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ADAPTIVE REUSE

PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2016

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IMPROVING STRATEGIES FOR FUNCTIONAL UPGRADE FOR AN “INTEGRATED REHABILITATION”

Francesca Guidolin Architect, PhD Student in Building Technology - New Technologies for the region, the city and the environment. Università Iuav di Venezia, School of Doctorate Studies, Palazzo Badoer, S.Polo 2468, 30125 Venezia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The contemporary city faces a deep modification in needs and requirements, due to the change of living needs and demographic situation. The progressive aging of society, the new incoming cultures or the change of the family unit lead to consider the upgrade of buildings also in terms of functionality, accessibility and inclusiveness.

Furthermore, the study of the scientific literature analyzing typological and functional characteristics reveals technological, constructive and functional obsolescence for a specific building sector: it is the case of the multi-story residential architecture, built in the years after World War II.

Actually, in Italy, most of the interventions in the field of accessibility don’t give a completely appropriate answer to a more complex series of social, demographic and typological exigency, as well as technological requirements. Some regional rules allow users to increase the building volume to realize interventions in terms of accessibility, for example the addition of vertical circulation systems (lifts, elevators and stairs) for inclusiveness. But the practice of adding volumes for a better access organization and circulation (also in terms of security) is not completely systematized yet. Thus, this building sector necessitates a systematic and holistic approach for intervention processes.

This paper intends to present some examples of building requalification, for a strategic proposal for the improvement of accessibility and functional qualities. The examples show upgrade interventions towards the addition of some technological devices whose aim is to improve the quality of use, combined with a typological, energetic and functional requalification. Through an analysis based on the requirement/performances approach, a diagram has been drawn, in order to classify practices and to delineate a possible shared strategy for the rehabilitation of multi-story residential building such as the Social Housing. In this manner the technological upgrade could lead also to the improvement of security, accessibility and social inclusiveness.

Keywords: Integrated requalification, accessibility, inclusive strategies, functional upgrade, building technology.

INTRODUCTION The rehabilitation program of a building is often realized considering its technological and constructive obsolescence in terms of energy efficiency through the update of energetic performances or the structural improvement for the anti-seismic consolidation (Feroldi et al.,

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2014). Indeed these aspects have prominent positions in the scale of importance for the buildings whole life. However, focusing on the residential typology, in order to improve architectural and construction qualities, some requirements connected with some functional and spatial aspects cannot be left out of consideration, since they implicate the effective upgrade for the building fruition. It is well established, for example, the importance of the simultaneous presence of environmental, functional/spatial, and technological/constructive factors, in a simultaneous action for renewal1.

The aim of the present research is to introduce a declination of this principle, actuated through the integration of different aspects, not least the functional qualities connected to users’ needs.

In the last years some studies have been considering the integration of different solutions for rehabilitation, which could couple aspects connected with energy and structural efficiency, in a perspective of parameterization of the costs/benefits ratio (E. Romano et al., 2014). Moreover, although the measures taken by the EU Directives2 suggest a prevailing attention towards eco-efficiency, concerning the residential building quality it is desirable to take into account the cost/benefit ratio and to realize also a functional upgrade for the “usability” improvement.

A CHANGED DEMOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: TRANSFORMED EXIGENCIES The project for architecture and urban space has to face some changes, determined by social, economic and working conditions that have been progressively evolving in the last years (Antonini et al. 2012; Delera, 2009). This condition is determined first of all by the architectural obsolescence due to the dating of most of the civil buildings3 (Dol et al.2010; Marini et al., 2014). A recent CRESME study estimates that in 2020 about 11 million of residential Italian buildings will have more than 60 years. This data justifies the urgent need for upgrade, considering that, furthermore, the D.M. 14/01/2008 recognizes in 50 years the minimum threshold of reinforced concrete structures (CRESME, 2012), which in Italy are the most diffused for the residential multi-story blocks. Other important data comes from the social and demographic situation that in the last fifty years is deeply changed, through the ageing of population, the new requirements in terms of typological and space qualities.

A social and demographic mutation The analysis of scientific literature demonstrates that the society has deeply changed from the ’50 and ’60, the decades in which the most of the residential building in Italy was built (Delera, 2009; Malighetti, 2008; CRESME, 2014).

The phenomenon of the progressive ageing of population (Capacci et al., 2014) can be found in the last years in Italy as in Europe. This demographic tendency is due first of all to the medical and welfare progresses, but also to a greater awareness and attention of people for their lifestyles, to the healthier life conditions and to a more conscious prevention policy. In the architectural field, this tendency has some consequences: it lead to a substantial modification in the use of space, new requirements for instruments and new services.

The technical and architectural effects of these changed conditions are the request of urgent typological improvements. In particular for what concerns:

1 UNI 10838:1999, Building. Terminology for users, performances, quality and building process. Referring to the simultaneous presence of different factors: UNI Standard 11277:2008 Building sustainability. Eco compatibility requirements and needs of new and renovated residential and office building design. 2 The reference is to the European Directives 2002/91/CE Directive on energy performance of buildings, 2006/32/CE on Energy end-use efficiency and energy services, 2010/31/UE Energy performance of buildings, 2012/27/UE The Energy Efficiency Directive. 3 For the European situation data, it has been demonstrated that the most of the residential buildings have been built in the second post-war period. In Italy, the CRESME data in 2014 highlighted the same tendency.


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a. Appropriate spaces, that allows accessibility and facilities for each inhabitant. b. Typological variability, able to respond to different unit families’ needs (single parent

families, singles, roommates, “city users”) (Delera, 2009). c. Adaptable technologies to different spaces and to new multicultural necessities

(Scavuzzo, 2009). In particular, a high attention must be paid for the façades, as an interface between private interiors and the public exterior space.

d. Improvement of mixed use buildings, to developing connective tissue that could implement the strengthening of social communities.

Adaptability, flexibility, reversibility and customization Facing those requirements and the aforementioned strategic programs of the EU, the roadmap of rehabilitation is complex: the concepts of “Healthy City” and “Cognitive City” should then complete that of “Smart City”. Those expressions underline a new trend that identifies the urban space as a living organism, which is responsive to different exigencies, “adaptive”. We are facing a variation of the concept of “inhabiting” determined by a grater socio-demographic dynamism: for example, the unemployment rate augmentation and the diffusion of the self-employment practice need for new functional models. Above all, for example, there are new hybrid typologies of dwellings whose use is that of both home and office for homeworkers or the increasing cohousing practice. These tendencies lead to an increase of spatial flexibility demand and a re-evaluation of the distributive and constructive paradigms for the dwelling (Cellucci et al., 2015).

The different composition of families, connected with mixed cultural models, requires equipped residential spaces, with expanded qualities in terms of “adaptability”, “reversibility” and the attitude of aggregating rooms, technical spaces and dwellings. For example, the possibility to connect or divide residential units according to needs leads to consider “flexibility” and “adaptability” as preferred qualities for the contemporary residential typology (Kronenburg, 2007).4 Finally, the claim for space personalization by the user, as the “customization” and the “reversibility” practice (Paoletti et al., 2011), is one of the essential requirements for the residential typology in the perspective of technological construction.

Usability Among the new approaches that combine not only the architectural reshape but also the technological upgrade, the “usability” (that includes security in use, accessibility, adaptability of spaces in terms of Universal Design) could be decisive in the project of architectural rehabilitation. The Italian regulation on the matter of accessibility is articulated: for what concerns private buildings, the D.L. 13/1989 regulation and the consequent D.M. 236/1989 state that all the private buildings with public use spaces must be “accessible” or at least “visitable”. The D.P.R. 503/1996 is an additional step forward from a prescriptive approach to a performance one. Moreover, a relevant difference to the accessibility and Inclusive Design approach was endorsed in 2001 with the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) by the World Health Organization. That “classification of healthy” moves the concept of disability from an individual field, to that of the interaction between the person and the context that surrounds him.

Based on these premises a class of buildings has been analyzed and identified for construction period and technological qualities, starting from the data of European and Italian studies5. Their deficiencies are clearly recognizable: the technological system, with which the second post war 4 For example, the F.Druot, A.Lacaton and J.P. Vassal intervention in the Bois le Pretre Tower (Paris, 2011) shows how some spaces have been connected, and others divided in order to answer specific requirements of families in which the number of components was changed. 5 Among them, the data introduced by the CRESME study: Riuso 03 - Ristrutturazione edilizia riqualificazione energetica e rigenerazione urbana. 24th february 2014. And the outcomes of the TABULA project, developed at the Polytechnic of Turin.


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period buildings were built, shows typological obsolescence, rigidity and lack of adaptability (Montuori, 2014). Some renewal proposal must be introduced.

BUILDING SYSTEMS AND THE INTERVENTION STRATEGIES – THE STATE OF ARTS A first assessment of the current European scene reveals the existence of different technological strategies for architectural refurbishment, in particular for those buildings that necessitate an urgent intervention: first of all the multi-story residential typology built in the second post-war period.

Figure 1. Some examples of multi-storey construction systems built after the World War II. From the left, the Westerpark intervention in Tilburg (NL) (image credits PANplus, www.panplus.nl); the Cité de Boudonville in Nantes (FR) (image credits T/E/S/S); “La banana” intervention in Villeneuve la Garenne (image credits Groupe Arcane architects).

From a constructive point of view, in Europe it is possible to recognize some common characteristics among the buildings of this typology: in France the prefab construction systems “banche tables” or “tunnel” are largely implied; in Germany it is defined as “Plattenbau”. Those precast concrete systems are exported in Italy in the period of the industrialization (from the 50s onwards), firstly for the industrial typology, secondly for scholastic buildings, and finally for the multi-story multi-family residential buildings (De Vita, 1965). Those construction systems have a very low internal adaptability, configuring as prefab structures created in factory, then transported and installed directly on the construction site. They have visible deficiencies from an energetic point of view (considering that the first regulation in Italy for the eco-efficiency has been endorsed in 19766). The tunnel precast system such as “beton banché”, constituted by three-dimensional modules stacked on one another to form the whole building, is among those technologies that are less adaptable, being structurally constituted by transversal bearing walls, and perpendicular to the façade. In those cases, the only possible strategy for the functional upgrade is to extend spaces through external additions, for the accessibility improvement and fruition of the common spaces and dwellings (Figure 2).

Figure 2. The Cité universitaire de Boudonville by T/E/S/S atelier d’ingénierie (2008), Nancy (FR) (image credits T/E/S/S).

