indicates

Solomon’s disregard of that covenant, returning to his pre-covenant practices. If so, the narrator

is masterfully preparing his readers for a third and final theophany, which will prove drastically

different from the first two.

A King Unlike God: Solomon’s Sin and God’s Anger (11:9-10). In the final subsection of

the apostasy narrative, the severity of Solomon’s sin is highlighted by God’s prior appearances

and commandments to him. Solomon’s sins, in other words, were not committed in ignorance of

the Lord’s commands, but rather in direct opposition to them. To that end, the narrator calls to

remembrance God’s two prior appearances to Solomon—the first at Gibeon, the second upon the

completion of his building projects. In the former episode, Solomon is blessed through the

divine promise in 3:11-13:

So God said to him, "Because you have requested this and did not ask for long life or riches for yourself, or the death of your enemies, but you asked discernment for yourself to understand justice, I will therefore do what you have asked. I will give you a wise and understanding heart, so that there has never been anyone like you before and never will be again. In addition, I will give you what you did not ask for: both riches and honor, so that no man in any kingdom will be your equal during your entire life” (HCSB).

However, God’s blessing is accompanied by a stipulation in the following verse, namely that

Solomon should “walk in [God’s] ways and keep [God’s] statutes and commandments just as

[his] father David did.” Hence, the first theophany stresses blessing but mentions responsibility.

In the second appearance, recorded in 9:1ff, blessing is mentioned in the context of responsibility

for obedience. In chapter 9, the blessing is preceded by a condition of obedience and followed

by warning of punishment for disobedience. To that end, the narrator may utilize the second

theophany to demonstrate the notable shift of Solomon’s kingship.

pagan shrines must be juxtaposed against his other cultic building project, the Jerusalem Temple.

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Whereas the first theophany stresses blessing and the second responsibility, the third

theophany—recorded in 11:11ff—is decidedly judgmental. Yet, the narrator highlights not only

God’s two appearances to Solomon, but also the nature of those appearances. Indeed, as 11:10

indicates, God had warned Solomon concerning the very transgressions of which he is now

found guilty—especially his idolatry.26 God advised Solomon precisely because he knew the

pressures of kingship and desired Solomon’s faithfulness. Yet, in rejecting and disobeying the

commandments of the Lord, Solomon eventually rejects the Lord himself.

As a result, the verses that follow unfold God’s judgment on Solomon and his household.

In the remainder of chapter 11, Solomon’s kingship is marked by political conflict, both

externally and internally. To that end, Gottwald notes, “1 Kings 3-11 was organized so that

Solomon’s external political difficulties with Edom and Damascus and his internal conflicts with

northern Israelites…[were] bluntly blamed on religious corruption owing to the influence of his

foreign wives.”27 Because of Solomon’s sin, the same God who established Solomon’s kingdom

will tear it away from his son.28 Yet, the Deuteronomic historian’s presentation seeks to provide 26

See House, 168. He notes, “Of all the sins recorded in Scripture, God takes idolatry the most seriously, for no other sin has the capability of wrecking the entire covenant by itself. When this sin is committed, God acts swiftly, justly, and redemptively, as Israel discovers in Exodus 32–34; Numbers 20; and the entire Book of Judges. It is natural, then, to read that God “became angry with Solomon.”

27 Gottwald, 313.

28There is significant irony here. Just as Saul’s disobedience resulted in the anointing of David (who served in Saul’s court for a time), so too Solomon’s disobedience will cause his rebellious servant, Jeroboam, to rend the kingdom from his son. See also Soggin, 49-52. By Soggins standards, the Solomon narratives display all of the characteristics of an aetiological legend. Such literature is historically-based but not fully developed with regard to historiography; hence, oral traditions were utilized to preserve certain events and their significance for the Israelite people. In such accounts, there is a tendency to preserve specific Israelite names but not those of foreigners—a notable characteristic of the Solomon narratives. Whether or not the Solomon narratives should be understood within this framework, however, is difficult to discern, because Soggin acknowledges, “From the time of David and Solomon onwards, we see that in court circles there are not only traces of remarkably developed annals,

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clarity with regard to Solomon and the Israelite monarchy. The severity of Solomon’s sin

stemmed from the scope of God’s blessings on him.

Ironically, the wisest of Israel’s kings responded foolishly to God, resulting in a negative

assessment of his kingship. Furthermore, Solomon’s apostasy and unrighteousness was neither

sudden and unexpected nor unavoidable and insurmountable; rather, Solomon’s turning away

from God was gradual and preventable. He systematically rejected the example of his father and

the commandments of his Lord. As a result, he emerges a fully culpable apostate and the

antitype of godly, Davidic kingship. To that end, the narrator successfully arranges the material

in a manner that explains why the negative assessment of Solomon’s kingship is in no way the

fault of the God who blessed him. Furthermore, Solomon’s sin becomes the explanation for

political unrest, the split of the kingdom, and state-sanctioned idolatry—all of which result from

and are presented after Solomon’s apostasy and the Lord’s judgment thereof.