6 For the Italian context, the reference is to the D.L. 373/ 1976.


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STRATEGIES AND DEVICES FOR ACCESSIBILITY: AN ARCHITECTURAL READING The most used strategies of external volumetric additions (Antonini et al., 2014) can be punctual, located in some interesting points of the building (for instance at the basement or on the rooftop), continuous (such as the towers for elevator systems), or global as the whole envelope renovation (Zambelli, 2004). With the aim of identifying a classification of the current functional upgrade methods, different buildings interventions or projects (in Europe and in Italy) have been analyzed. The selection was made considering the intervention process, the use of volumetric addition. The selected buildings are:

a) The Via Parma social housing rehabilitation by the Bolzano municipality (IT), 2012. b) The Cité de Boudonville rehabilitation, T/E/S/S atelier d’ingénierie, Nancy (FR), 2008. c) « La Banane » rehabilitiation by Groupe Arcane, Villeneuve la Garenne (FR), 2013. d) The rehabilitation of an historical building by Sill and Kleim, Rathenow (GE), 1997. e) The Leeuw Van Vlaanderen intervention, Heren5, Amsterdam (NL), 2013. f) The Wohnen Bogenallee renewal by blauraum, Hamburg (GE), 2005. g) The Westerpark intervention by PANplus, Tilburg (NL), 2009. h) Le Navi project for SuRE-fit Research, Ipostudio architetti, Florence (IT), (2006). i) Tour Bois le Prêtre transformation, F.Druot, A.Lacaton, J.P.Vassal, Paris (FR), (2011).

Figure 3. The diagram of functional rehabilitation strategies: on the left, the location of the additions, the morphological aspects (box, punctual or continuous), on the right the functional performances of the additions: accessibility (lift, stairs), addition of spaces, division of residential units, the aggregation/dis-aggregation attitude of dwellings and rooms, the typological variability, the flexibility of spaces, the customization or personalization, the envelope transformation, the collective use spaces.


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The outputs of this classification result in a diagram (Figure 3), in which the functional performances of each intervention can be recognized. The diagram can be read in two ways:

1. The “horizontal reading” couples morphology to functional performance. The classification of morphological and spatial settings can be intersected with the functional upgrade for each building.

2. The “vertical reading” highlights the diffusion of functional upgrades. The diagram reveals the most used functional issues.

As a result of the architectural analysis, some considerations have been done.

a. It seems that the highest level of functional upgrade occurs in the cases of global addition (basement, façades, roof-topping) in which some independent added structures lead to implement the structural, morphological and technological freedom. Punctual and tower additions allows only partial functional upgrade.

b. It is possible to visualize the most common functional upgrade methods. Except for the “addition”, which was the aforementioned decisive issue for the choice of the case-studies, the most of cases have focused the intervention process on the technological upgrade of the envelope, also in terms of new functions and customization, and on the improvement of accessibility (lifts and stairs).

Indeed, the correspondence of the investment and the rehabilitation strategy must be appropriate to the real building and user needs: so it could be not always necessary for the intervention to answer all the functional issues. However the diagram allows considering the importance of a global rehabilitation intervention, above all in a strategic way with the aim of answering as many as functional performances possible for those buildings that necessitate of a deep functional retrofit.

This should be evaluated considering the actual financial benefits for the Italian context such as the tax reductions for the energetic deep retrofit or the volume addition benefits for the functional up-grade in terms of accessibility.7

It could be appropriate to think about the rehabilitation process as able to combine those issues, in order to achieve a global (architectural, technical, environmental) high quality: this approach to the intervention process can be defined as “integrated rehabilitation”.

With the aim of integrating different performances within a unique device, a new strategy was introduced in the last years, recognizable in a construction system called the “Exoskeleton System” (Guidolin, 2015). It allows a complete retrofit intervention of the envelope and spaces as an implementation of living surfaces.

The volumetric additions on the façade and rooftop are useful not only for the energy retrofit (as a double skin envelope), but also for the upgrade in term of building quality, an augmentation of residential units’ space and the arrangement of vertical circulation equipment such as lifts or staircases. Moreover, also some structural seismic improvements are possible (Feroldi et al., 2014). This device is a strategy to actuate a functional, inclusive, energetic and structural upgrade at the same time, transforming an obsolete building in an adaptive organism.

7 In the Italian context, for example, the actuation of the 2010/31/UE Directive, the EPBD Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, was transposed in the Dlgs 90/2013, and it states the tax deduction for energetic upgrade of building is between 55%-65% of the total investment cost for energy rehabilitation. For what concerns the volume benefits the law is the L.112/2008 “Piano nazionale di edilizia abitativa” defined as “Piano Casa”. For the Venetian Region, the L.R. 32/2013 states in the Art.1: “This regulation recognizes among its objectives that of “Stimulating the seismic retrofit and the elimination of architectural barriers in existing buildings”. It provides for an expansion of 20% for residential buildings to which it can be added 10% for the use of renewable energy sources to at least 3kW, +15% if the building energy standard reaches the level B, + 5% for seismic retrofitting, and a further 40% to accessibility. Elevators and lifting systems, considered as technical spaces, cannot be counted in the calculation”.


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CONCLUSIONS The architectural quality today corresponds to the research of an improved accessibility of buildings, the adaptability of spaces, the personalization (declined as “customization”), and the envelope transformation, considered as an interface between the internal spaces (private) and the external environment (public). The exigencies intersected with the state of the art lead to some unequivocal considerations: the needs for functional upgrade in addition to the energetic renewal, in a perspective of integrated rehabilitation, are unavoidable. Some strategies ascribable in the “Ré-modelation” (Castro et al., 2005), the superficial lifting operations (camouflage) are not sufficient to fulfill all the performance requirements. Above all those connected with the usability, or belonging to the technical appearance of the building, or linked to the new demographic and social requirements. This includes the inclusive fruition of the spaces: the “elimination of architectural barriers” for a complete accessibility, and the adaptation for safety in case of evacuation, the space upgrade in terms of volumes and typological setting, the attitude of a space of adapting to user’s needs. For this reason, an integrated rehabilitation approach, like the Exoskeleton System is necessary and should be financially affordable. Buildings have often just one chance in their lifetime to be renewed, and, considering the actual necessity to adequate their functional obsolescence coupled with the energetic needs and the financial problems, an integrated and holistic perspective is preferable for the intervention project.

Figure 4. The "Exoskeleton System", a device for the integrated rehabilitation. (image credits F. Guidolin, F. Cauda, M. Chinellato, F. Messina, E. Robin, 2015).


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REFERENCES Antonini Ernesto, Gaspari Jacopo, Olivieri Giulia, (2012). Densificare per migliorare: strategie di riqualificazione del parco italiano di edilizia abitativa sociale, in Techne - Journal of Technology for Architecture and Environment, Issue 4/2012. Capacci Giorgia, Rinesi Francesca (2014). L’invecchiamento demografico in Italia e nell’Europa del futuro in Annali del dipartimento di metodi e modelli per l'economia il territorio e la finanza, n.1, Patron Editore Bologna. Castro Roland, Denissof Sophie (2005). (Ré)Modeler Métamorphoser, Le Monteur, Paris. Cellucci Cristiana, Di Sivo Michele (2015). Habitat contemporaneo. Flessibilità tecnologica e spaziale. Franco Angeli, Milano. CRESME, CNAPPC, ANCE (2012), Riuso 2012. Città mercato e rigenerazione. Analisi del contesto per una nuova politica urbana, Roma. CRESME (2014), Riuso 03 - Ristrutturazione edilizia riqualificazione energetica rigenerazione urbana Servizio Studi-Dipartimento Ambiente della Camera dei Deputati. 24 febbraio 2014. De Vita, Raffaele (1965). Esame e classificazione dei sistemi di prefabbricazione in AA.VV. industrializzazione dell’edilizia. Dedalo libri, Bari. Delera Anna (a cura di). 2009. Ripensare l’abitare. Politiche progetti tecnologie verso l’housing sociale. Milano: Hoepli Editore. Cellucci Cristina, Di Sivo, Michele, (2015). Habitat contemporaneo: flessibilità tecnologica e spaziale, Milano: Franco Angeli. Dol Kees., Haffner Marietta. 2010. The housing statistic in the European Union 2010, OTB Research Institute for the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology Feroldi Francesca, Marini Alessandra, Belleri Andrea, Passoni Chiara, Riva Paolo, Preti Marco, Giuriani Ezio, Plizzari Giovanni (2014). Miglioramento e adeguamento sismico di edifici contemporanei mediante approccio integrato energetico, architettonico e strutturale con soluzioni a doppio involucro a minimo impatto ambientale, in Progettazione Sismica – Vol. 5, N. 2, Anno 2014. Gooijer Arjan, Te Velde Gert Jan, (2007), Developing the existing, in Andeweg Marie-Therèse, Brunoro Silvia, Verhoef Leo (Edited by), COST C16, Improving the quality of existing urban building envelopes, State of the art, Amsterdam: IOS press BV. Guidolin Francesca, (2015). “Sistemi per la riqualificazione integrata del costruito: dal façade refurbishment al sistema esoscheletro”. In Abitare Insieme - Living together, Dimensione condivisa del progetto futuro. Abitare il futuro, Conference Proceedings "Abitare il Futuro", Napoli: CLEAN Edizioni. Kronenburg Robert (2007). Flexible: architecture that responds to change, London : Laurence King Publishing. Marini Alessandra, Passoni Chiara, Riva Paolo, Negro Paolo, Romano Elvira, Taucer Fabio (2014). Technology options for earthquake resistant, eco-efficient buildings in Europe: Research needs. Luxemburg: Publications Office of European Commission. Montuori Marina, (2014). Urban Eutopia. Good Practices for the Integrated Regeneration of Buildings in Ecoquartieri : strategie e tecniche di rigenerazione urbana in Europa : 6. Biennale Internazionale di Architettura Barbara Cappochin, Venezia: Marsilio. Paoletti Ingrid, Tardini Paola (2011). Mass Innovation. Emerging technologies in construction. Santarcangelo di Romagna: Maggioli. Romano Elvira, Negro Paolo, Taucer Fabio, Seismic performance assessment addressing sustainability and energy efficiency, Joint Research Centre scientific and policy reports. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2014. Scavuzzo L, (2009) L’housign sociale a Vienna, Progetti politihce abitative tra innovazione e continuità storica, in Delera A. Ripensare l’abitare. Politiche progetti tecnologie verso l’housing sociale. Milano: Hoepli Editore, p.45-66. Zambelli, Ettore. 2004. Ristrutturazione e trasformazione del costruito, tecnologie per la rifunzionalizzazione e la riorganizzazione architettonica degli spazi. Milano: il Sole 24 Ore.


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ADAPTIVE REUSE AND SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY IN THE REGENERATION PROCESSES OF INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE SITES

Ana Martinović PhD student at the University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Architecture, Ljubljana, Slovenia [email protected]

Sonja Ifko1 Assist. Professor, PhD, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Architecture, Ljubljana, Slovenia [email protected]

ABSTRACT Industrial heritage has been recognized as an important part of urban regeneration in Western countries for several decades, while recognizing its importance in the East and South-Eastern Europe is still an ongoing process. In the cities in this part of Europe, adaptive reuse projects of abandoned industrial sites can play a significant role in connecting their recent past and the future by telling stories about their social, cultural, and economic development as well as architectural, technical or other achievements. The aim of this paper is to present potentials and limits of possible adaptive reuse of industrial sites in the city of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which faced intensive changes in its recent history. The physical scars from the war in the 1990s and the processes of later restructuring of the economy, marked not only the cityscape but they also left a huge impact on the social identity of the city. Adaptive reuse projects could be an important opportunity for those sites regarding both the safeguarding of the valuable heritage and the strengthening of the social identity.

The case study will focus on the topic of physical and social revitalization of the site of the former complex of the grain silos, mills and bakery owned by the company called Žitopromet. It will address issues regarding the effects that we could expect from different approaches of adaptive reuse projects. The main concern will be given to the questions of preserving industrial heritage in its tangible and intangible components on the one hand and the possibilities of effective social regeneration of the site on the other.

Keywords: adaptive reuse, social sustainability, industrial heritage, tangible/intangible heritage

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Selection of glazing unit Industrial revolution in the Western World occurred in the late 18th and early 19th century when technology advances lead to mass production and caused intensive socio-economic changes. In terms of social development, industrialization represents the greatest change of all, not only

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because of the altered methods of production, but also because of its impacts on all aspects of life [Ifko, 2014]. Due to the changes in global economy and the rapidly growing information society in the last decades, many industrial sites became excess in terms of primary functions. Today, being recognized as industrial heritage, they are seen as a potential development factor of the area instead of a neglected part of the past. Industrial heritage is a relatively new concept compared to the other established heritage objects [Cho, Shin, 2014].

Industrial heritage testifies for the development of the industrial culture and its historical, technological, social, architectural or scientific values. Its tangible remains consist of buildings and machinery, workshops, mills and factories, mines and sites for processing and refining, warehouses and stores, places where energy is generated, transmitted and used, transport and all of its infrastructure, as well as places used for social activities related to industry such as housing, religious worship or education [TICCIH, 2003].

In the Western World there are many examples of successful adaptive reuse of industrial heritage sites and their developmental role in the new post-industrial context. Conservation of industrial artefacts and technologies began in Europe and the US in the 1950s and focused first on reuse and later on the archaeological preservation of the relics of the industrial revolution [Wang, Jiang, 2007]. From some of the already known examples, we can examine both their successes and weaknesses. Concern of sustaining local cultural contexts and transforming obsolete spaces into viable places within industrial heritage conservation connects itself with urban regeneration, which basically seeks historic, aesthetic and economic elevation of degenerated areas. These common interests make it possible to imagine heritage conservation as one of the essential urban development goals [Cho, Shin, 2014].

1.2. Industrial heritage regeneration process The Since their appearance, industrial facilities have marked the cityscape and became are cognizable part of the city image. Many of them, after losing their primary function, had to deal with the new situation by adopting new uses and facing new challenges. In the last few decades, the importance of industrial heritage has been increasingly recognized as a vital part of urban regeneration. Local identities are being strengthened by bringing back to life disused industrial heritage. The motives for protecting the industrial heritage are based on the general value of these places and structures, rather than its exclusive existence. In general, the value of industrial heritage is referring to the historical, social, cultural and architectural circumstances of the time being and so could be impressive as well as nostalgic [TICCIH, 2003].

An approach to the regeneration process of industrial facilities seen in various projects includes conversion to commercial and housing uses, offices, mixed use and cultural use. In order to achieve successful regeneration, it is necessary to take into account various factors such as location of the site, the wider neighbourhood, infrastructure, population, sociological and economic factors and the potential risks related to investing in the projects. Complementary functions – residential, office, retail and cultural – can feed each other, making a scheme more attractive to all users and giving it a long term vitality [Stratton, 2000]. This kind of approach has been used in the regeneration process of La Fabrica in Barcelona, the Arenc silo in Marseille and Grünerløkka student house in Oslo, which are just some of the most well-known cases.

An important issue of industrial heritage site revitalisation was and still is the acceptance of the new situation of the sites by the community members after the end of the production. When the vital parts of the communities become the source of negative memories (lost jobs, social degradation of individuals, etc.), this has major impact on the decision-making processes in the local communities and many times the demolition brings a kind of relief and hope for a better future. That is why it is very important to organize the process of promoting the heritage and its possibilities in the new reality - in the processes of deindustrialization.


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Figure 1. La fabrica, Barcelona, Spain: view from above. Available at: http://www.ricardobofill.com/EN/570/La-fabrica/Today-html

Figure 2. La fabrica, Barcelona, Spain: interior view of workspace. Available at: http://www.ricardobofill.com/ EN/570/La-fabrica/Today-html

1.3. Role of social sustainability in the contemporary urban processes The terms of architectural and urban conservation and sustainability have parallel meanings and their concepts are interwoven: they are both seeking ways to safeguard place identity and secure its continuity, embracing interaction between the physical environment and human activity.

Architectural conservation has evolved into a broad discipline that recognises geocultural diversity and local distinctiveness, specifically as they are expressed through the physical identity of places, buildings and architectural details [Rodwell, 2007]. In spite of the globalisation tendencies of industrialization from its beginning, these characteristics are also recognizable in the industrial heritage sites.

Sustainability, by all of its three components: environmental, social and economic, comprehends that cultural diversity is an essential component of cultural identity, sense of community belonging, social inclusion, and participation [Rodwell, 2007]. Social sustainability deals with the role of human resources and our engagement in development. As a social issue it is closely connected to community awareness.


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Before giving new function to an industrial site in order to satisfy social sustainability demands, it is necessary to examine the present needs of the community. Social sustainability factors such as safety, quality of life, health, social inclusion, participation, sense of community and social interaction are inseparable parts of every urban area. The design of the local environment, including all aspects of urban regeneration, has a tremendous influence on all aforementioned social factors and vice versa.

When talking about contemporary urban processes, community needs are one of the crucial factors to be taken into account, particularly because they are changing according to the time in which they are set. Preserving continuity of the buildings is closely related to continuously ongoing urban processes that will eventually lead to social sustainability in the future. Thus, urban regeneration should be conducted with social sustainability in mind, particularly ensuring to satisfy quality of life for people living and working in the area. Urban regeneration cannot be successfully carried out without intense involvement of social regeneration as a link that provides sustainability for future generations.

1.4. Adaptive reuse as a method for regeneration of industrial heritage The best way to conserve a heritage building, structure or site is to use it. Adaptive reuse offers new uses for old places and is often seen as a sustainable method for regeneration of former derelict spaces. The new use needs to be compatible with the building, retain its historic character and conserve significant fabric, but it can still introduce new services, as well as modifications and additions [RAIA, 2008]. Adaptive reuse as a method for regeneration of industrial facilities gives them a chance for a new beginning by continuing the life process of the site without erasing any part of its past. As a part of the life process of a building, adaptive reuse encourages new changes that might occur in the future and leaves space for further uses in the same place for another generation. Places of cultural significance enrich people’s lives, often providing a deep and inspirational sense of connection to community and landscape, to past and to live experiences [ICOMOS, 2013].

1.5. Embodied energy in adaptive reuse of industrial heritage sites Adaptive reuse has a close relation to sustainable architecture in terms of maintaining the local culture, viability of place, and preserving the embodied energy of the building. Adaptive reuse has a potential to contribute to sustainable development of communities and sustainable communities are in close connection with maintaining sustainability of a new use of the building which, as a result, is having an important role in energy saving of the building. From the environmental sustainability point of view, by reusing buildings, their embodied energy is retained, making the project more environmentally sustainable than entirely new constructions [Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2004]. Embodied energy means the sum of all the energy that was used to build a structure – fuel, materials and human resources. Making continued use of this existing environmental capital means less energy used in demolition, less waste to landfill sites, and less energy needs to be devoted to bringing in new building materials [Watson, 2012]. In this paper we will try to highlight the importance of the link between social sustainability as a human resource and, consequently, an energy saving factor in the process of adaptive reuse by focusing on the case study of the former complex of the grain silos, mills and bakery in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

1.6. Reused silos’ structures as industrial heritage worldwide The silo is the type of building that Le Corbusier used as a symbol of pure forms derived from the function; he called them „the first-fruits of the new age“ and symbols of an engineer's work governed by the results of calculation (derived from the principles which govern our universe) [Le Corbusier, 1931].


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Figure 3. Grain silo as shown in the book Towards a New Architecture,-Le Corbusier, 1931, reprint, Dover Publications, 1986 New York, p 27.

There are many types of silos and over time, the designs have changed as technology and the uses changed. The very specific silo construction is an exciting challenge when it comes to the conversion of its architecture. Grain elevators made for agricultural purposes are composed of three aspects of design, i.e. bulk material, geometric design, and structural design. The design for bulk material has an important role due to the nature of the materials. The geometric design for grain elevators is also important because it can affect the way the material moves within it and also affect the useable capacity. Early grain elevators were rectangular or square but the benefits of movement of the cylindrical design became apparent and eventually the standard [Carson, Jenkyn, 1993]. Metal silos are produced in a great variety of forms. They can be ground supported or elevated. A typical elevated circular silo consists of a cylindrical shell above a conical hopper. Silos are thin shell structures and carry their loads chiefly by membrane tensile and compressive forces in the shell walls [Rotter, 1998].

As examples of adaptive reuse this paper will present the projects of Grünnerløkka Studenthus in Oslo, Norway and the Arenc Silo in Marseille, France. These examples have been chosen based on their architectural structure, typology, use, location parameters and influence on the urban regeneration process of the area.