Homiletical Outline

Solomon’s story, then, lends itself to considerable preaching. Given the narrator’s

presentation of the king’s gradual transition to apostasy, one may safely draw a moral from the

presentation of Solomon while staying faithful to the Biblical text. One need not reduce the text

in order to preach it; rather, one should preach in light of the message which the text naturally

offers. In Solomon’s case, such a message might be titled “We rarely go the wrong way all at

once.” To that end, the Solomon narratives do stress accountability and judgment, but they also

reveal God’s love and provision; God both blesses Solomon and warns him against apostasy.

Furthermore, Solomon sins precisely because he rejects the God-given counsel of his Lord as

well as the example of faith passed down by his father. Hence, Solomon’s story represents that

but organic history-writings are beginning to take shape.”

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our sin so often represents a gradual—perhaps even systematic—rejection of what is right and

good, not just an intentional pursuit of what is evil. Indeed, the Deuteronomic historian

demonstrates through Solomon that while so many err and sin, they rarely do so all at once:

“We Rarely Go the Wrong Way All at Once”

Introduction: In high school, I played varsity football for three years. My junior year, we had an especially good team. We went undefeated during the regular season, and when playoffs came we steamrolled our competition for the first several rounds. I’m talking about thirty-point spreads over the scores of opposing teams. Everything was working in our favor. We had great coaches, incredible athletes, and a running back that averaged 9.8 yards a carry. When it came time for the south-state finals, we were picked to beat our opponents by at least three touchdowns. They were nothing more than a blip on our radar before we won the state championship. When the game came, however, a much different story ensued. We fumbled on our first offensive play, and the other team ran the ball back for a touchdown. Rather than get back in the game however, we got frustrated; as a result, we fumbled five more times before the end of the first quarter! Ultimately, our game crumbled offensively and defensively as we went down a path that led to our own defeat and the end of an otherwise perfect season. Some of the people on the team just could not figure out what had happened—why did everything end badly?

The reign of Solomon is not so very different. He inherited a united kingdom. He was blessed with wealth and wisdom by God himself. Yet he failed as Israel’s king, resulting in trouble during his reign and the ultimate split of the kingdom. Where did he go wrong?

1. Solomon focused on blessings instead of the Blesser (10:23-25)a. God fulfills promises made to Solomonb. Solomon uses wealth for his interests and gloryc. Gradual expansion of kingdom and turning of Solomon’s heart

2. Solomon forsook the counsel of his forerunnres David in Moses (10:26-11:3)a. Gathering gold for himself, elevating him above the peopleb. Gathering horses from Egypt, the land of bondagec. Gathering many wives, who turned his heart from God

3. Ultimately, Solomon followed after other gods (11:4-10)a. From walking like David to walking after other godsb. Focus on international relations led to a king like those of other nationsc. Apostasy has its consequences and punishments

Conclusion: So many of us err in the same way that Solomon did. We lose sight of God by focusing on the blessings he has given us. Furthermore, we use those blessings to advance our social, political, or economic interests—which often introduce us to influences that lead us away from God. Yet, this rarely happens all at once. Little by little, we open ourselves up to influence and sway, slowly turning from the God who loved us and blessed us. Let us learn that even the wisest, richest, and most powerful are prone to failure—and that the answer for success is a faithful walk with God.

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bright, John. A History of Israel. 4th ed. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000.

DeVries, Simon J. 1 Kings. 2nd ed. Word Biblical Commentary 12. Edited by Bruce M. Mezger. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2003.

Fritz, Volkmar. 1 & 2 Kings. Continental Commentaries Old Testament Series. Translated by Anselm Hagedorn. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress Press, 2003.

Gray, John. I & II Kings. 2nd Revised ed. The Old Testament Library. Edited by Peter Ackroyd. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Westminster Press, 1970.

Gottwald, Norman K. The Hebrew Bible: A Socio-Literary Introduction. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press, 1987.

Long, Burke O. 1 Kings: With an Introduction to Historical Literature. FOTL 9. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984.

Mazar, Amihai. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000-586 B.C.E.. The Anchor Bible Reference Library. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York, New York: Doubleday Publishers, 1990.

Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 1996.

Holladay, William L. A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament: Based upon the Lexical Work of Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner. Boston, Massachusetts: Brill Publishers, 2000.

House, Paul R. 1-2 Kings. The New American Commentary 8. Edited by E. Ray Clendenen. Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1995.

Provan, Iain. 1 and 2 Kings. New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1995.

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Preuss, Horst Dietrich. Old Testament Theology, Volume II. The Old Testament Library. Edited by James L. Mays. Translated by Leo G. Perdue from Theologie des Alten Testaments, Band II: Israel’s Weg mit JHWH. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996.

Smith, James E. The Books of History. Old Testament Survey Series. Joplin, Missouri: College Press, 1995.

Soggin, J. Alberto. Introduction to the Old Testament. The Old Testament Library. London, Great Britain: SCM Press Ltd., 1976.

Walsh, Jerome T. 1 Kings. Berit Olam: Studies in Hebrew Narrative and Poetry. Edited by David W. Cotter. Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1996.