The conversion of the Arenc silo shows that buildings of this scale can be successfully reused. Even if the constraints for the reuse are considerable, the end result is viable and fits into the larger context of the urban operations undertaken at Marseille. The grain silo on the Arenc basin was built between 1926 and 1927 by the Marseille dock company and enlarged with a new elevator tower to its north façade in 1954 [TICCIH, 2015]. This industrial site passed its way from 1990s when the autonomous port authority of Marseille planned its demolition in order to make new parking surfaces to 1998 when Cilac’s national conference started to defend the idea of reusing the silo. Today, successfully reused, the silo hosts offices, performance hall for concerts, theatre and opera with a parking surface inside the building [TICCIH, 2015]. Cultural use – as a key element of a mixed-use scheme, to attract large number of visitors, make best use of any wide interior spaces and, possibly, to provide a means of interpreting buildings and its history [Stratton, 2000].


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Figure 4. Arenc Silo, Marseille, France: view from the viaduct de la Joliette, source: TICCIH, 2015.

Another example this paper will refer to are the former grain elevators in the Grünerløkka district located on the waterfront along the river and a park system called Aker. Aker was once the industrial hub of Oslo due to the river being the power source for mills. The grain elevator was a part of this industry. It was 53 metres high and completed in 1953. For forty years, this structure served as a grain elevator until 1993 when it was zoned for residential purposes. Today, the design of this building involved converting the 9000m2grain elevator into 226 student apartments. The conversion process mainly consisted of creating floors and windows [HRTB ARHITEKTER, 2016].

Figure 5. Grünerløkka student house, Oslo, Norway: exterior view. Source: HRTB ARHITEKTER, 2016


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1.7. Complexity of industrial heritage sites and regeneration processes Precisely because of the complexity that characterizes many industrial sites, it is necessary to carefully determine all the steps in the process of their regeneration. The complexity of establishing exact steps in order to identify and evaluate industrial sites as heritage and consequently determine their possible regeneration path, lies in the specifics and different factors that accompany each site. Thus, among the steps applicable widely, individual approach should be also conducted on each one of these sites. As a part of the process, in general, three steps should be conducted. Firstly, identification of the characteristics of the site includes analysis and study of an industrial site and leads to differentiation of heritage from non-heritage substance. The second phase refers to valuation of the heritage by its importance, including characteristics of landscape in which it is located and its developmental characteristics. The third phase relates to the development of concrete preservation measures for the buildings and sites that are being considered as heritage structures [Ifko, 1999]. Using these steps as the guidance, the specifics of each particular case should be taken into account for the further regeneration project, particularly those regarding the changes in social structure, which are influenced more by external factors than industrial architectural heritage itself.

The design of industrial sites was directly influenced by economic, political, and social conditions and as such led to changes in social structures [Ifko, 1999]. In order to successfully conduct industrial heritage recognition and regeneration, an interdisciplinary approach, including the cooperation between various experts, is necessary as well as the inclusion of all the stakeholders concerned.

2. CONTEXT AND METHODOLOGY

2.1. History and context of industrialization in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Mostar

Precisely Bosnia and Herzegovina, still in the process of development, is offering a fruitful base for urban regeneration regarding its industrial heritage, which is not yet recognized enough. One of the aims of this paper will be to present the process of industrialization in the country, concerning the possibilities of adaptive reuse of industrial heritage and the developmental role it might have on the area where it is set. A closer look will be given to Mostar, a city in Herzegovina, as an industrial centre of the area.

Industrialization in Bosnia and Herzegovina came together with the arrival of the Austro-Hungarian empire at the end of the 19th century with the establishment of asalt factory in Tuzla (1886), a lignite mine in Kreka, a stone salt mine in Tušanj and a soda factory in Lukavac (1893). Industrial areas were mainly concentrated around major cities: Sarajevo, Mostar, Banja Luka, Tuzla and Zenica. Contrary to these fast-developing areas, the rest of the country remained underdeveloped and with a notable lack of industry [Nurković, 2007]. In the area of Herzegovina there were two major periods of industrialization with Mostar at its centre. The first one was during the Austro-Hungarian period at the end of the 19thcentury, followed by the railway construction and tobacco and wine industry as the main industry sectors. The second period of broader industrialization occurred during the period of the socialist Yugoslavia between 1943 and 1991, when several factories were established in the city and its surroundings: an aluminium factory, SOKO factory, Hepok factory, a hydroelectric power plant on the river Neretva and the Đuro Salaj textile factory [Bakula, 1970]. During the last war, the city was irreversibly destroyed which, as a consequence, left physical and mental scars not only on the city structure, but on the entire community as well. The city faced serious urban decay which remains unsolved until today. In the context of the war disaster that city had to struggle with, many industrial facilities were silently shut down, without the ability to respond to the new demands of the fast growing economic market. During the regeneration of the city, attention was mainly given to the structures


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with residential and social use while leaving industrial facilities aside. Today, within the context of urban regeneration of the entire city and learning from the examples seen in the western world, it is necessary to fill the gaps in the city structure created by the abandonment of the former industrial buildings. The question of recognition of industrial heritage in the area of Mostar still has not been raised enough, and no serious studies regarding the subject were conducted. However, there are several examples of former industrial sites that deserve to be questioned in more detail. In this paper we will focus on one of the former industrial locations in the city structure: the complex of the grain silos, mills and bakery owned by the company called Žitopromet. We will try to analyse the potential of the former factory regarding possible adaptive reuse, while considering the subject of social sustainability as a very present factor in the area.

Figure 6. Old Salt factory in Kreka, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina: entire complex around 1905. Available at:http://kons.gov.ba/main.php?id_struct=6&lang=1&action=view&id=3002

Figure 6. Soda factory in Lukavac, Bosnia and Herzegovina: entrance facade. Available at:http://www.sisecam.ba/

2.2. Žitopromet factory: situation and context Approximately 2 km away from the historic city centre, in the northern part of the city (Centar 2), lies the complex of the grain silos, mills and bakery. The river Neretva, which flows through the entire city dividing it into an east and west side, is a natural barrier of the complex site from the east. To the north of the complex, a new bridge is being built, which will connect the residential part of the city in the west and the university campus site located east of the river. From the west and the south, the former industry complex is surrounded with residential buildings. The factory was built during the period of Second Yugoslavia. Another grain silo complex was built in the northern outskirts of the city, in the district Raštani, and was connected with the railway


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originating from the Austro-Hungarian period to the complex in district Centar 2. Both of them were owned by Žitopromet, which was the major grain producer in the area of Herzegovina. The concrete structure of silos in Raštani was unfortunately completely destroyed during the last war, and today industrial archaeology is the only thing left on that site. However, the structure of the complex in the city centre has been preserved, and still forms part of the city image. The complex consists of 24 steel silos where the grain was kept and a central building with a grain tower on the north, which is connected to silos’ group. The part of the building situated on the north housed a bakery plant where most of the grain products were manufactured for further use. Due to its long-term presence in the city image and its historical meaning, the neglected site represents a serious gap not only in the neighbourhood, but in the entire city. The present context of the grain silo site includes all the amenities of a residential area: elementary school, a supermarket, green and pedestrian areas. A potential adaptive reuse of the complex would strengthen the identity of the place and, if successful, the community’s quality of life.

Figure 7. Žitopromet factory, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina: view from the north-east, photo: Ana Martinović

Figure 8. Žitopromet factory, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina: micro-urban context, photo: Ana Martinović


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2.3. Research methodology The research framework for this study was based on previous relevant studies [Ifko, 1999, 2014] and followed by analysis of two successful cases of adaptive reuse of silo structures. In the case study in the city of Mostar, their search of the site was based on an analysis and study of the industrial site in order to identify the former Žitopromet company as a potential heritage site. The methodology of the three-step evaluation of heritage preservation process (identification, evaluation and definition of preservation measures for important buildings/structure) was used [Ifko, 1999].The criteria regarding the heritage assessment of the site included the data on the historical and social, technical, architectural and spatial developmental characteristics of the site.

After the three-step heritage preservation process, the next phase of research started by determination of all the factors, which have to be considered before the site regeneration planning begins. Its aim was to determine parameters for successful implementation of the social sustainable dimension of adaptive reuse. In this stage, interviews were conducted among the residents and visitors in the city in order to construct a clear image about the society opinion of the site. Beside regularly used spatial development and economic quantitative guidance for planning of the regeneration projects [Couch, Fraser, 2003]the qualitative factors of industrial heritage's role and social aspects were added to check the initial hypothesis stating that only the integrated approach of all aspect/factors is the condition for long-term sustainable regeneration. This was checked with the help of strength / weakness analysis after the detailed definition of used factors.

2.3.1. Spatial development and economic aspects Location - The location parameter is one of the essential factors which need to be analysed before approaching the process of adaptive reuse of the industrial sites. When positioned in highly populated area, it has the power of becoming a possible major point of interest in that area. The last could also be a great threat as demolition and a new building is in general more interesting to developers. If the regeneration process is done properly, it can become a recognizable landmark and new social space in the city, depending on the physical appearance and size of the structure. On the other hand, disused structures can easily turn into places that attract vandalism and as such can have a negative effect on the wider area, affecting gravely on the entire community.

Tourism potential - Industrial heritage tourism can serve as an important economic base for the regeneration of a former industrial site. In contemporary changing society, traveller’s needs have also changed. He became more interested in learning about the processes, which occurred in the past and shaped the lives of the ordinary man rather than visiting usual tourist points of interest. By turning the industrial sites into tourist points of interest, it also helps local population to develop better relation to the part of their recent past, which in general, they do not even see as a heritage potential. The last is an important link of social and economic factors, which is essential for effective socially sustainable projects.

Definition of new uses - Combination of different uses and finance sources for adaptive reuse often provides best results. It is very important to properly define the uses and ensure for the local community to be in a position to affect these decisions. When not in a position to finance the entire project, governments often try to encourage private investors to invest into adaptive reuse projects of former industrial sites.

2.3.2. Social aspects Community role - The sense of community includes the feeling of belonging that members of the community have, through their shared needs, emotions and desires. Collective memory and place identity are values, which are strongly expressed when talking about industrial heritage sites,


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especially in the urban areas. Due to the events that caused factories to stop producing, loss of jobs and particularly recent economic crises, these values have been shaken up. The state of neglect of former factories contributed to the negative feeling. With adaptive reuse of these sites, followed by possible job opportunities and creation of new points of interest, they might be renewed.

Local governance - Examples of adaptive reuse of industrial heritage sites show extremely varied approaches that are hard to ascribe to a single model. In regeneration processes of industrial heritage sites, the traditional top-down model is often found as less applicable due to the difficulties for the local governance to imagine a possible reuse, the state of neglect of the structures and the initial costs for the project. Therefore, in many cases the bottom-up model or combination of both is more applicable, when the actual project comes after the regeneration process has already been started and the transformation approved by community.

Accessibility - In the process of social sustainability regeneration, accessibility is one of the most influential factors. In contemporary, fast living society, providing social infrastructure to the citizens is crucial. Fulfilling community needs in their immediate vicinity is an act that enhances the sense of community belonging and social inclusion. As an accompanying factor found in many examples of the regeneration of industrial sites, social effects caused by gentrification create numerous issues.

Gentrification is by the rule the consequence of the deficiency of social sustainability in the regeneration's planning process.

2.3.3. Heritage aspects Historical context - The former industrial sites, reflecting industrial processes from the past, are also witnessing the change, which occurred through the years. The historical context implies a strong connection with social identity; former industrial sites are a physical evidence of the past and the processes, which took place inside the factory walls, are psychical evidence of the lives of ordinary people passed through generations. By preserving the memory of them, local and social identity is encouraged. It is especially important in the situation of economic and social crisis right after the closing of production, when jobs are lost and often no perspective is to be seen.

Tangible and Intangible values - Tangible and intangible heritage values are interwoven in the society. Intangible, containing memories in human minds embodies all immaterial aspects: lifestyles, traditions and customs. Still, the transformation processes usually directly concern the tangible – material dimension of industrial heritage sites rather than their intangible dimension. The main characteristics of the industrial architecture are designated by the following analytical segments: function, construction and aesthetic expression [Ifko, 1999]. As such, all these segments should be carefully analysed. In the adaptive reuse process, it is crucial to analyse the physical state of the buildings, to evaluate how successfully a given process would perform within a certain complex concept [Ifko, 2014]. Industrial sites are complex structures that require careful examination of their physical structure and spatial organization and it is therefore challenging to find an appropriate new use to be implemented. Only when both tangible and intangible dimension are included and preserved, we can experience the positive transformation of industrial heritage site as a foundation for socially sustainable change.

3. DISCUSSION

3.1. Results Considering the methodological process, the results of the strength/weakness analysis of determining factors are presented in Table 1. Analysis for the complex of former Žitopromet factory at this stage shows that the site’s regeneration might have several positive impacts


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regarding the benefits which the community might experience. A wider positive impact on the city is also expected, if the comprehensive system of all considered factors would be included in the preparation of regeneration project.

As mentioned above, in a socially vulnerable place such as Mostar, it was crucial to conduct a survey among the residents about the issue. The most important factor suggested in the interviews was the non-recognition of the potential that the former factory offers. The next important step has to be the promotion of industrial heritage with its developmental role in the past and on another hand its benefits for social sustainable future of the city have to be highlighted.

Table 1. Analysis of strengths and weaknesses of potential regeneration of the Žitopromet factory

Factors Strengths Weaknesses 2.3.1. Spatial development and economic aspects

Location

-Landscape value -Attractive position next to Neretva river -Approx. 1,5 km from the city centre -Landmark of the area -Next to residential, educational and commercial uses -Access to public transportation

-Lack of community approval

Tourism potential

-Central position in the city -Growth of annual amount of visitors in the city - New program in the city

Definition of new uses -Need for cultural and leisure use -Diversity of uses - Lack of program ideas

2.3.2. Social aspects Community role

-Collective memory -Place identity -Social inclusion

-Lack of approval for reuse due to the building's neglected state -Non-recognition of the potential

Local governance

-Lack of interest and recognition by city institutions -Lack of investment due to the size of the complex

Accessibility

-Residential buildings surrounding the site

-Lack of cultural content in the area

2.3.3. Heritage aspects Historical context

-Long-term presence in urban tissue -Reflecting industrial processes from the past

Tangible and Intangible values

Tangible values -Specific architectural conception -Good preservation state -Possibility of being partly compatible with the original use -Existing infrastructure: water, electricity and telecommunications Intangible values -Positive memories from the past when the factory was still in function

Tangible values -Unattractive physical appearance for the residents due to the building's long-term derelict state -Lack of investment due to the size of the complex -Initial maintenance costs Intangible values


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Another negative factor was the neglected appearance and fear from possible infection caused by the lack of maintenance. On the other hand, the residents see the factory as a landmark of their neighbourhood and an inseparable part of their past. Positive memories - about the past when the factory was still fully functional were expressed mostly among older community members. Notably, this complex, even though neglected, still evokes the sense of community belonging and social interactions.

We also conducted interviews with visitors, because their points of view are important when discussing urban regeneration. Besides the old town of Mostar, which is under UNESCO’s protection, the city lacks other points of interests, especially cultural ones. One of the most appreciated things when visiting a place is the place identity and its uniqueness, which are both seriously compromised with the new inadequate construction found in the city centre today.

3.2. Results After evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of determining factors in the context of the Žitopromet factory, adaptive reuse might be proposed as an approach towards a possible solution.

An interdisciplinary approach including collaboration between experts from all fields related to the issue is crucial. Due to the aforementioned complexity, the necessary steps, from analytical research to regeneration activities, often require a certain amount of time. In order to successfully evaluate any industrial site, all environmental, economic and cultural factors should be considered [Ifko, 1999].

Temporary use, already seen in many examples, is a successful short-term solution until a permanent solution is found. It provides a building’s continuity, preserves its further deterioration and at the same time raises positive community feedback about a site’s regeneration, which may serve as a fruitful base for taking further actions. Finally, we can conclude that cultural use is still the one most lacking in Mostar, and also the one that has the most power to strengthen social interactions and networks.

4. CONCLUSION Based on this study, regarding the context of the Žitopromet company’s industrial site in Mostar, it is necessary to recognize and initiate the idea of regeneration. With social sustainability as one of the crucial factors in the process of adaptive reuse, it is necessary to obtain the trust of the community and stimulate social inclusion. In this initial phase it is also very important to include all the concerned stakeholders, each one for the specific area in the process, and highlight the need for their collaboration in all phases. In a socially sensitive and wounded place such as Mostar, a soft approach might be the best way to achieve this. One of the possible ways is to propose a temporary use of the site that would have an immediate effect on the community cohesion. Simultaneously, while temporary use increases social participation, an evaluation process towards the possible adaptive reuse should be conducted.

Social sustainability intangible factors: education of immediate users by introducing them to the benefits of adaptive reuse, strengthening the sense of belonging to society, participation, quality of life, safety, social and community cohesion, social interactions, sense of community and belonging, employment and active community organisations lead to tangible factors such as neighbourhood regeneration, accessibility, urbanity and consequently, they ensure continuity of the architectural structure itself. Thus, in order for an adaptive reuse to assure its continuity, social sustainability is an essential factor which provides energy savings on a long-term scale.


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Adaptive reuse, inseparable from social sustainability in terms of preserving continuity of the complex, as an approach to the regeneration of industrial sites can have a positive impact on both the micro-scale level and the wider urban area. The site of the Žitopromet factory which is currently derelict in architectural and spatial terms, and lacks community cohesion in social terms, could be changed positively.

REFERENCES AGC Bakula, Petar. 1970. Hercegovina prije 100 godina, Mostar: Matica Hrvatska Bosnia and Herzegovina, commission to Preserve National Monuments, accessed January 29, 2016. http://kons.gov.ba/main.php?id_struct=6&lang=1&action=view&id=3002 Couch, Chris and Fraser Charles. 2003. Introduction: the European Context and Theoretical Framework in Urban Regeneration in Europe, Oxford. Blackwell Science ltd Carson, John. 1993. Load Development and Structural Considerations in Silo Design, International symposium: Reliable Flow of Particulate Solids II. No. 96. Oslo 23-24: 237-254 Cho, Mihye, and Shin, Sunghee. 2014. “Conservation or economization? Industrial heritage conservation in Incheon, Korea” Habitat International, no. 41:69-76 Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2004. Adaptive Reuse: Preserving our past, building our future. Australia: Commonwealth Heritage Office, NSW Department of Planning and the Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA). 2008. New Uses for Heritage Places. New South Wales HRTB ARHITEKTER, Accessed January 15, 2016. http://www.hrtb.no/sio-silo/ Ifko, Sonja. 1999. Industrial Architectural Heritage – Scheme for a Methodology of Evaluation, Varstvo Spomenikov, No. 38: 137-151 Ifko, Sonja. 2014: Industrial Architectural Heritage – Re-evaluating research parameters for more authentic preservation approaches. Journal for Architectural and Town-planning Theory, Volume XLVIII, no 3-4, 137-155 Le Corbusier. 1931. Re-print 1986: Towards a new architecture. New York: Dover Publications, p 31 Michael Rotter. 1998. “Overview of metal silos” in Silos: Fundamentals of Theory, Behaviour and Design edited by C.J. Brown,J. Nielsen, 327-335. London: Taylor and Francis Nurković, Rahman. 2007. “Distribution of industry in Bosnia and Herzegovina” Journal of Geographical institute “Jovan Cvijic”, No. 57: 357-362 Ricardo Bofill, accessed January 15, 2016. http://www.ricardobofill.com/EN/570/La-fabrica/Today-html Rodwell, Dennis. 2007: Conservation and Sustainability in Historic Cities. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd Soda Lukavac, accessed January 29, 2016. http://www.sisecam.ba/ Stratton, Michael. 2000. Industrial Buildings: Conservation and Regeneration. London: E & FN Spoon TICCIH Bulletin, number 69, 3rd quarter, 2015, available at: www.ticcih.org The Burra Charter. 2013. The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance The Nizhny Charter for Industrial Heritage, The International Committee for the Conservation of Industrial Heritage(TICCIH), 2003 Wang, Jianguo, and Jiang, Nan.2007. „Conservation and adaptive-reuse of historical industrial building in China in the post-industrial era“Frontiers of Architecture and Civil Engineering in China, no. 1(4): 481-490 Watson, Mark. 2012. „Adaptive re-use and embodied energy“ in Industrial Heritage Re-tooled: The TICCIH guide to Industrial Heritage Conservation edited by James Douet, 136-141. Lancaster: Carnegie Publishing Ltd


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REVEALING THE MONTENEGRIN KATUN AS A PLACE OF REUSABLE COGNITIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Edin Jašarović1 Management in Culture, Faculty of Drama Arts - Cetinje, University of Montenegro, ZmajJovina, 265, Podgorica, Montenegro, [email protected]

Ema Alihodžić Jašarović Urban sociology, Faculty of Architecture, University of Montenegro, ZmajJovina 265, Podgorica, Montenegro, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Thinking about Places and Technologies in Switzerland for example, it is undoubtedly hard to think about anything different than the cow Milka standing on the hilltops of mountain. This idyllic place and technology used will certainly guaranty you the best taste of chocolate in the whole purple world. But, on the other side of this story, it is also interesting to think about the same place in Montenegro, with some rather different technologies. Namely, this place is called Montenegrin Katun. Katun is a hillside settlement in Montenegrin mountain area, which serves a place to keep heard of cattle, goats and other domestic animals away from summer drought. But nevertheless this place is also a natural treasury for production and distribution of goods, highly important to sustain the economy of many Montenegrin cities. This self-sustainable and very fragile microeconomic ecosystem consisted of small scattered houses with supporting storage and production department gives a very privileged position to understand the importance of reusable natural sources. Using very old, but sophisticated cognitive technologies Montenegrin Katun is one of the few remaining examples of zero waste production cycles that uses a renewable potentials of nature. By this, it becomes the most ecology sapient and best architectural model of bioclimatism and seasonal settlement in Montenegro. This small but rather great economy model gives empirical and theoretical evidence that even secluded urban constellations can serve as a good example of vernacularization processes and adaptive reuse. So the main idea of this paper is to examine their geographical disposition and their socio-economy chain of production so we can better understand cognitive processes and technology of this environment. By doing so, we will reveal the secret formula of this historically attested technology as well as to find a new mechanism to create sustainable places to live.

Keywords: production cycles, ecosystem, resource management, Montenegro

INTRODUCTION According to the recent research (2013) conducted in Montenegro there is roughly about 2000 active households which can be widely considered as Katun settlements. Katuns by definitions are temporary small village mountain agglomerations (or a collection of huts, cottages or



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apartments) where the herders remain with their cattle during the summer drought, usually up to 4-5 months, from the end of May or beginning of June until October.

Categorization or roughly classification of katuns will be heavily dependent in relation to a specific hillside region of Montenegro. But the most recognizable katuns are in Durmitor wider mountain area, katuns in the region of Piva Lake and probably the ones in the village cluster known as Kuch. Beside this it is also worth mentioning the katuns in the region of Plavsko Lake, katuns on the hillside of Bjelasica or Kom mountain area as well as in many other places. However, these settlements could be found wherever historically katuns were the only way of surviving and maintaining the traditional agricultural holding in Montenegro. Knowing that the possibility of relocation of livestock on the mountain is question of survival in this region, katun hillside settlement is not only specific for Montenegro. So it is rightly to note that they are also typical for entire Balkan Peninsula, especially in the rural mountain parts of Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia and Slovenia with some rather different character and use dependent of terrain configuration.

However, Montenegrin katun it is one of the most distinctive culture of life on summer pastures and one of the most iconic artefacts of the Montenegrin social history. Beside other cultural, architectural and natural value katuns are one of the cornerstones of overall Montenegrin identity as well as the place of very distinctive cognitive technology, still in use.

So for the purpose of this discussion, it is interesting to point the fact, that katuns survived very turbulent national past, remaining permanently resistant even to the transitional post-war era in recent Montenegrin history. So the real question is how they even survive to bear witness to the past and how is it possible that they didn't change at all?

The answer to these questions is probably hidden in their very original architectural design, geographical location as well as very sophisticated but rather outdated manufacturing tools for survival. Explaining more deeply how these urban phenomena of intact natural and cultural landscapes remain preserved until now, the answer probably lies in fact, that there wasn’t any kind of urbanization processor investment capital in their immediate surroundings.

So even if, the contemporary research about katuns in the region is very rare and not recognizing their distinctive historical significance in shaping the modern cities (B. Juvanec, 2004),it is very important to develop a special scientific interest toward their very persuasive functionality, reliability and sustainability (Rudofsky, 1965).

Montenegrin Katun as a cognitive tool for surviving Analyzing katun’s inner functionality model and maybe revealing that they are still very usable socio-economic chain of production we would confirm the expectations that we are dealing with one of the most exceptional and extremely sophisticated ecosystem still remaining in our nearby environment (Lazarević, 2015). However, we can also discover that this self-sustaining production ecosystem is quite different from the contemporary man-made models, mostly because it is absolutely naturally tailored. Since, their overall construction is oriented, not to be dependent on any kind of artificial influences (Chabbouh – Akšamija, 2015), but naturally originated and renewable sources, it is easy to understand some of the basic principles that shape katuns internal logic and design.

So, even if we think that this type of knowledge it outdated and somehow abandoned is very important to note that it still has its archetypical significance and quality (D. Vuksanović, 2011). So, alongside with this phenomenological consideration, the real questions are how to transfer this knowledge and how to put it into the right direction so we can learn something out of it?

To do so, we should really describe some of the basic contours of this high ground settlement. That means that we could start by describing its physical structures, of which one, typical Montenegrin Katun is consisted.


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So, apart from much centralized house area usually close to the nearest hilltop side to be protected from the wind, there are main production department, supporting storage houses, and stables with a fenced area for cattle. This very simplified disposition of living and production department allows very direct interdependency relationship between main daily working protocols. Working in the early hours and using the house just to have a night sleepover, minimize the need for any kind of electric power source, whatsoever. So, in the main cottage house there is a small living area where is usually the fireplace, associated features such as kitchen table and dining area, with noting much to add more, beside staircase leading to the small bedroom on the upper floor. This basic type of the katun house is usually constructed with a very steep roof (from the top to the ground) due to frequent snow drifts on these altitudes.

Other structures near this main living area are the production houses or units serving mostly for preparation and processing the food. This manufacturing area inside is filled with containers for pouring the milk and very rustic tools to curdle the cheese. The ceiling of the production house and its wooden construction is usually used for hanging and draining the meat. Nearby the production house there is usually stable serving for keeping and collecting the animals. Fenced area attached gives the opportunity to gather or to differ the various types of cattle such as: cows, goats, poultry or horses and to keep them in line and order. Supporting storage department are typically scattered around, depending on the product contents which are intended for the market.

Figure 1: Durmitor’skatun Figure 2: katuns in the village cluster of Kuch (blog.b92.net) (www.mountain-guide.me)

Alongside with above-mentioned material infrastructure disposition, it is important to reveal that katun environment also requires a special kind of social stamina and mentality because the people living at these altitudes are constantly conditioned to stay clear, stable and focused on daily routines and protocols. By doing so, the people in this environment are developing very intuitive but predictive patterns of behavior which allows them to easily read their natural surroundings. Together with these soft cognitive skills, it is interesting to point out that the katuns are also treasury of narratives derived mostly from unexplained nature interpretations, storytelling near fireplace and vivid world of unreal creatures. These narratives are usually interpreted in the past perfect tense so they could facilitate social cohesion among farmers but not to disturb daily protocols.

On the other side of this, rather semantic understanding of katuns it is also important to mention very hard daily farming. Farming jobs are basically consisted of continual materializing process, in the course of which, natural sources of various kind are transforming into their final products.

And this is the crucial moment in which cognitive technology of Montenegrin katuns really comes of great importance. Then the whole universe of cognitive skills, transferred knowledge and proficiency take place. In this moment the whole range of different cognitive technologies come to live, during which: villagers force cattle to pasture, when the animals are milked, when the meat, cheese and honey being transformed into the nutritive goods, when the logging and


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layering the nearby meadows and grassland is being collectively done, when feeding the animals, cultivation of various crops and collecting honey starts, and when the maintenance jobs around the farm are continuously repeated.

At this point some of the most prominent products of katuns are also being produced such as: katun’s milk cream, goat and cow’s cheese and milk, steamed, smoked and dried meat, katun’s honey, katun’s scented teas as well as whole range of katun’s gastronomy specialties. In this moment all traditional gastro recipes comes to life. Taking precise measurement and traditional skills set, a variety of different product are made and prepared for the nearby markets.

Analyzing separately these different production cycles, it is a half way towards understanding a cognitive standard of this specific place. Establishing many different ways of storing and then distribution of these pure naturally nutritive goods the cognitive technology of this place delivers very prized standards of market values.

After all been said, it is interesting to put some of these findings into urban theory perspective. So, bearing in mind that this cognitive technology and place, all together, offer a highly intuitive understanding of its surrounding, there is a plenty things to learn and to copy-paste into our, so to speak technology advanced times and modern urban surrounding.

Transferability of research findings and different theoretical approaches Recognizing the tendency that contemporary city environment becomes more and more complex everyday (M. Batty, 2008) it is interesting to note that “hard infrastructure” of the cities also grows accordingly. So, for the purpose of this discussion it would be useful to confront the challenges of the modern city growth with some fundamental knowledge and theory of vernacular architecture. So, as prof. B. Juvanec (2004) suggest: “Vernacular architecture is implementation of theory in practice in the simplest possible way”. So he continues with the statement that: “The most complicated solutions have their roots in simplification”. In his opinion: “The essence is harmony, active balancing of procedures, work, structure and composition itself, both in space as well as time”.

On the other hand, similar suggestion and thoughts about vernacular simplicity principle we could find in Said Mazous (1999) words, claiming that: “The Street stands as of the crucial issues in urban design. The quality of the urban ambience depends greatly on the way in which the streets are conceived”. So, Mazous conclude that: “The most of the projects are aware of the above-mentioned issues, and trying to draw on vernacular experiences in the field, tend to undertake the simplistic approach, consisting, most of the time, of minimizing the street width and copying mass organization patterns”.

Second very fruitful theoretical approach towards other transferable knowledge out of vernacular architecture could be viewed through its production and management cycles. Therefore, for the benefit of this debate it is interesting to point out Bilge Ozel (et. al, 2014) research findings, suggesting that: “With integrated agriculture systems, collectiveness, and their close relation with nature, vernacular settlements demonstrate numerous self-sufficient amenities. Vernacular settlements are characterized by “built to meet needs” philosophy as an instinctive response to the basic requirements of the people’s survival. Vernacular communities have the necessity to live with limited resources; therefore they have the awareness that they should achieve to meet all their basic needs such as production of food and shelter by using minimum energies”.

Alongside with this, Ozel, also conclude that: “In the terms of urban design and building cultures vernacular settlements establish an adaptable architecture to the different dimensions of production activities. With the land use strategies, the cleverness of integration to the place, the smart way of utilizing natural renewable energy resources and the reduction of pollution and costs of transportation, vernacular communities, with their way of living, become important cases to analyze for a better understanding and valorization of their self-sustaining principles”.


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After all this being said, it is obvious that the cognitive heritage of vernacular settlements could provide us with some very sophisticated strategies of natural self-sustainability. Bearing in mind that all of these different findings and theoretical approaches have to be applied to contemporary urban condition in next chapter we will discuss some useful cognitive principles of Montenegrin katun environment.

Commodification of three principles By revealing the Montenegrin katun it is important to note that this environment can point out where are the hidden treasures of knowledge. And not any kind of treasure, but rather the treasure of knowledge which can be used as a toolkit to adaptive reuse in everyday urban city living. By telling so, there is at least three basic and very fundamental principles about Montenegrin katun environment that need to be scientifically proven and then practically reused in everyday urban surroundings.

The first principle of this environment is the Simplicity. Simplicity is secured by the very protocol of this environment and expectation of which many have repetitive and cyclic character. So, as far as katun “hard” infrastructure stay close together, that far, the simplicity principle of this environment make more effect on daily working protocols, communication and transportation of goods within this urban constellation. By simplifying working protocols and routines katun ecosystem stays very stable during seasonal changes, so there are no sudden reactions to the unexpected, accidental or new protocols. In this way “proximity” and “accessibility” factor of the katun environment could make significant changes in it the way we understand the complex city protocols.

The second principle of katun environment is the Tolerance. Tolerance principle enable high a level of understanding, mental stability and awareness of katun environment. Mental stability as tolerance factor enables outdoor resistance to its very harsh surroundings. So, tolerance principle can also be recognized in relation with bioclimatism and biodiversity of this place. Constant change of climate condition and related diversity of flora and fauna notably change the tolerance register of the people living at these altitudes. So transferring this principle into city urban reality could mean better resistance and awareness of sometimes very rough urban irritation and influences.

The third, but very cohesive principle of this environment is the Technology. And not just any kind of technology, but rather cognitive technology, since it is used for survival and maintaining its production cycle operational. Considering that the management of natural resources from the around areas and pastures is mainly oriented towards transforming natural goods into the nutritive final products, this type of farming can be easily seen as a most reliable zero waste management protocol and production cycle. Using this principle could give as the answer how to make food production cycle more efficient in everyday city consumption.

By joining those three principles in one holistic methodology gives us a clear insight about the amount of knowledge which could be transferred and adapted into the real and modern city environment. Digging deeply into the urban, social or economy archaeology of this surrounding we would reveal very useful types of knowledge which can be used in contemporary city environments.

CONCLUSIONS Even if, relating the contemporary city urban experience with the romanticized and idealized katun surrounding could led us toward wrong direction, on the other side, this method could also point out even greater distance between these two urban agglomerations. Seeking for potential crossing lines into the already “spent knowledge direction”, maybe we can contribute to some other attributes or principles that make these two urban phenomena in relation. However,


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regardless of research intention and the different pathways of investigation, it is also interesting to mention that other authors and researcher find similar overall conclusions. So, taking into account all these three fundamental principle and applying them into the context of real contemporary city environment and situation, we could make next conclusions that;

• simplifying our transportation and communication infrastructures, daily protocol and routines we could accomplish more functionality in our everyday city urban live situations,

• Raising our tolerance index could increase our ability to change reaction towards different types of urban irritation or outdoor urban stimulations,

• By adapting and developing more reliable zero waste production protocols in cities could led us to rethink our cognitive technologies of production,

Even if those three principles is not easy to translate nor to even precisely adapt into our everyday urban city routines, all of these principles could change our experience or at least the way we think about green approach in our urban environment.

But the truth to be told, in some parts of our urban lives these changes of experience are already happening, especially if we think of our healthy food consumption. Other principles such as tolerance could be applied more effectively if we think: what are the real reasons of our everyday urban anxiety and turbulences? On the other side, our contemporary model of production mostly relies on cognitive technologies still materializing heavy industry resources.

So, the greatest possible result out of these researches could be pronounced in the field of intuitive cognitive technology. Intuition as a natural cognitive technology will not necessary denounce or logically based urban environment and mind-set but rather to restore the notion that once was dominant. Considering the fact that the 95% of the entire urbanism in the world could be considered as vernacular, and that the remaining of 5% could be considered as actual architectural design (Oliver, 1987) this bring us to a question how much of it was really build in relation with intuitive cognitive technology.

So the main reason to research Montenegrin katuns and its production metabolism today, is it to probably understand their historical and cognitive significance in relation to the modern needs of the cities.

Then the main benefit out of this intuitive cognitive technology and methods could be viewed as possible restoration point where we can recreate and reuse some of our previous knowledge. In that manner, uniqueness and durability of Montenegrin katuns will draw significant parallels with some of the contemporary problems of the modern cities such as: contamination, pollution, overpopulation, investor urbanism, uncontrolled sprawl, bad waste management etc.

In this way, naturally develop intuition alongside with restored cognitive technology could led us to new urban design and protocols using ancient and hidden knowledge of the Montenegrin countryside.

REFERENCES Juvanec, Borut. 2004. Vernacular architecture or the complexity of simplicity. Fakulteta za arhitekturo, Univerza v Ljubljani B. Ozel; L. Dipasquale; S. Mecca. 2014. Self-sustaining vernacular habitats: the case study of Medina of Chefchaouen. VerSus 2014: International Conference on Vernacular Heritage, Sustainability and Earthen Architecture UNIVERSITAT POLITÈCNICA DE VALÈNCIA Chabbouh - Akšamija, Lemja. 2015. Tradicija između autentičnosti I falsifikata. Arhitektonski fakultet: Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Sarajevo. Oliver, Paul. 2007. Dwellings: The Vernacular House Worldwide. Phaidon Press.


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Rudofsky, Bernard. 1965. Architecture without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture. University of New Mexico Press. Reprint edition (July 1, 1987) Google. 2016. “Valorizing the Montenegrin Katuns through sustainable development of agriculture and tourism – KATUN”. Accessed February 12, 2016. http:/www.katun.me Batty, Michael. 2008.Cities as Complex Systems - Scaling, Interactions, Networks, Dynamics and Urban Morphologies: Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London. Rosário, Macário (ed.) in Managing Urban Mobility Systems. 2011. Simplifying Complexity in Urban Mobility Systems”. (Default Book Series, Volume), pp.79 – 136. O'Dea, Shane.1983. Simplicity and Survival: Vernacular Response in Newfoundland Architecture. Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada. Said Mazouz. 1999. The Derivation and ReUse of Vernacular Urban Space Concepts. Architectural Science Review Volume 42. Number 1.


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INTERSECTIONS OF NOW AND THEN - IMPLEMENTATION OF ADAPTIVE REUSE AS CATALYST OF SPACE TRANSFORMATION

Anja Kostanjšak1 PhD student, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, [email protected]

Nikola Filipović Professor Emeritus, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb

ABSTRACT Nowadays it is commonly recognized that low carbon emissions is one of the main element contributing sustainable urban development and effectively dealing with climate changes that are becoming ever so common. As a form of sustainable urban regeneration, we place before you adaptive reuse of buildings as one of interesting and attractive ways to extends the building's life and avoid demolition waste. Through inspiring reuse of the embodied energy in now dilapidated buildings, we are providing significant social and economic benefits to the society.

This study revolves around city of Zagreb, a Central European city that is characterised by a regular block pattern that prevails through city venerable core. One of important facts regarding this core is its contrast of liveable buildings, and almost fairy-tale like dilapidated ones. These forgotten buildings are potential catalyst of space transformation, through conservation of built heritage.

While exploring the realm of public space we form cognitive in our minds cognitive maps, which at the end of the day form cognitive city / cities. Every day we collect different information and implement them in our existing cognitive maps. This intersections of now and then have a function of some kind of alarm clock. They awaken our mind toward being more aware of our surroundings.

Through graphic analyses and literature review of elements that contribute to the goal of sustainable development in the conservation of built heritage, we give you series of different scenarios that could contribute sustainability and be testimony of resilience of place.

Keywords: adaptive reuse, sustainability, space transformation, generator, low carbon

INTRODUCTION We could describe city as an organism, living and breathing one. If we take into consideration its patterns of growth, patterns of surrounding areas consumptions, during which some locations stay abandoned, dilapidated in existing city structure, we come across places of potential space transformation. This transformation could happen through means of adoptive reuse.



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Adoptive reuse addresses issues of conservation and heritage policies. Whilst old buildings become dilapidated and ultimately unsuitable for their programmatic requirements, as progresses in other fields (technology, politics, economics and so on) moves faster than the built environment, adoptive reuse comes as suitable option in reclamation of sites.

Subject of adoptive reuse commonly revolves around industrial buildings, because cities become gentrified2 and process of manufacture moves further from the city, which was scenario in Zagreb. Other buildings that become subject for adoptive reuse are political buildings such as palaces and community buildings, churches or schools.

This study revolves around Zagreb industrial heritage that during time become “forgotten”, left at the mercy of atmospheric conditions. Dilapidated buildings waiting for better tomorrow.

HISTORICAL REVIEW OF INDUSTRIALIZATION PERIODS IN ZAGREB Today in post-industrial period of industrialization in Zagreb and its suburbs, and wider zones outside of the city, industrial heritage that stayed neglected inside of the city presents numerous possibilities and visions of transformation. Researchers of industry in Zagreb define four main courses of industrialization periods in Zagreb. If we take in count now, we could talk about fifth course. Courses are divided as: 1st period of manufacturing (until 1862), 2nd as manufacture-industrial or railway period (around 1862 do 1918), 3rd as interwar and war period (from 1918 until 1945), and 4th post-war period or period of development of modern Zagreb's industry (from 1945 until 1990).3

Manufacturing period Work and activities of Zagreb guilds and craft workshops can be traced as early as 13th century, however, period of complete development of manufacture workshops is not traced before 19th century. Characteristic of this preindustrial period is in the concentration of production along waterways and riverfronts. The reason for this is the fact that the water was the main energy source (it powered the machines) and the main raw material for production. In the case of Zagreb, the largest number of manufactories was placed along stream Medveščak (which runs from the slopes of Medvednica and descends toward the Sava valley), stretching from Nova Ves to Harmica and around nearby streets.

Manufacture workshops area an important foundation for the rise of industrialisation in Zagreb, which occurred along with arrival of the railway (in 1862) and after the abolition of guilds (from 1864 to 1872)4

Manufacture-industrial or railway period Diversity of industrial activities in this period of industrialisation are made by varieties of industrial facilities that according to quantity and use of technologies are actually examples of the transition from craft or manufacture to industry. Old facilities retain their original locations, while new ones are placed peripheral to the logical position in relation to dissemination and expansion of the city. Since this is a transitional period of Zagreb industry, there was no need for the creation of industrial zones. These new facilities are placed along the railroad line, which gives Zagreb industry inhabited in expanding Lower Town block, particularly on the stretch from

2 Gentrification (noun) – the buying and renovation of houses and stores in deteriorated urban neighbourhoods by upper- or middle – income families or individuals, thus improving property values but often displacing low-income families and small business. 3 Feletar, 1990:177 4 Feletar, 1990:179


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Harmica to Maksimir street, and three new "zones" in direct contact with the rail, situated west, south and east of the Main train station (Črnomerec, Trnje, Peščenica and Heinzelova street).

Duality of name given to this particular period comes from importance which railroad had for industrial facilities and technologies used in them. Due to its high capacity for freight transport railway enabled faster flow (of supplying and shipping) of raw materials and finished goods, and replaced the old importance of waterways. Because of its speed and connection, the railway resulted in the easy product placement and larger circle of potential consumers. Looking over a longer period of time, the railroad had great, even dramatic changes in the social, demographic, economic and historical image on the city of Zagreb.

The first regulatory foundation made in 1887 also planed surfaces intended for manufacture industrial needs, measuring 180 hectares (with the reserved area of another 800 hectares). It is important to know that in response to the zoning document from 1892, the first planned location for industry was achieved for factory "Hinko Franck i sinovi d.d."5

Interwar and war period In the interwar period, Zagreb becomes one of the most important industrial centres of the newly established Yugoslavia. Its unexpected success Zagreb can thank to a series of favourable location factors. Because of this, number of workers in Zagreb increases in 1919 from 8000 to 20000 in 1940. The greatest progress was made until the global economic crisis in 1929, followed by a period of recession. The reemergence of Zagreb industry is perceived again only a few years before Second World War.

By studying the expansion of industry in the city we can see how this process is going quite disorganized, we could say even more disorganized than after the regulatory foundation from the 1887. Industry expansion is absolutely following the city and it remains interpolated in almost all parts of the city. Regulatory foundations that follow (from 1923 and 1936) did not significantly affect the more concentrated accommodation of industry. In 1923, it was proposed that the location of Resnik should be designated for the industry. However, it was at that time too peripherally in relation to the conditions of urban infrastructure and transportation, so the idea of moving the industry to a given location did not come to life.6

In this period, industry held all its old locations, and new ones from railway period, which tended to spread along the railway tracks.

Post-war period Zagreb industry in this period experienced its greatest growth in all development elements. Number of employees in the industry rose from 35 000 employees in 1948 to 112 000 in 1981 and 121 000 in 1988, which made Zagreb leading industrial center of Yugoslavia. In its activity of half-century, this period did not always have the same characteristics. Because of these differences it is divided into four sub periods: Administrative-centralist stage (from 1945 to 1953), stage of extensive investment development of industry in Zagreb (from 1954 to 1965), stage of tempered investment flight and import dependence of Zagreb industry (from 1966 to 1979) and last, the stage of development of the Zagreb industry in stabilization circumstances (from 1980 to 1990).7

One of the most significant changes in the post-war industry development have taken place in the form of the spatial distribution of industrial facilities and zones in the Zagreb area. Decentralisation of industry from the city core toward dislocated, remote circular zones is clearly

5 Feletar, 1990:181 6 Feletar, 1990:183 7 Feletar, 1990:184


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visible on the maps, and urban morphology, but never the less, this process is occurring rather slowly.8

Figure 1: Graphic illustration of industrialization periods in Zagreb (source: digital drawing by Anja Kostanjšak)

ADAPTIVE REUSE OF INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE Today we are hearing more often phrases such as ”Preserving our past, building our future”9. With each passing day people are becoming more aware of importance heritage has, and influence it had and is still having on us. Our built environment provides a vital link to our past.

Way to preserve our cultural heritage, our industrial heritage, is by giving those structures new use, making them once again important to society around them. With this we are at the same time thinking green, being aware on ecology impact new buildings are making. Through reuse of old building we are being low-carbon, we are going beyond just preserving heritage.

Figure 2: Graphic illustration of industrial heritage (source: digital drawing by Anja Kostanjšak) 8 Feletar, 1990:186 9 Australian Government, 2004:1


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Recycling has become our second nature, modern society’s second nature. Reducing, reusing and recycling waste we find new life in everything, from bottles to vehicles. Guided with this thought, why wouldn’t we reuse our dilapidated buildings, especially if they have cultural or some other value. It has been proven that the most successful way of adaptive reuse is when we respect and retain the building’s heritage significance and add contemporary layer that provides value to the future.

On the example of Zagreb, we come across industry heritage that was left inside the mere centre of the city. Old, now dilapidated buildings wait for their new use. All this locations are today valuable properties, left untouched by the city. These places are potential places of intersection and interaction of different scenarios. Scenarios that held visions from botanical gardens with children day care facilities, to small business districts.

SCENARIOS FOR ADAPTIVE REUSE There are two basic scenarios for industrial heritage. Both of these scenarios have their positive and negative variables in the form of transformation of the area surrounding them, and interpolating new uses in existing industrial heritage. These two scenarios shall be called Mono and Multi, depending on different amount of uses and potentially different or same ways of financing, which is important fundament as this is heritage. These ways have for result great impact on surrounding areas through different contents that are now lacking in near surrounding. With good integration, good connection between old and new there is huge possibilities in achieving benefit that would be mutual.

Figure 3: Graphic illustration of potential scenarios (source: digital drawing by Anja Kostanjšak)

Mono Scenario As the name tells, this scenario houses only one use. Looking through this prism, we must acknowledge that only public use can be beneficial to surrounding area. By implementing something, that has wide range of potential users. Financing of this scenario would mostly be from city and private funds, depending who the real owner of the site is. This location could be housed by a museum, or space for coworking. (example Oberhausen Gasometer)

Multi scenario On the other hand, this scenario gives wider range of possibilities. From residential use, to supermarkets, and private sectors, this variety makes quite easy benefits to surrounding area and vice versa. In this place, every person can become its user. Some people live in residential zone, other live nearby but shop for supplies on “mezzanine”. This is place of encounter. Financing of this heritage can be made from many sides, from residents, users, passers-by that come to shop. This scenario can even made new sociological situation. If planned well, this place starts living as city inside of a city. (example Gasometers Wien)


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CONCLUSIONS For the last few decades, industrial heritage started to increasingly receive attention, some from the public, as some from profession. Old industrial facilities and assemblies are once again recovered by their former importance and glory through introduction of new uses and purposes. With this reuse, we not only enrich dilapidated structures, but also we contribute to the overall area in their close proximity, by transformation and revitalization impact they have on surrounding areas. Through study of industrial architecture and its promotion in last decades, merit organizations and institutions, as well as very profession, are encouraged to review it, see it in a new light and detect its full potential.

Unfortunately, in Zagreb, industrial architecture and industrial heritage are not yet recognized to their full potential. Strolling through city of Zagreb, we come across industrial facilities and assemblies that still are not integrated in cultural heritage (example Bubara), or on the other hand buildings that have been listed, but left to the ravages of time, slowly dilapidating (example Paromlin). After having analysed the overall industrial heritage of Zagreb, we can observe its richness in architectural achievements, but regardless of the heritage quality of these structures, only some have seen the daylight of adoptive reuse. Two of them have been converted, reused and new life has been given upon them (Gliptoteka – former leather factory, and Lauba – former riding facility of Hungarian army), and third one Tvornica duhana (Tabaco factory) still waits for its reuse, and relocation of Historical Museum in its premises.

Having studied the new use in ex-factories in Zagreb, and scrutinizing the comparative examples, we can see that in addition to the preservation of the given structures, we contribute to the immediate surrounding where the renovated building or assemble is positioned. Not with direct, but with indirect effect, these spaces undergo various processes to which they are adapted to, and ultimately transforming in dependence of their new usage and purpose, new function inhabited in structure. In the process, the surrounding area “takes over” parts of qualities and potentials that new functions have brought with them.

For example, we can take the Gasometer in Vienna, which has become a centre of cultural and artistic events, and which houses one of the most wanted residential area in Vienna. Once edge of city, which is now flooded with urban fabric that continued to spread further, placing this structures inside of city morphology, is now transformed. This transformation did not stop only on structures but spread further in the neighbourhood. Studying this example, we can clearly see that the industrial conversion of this space and its surrounding has become a generator of transformation for wider surroundings, for further neighbourhoods, even on the city scale.

With reuse and new usage of the place, we make new cognitive maps. Our city is now perceived quite differently from our cognitive aspect. The information that we collect every day is now implemented in them, making it an intersections of now and then. They tend to become guideline in cognitive maps, occurring as nods, our beacons for orientation.

The European Union indicates, on product labels about the impact on the environment (EPD - Environmental Product Declaration), that it will be necessary to research the amount of consumption of primary energy (non-renewable) and global warming potential for building materials produced in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to obtain an adequate environmental analysis. Materials from the European Union which have the environmental declaration, and they are on the market of Bosnia and Herzegovina, must be re-analyzed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, because of the distance of the production plant and the potential enormous energy consumption for transport of them (materials).

REFERENCES Arčabić, Goran. 2008. „Zagrebačka industrijska baština u registru kulturnih dobara Republike Hrvatske: pregled, stanje, potencijali.“ Informatica museologica 38(1-2):22-29.


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Australian Government. 2004 Adaptive Reuse. Canberra: Pirion. Jukić, Tihomir. 1998. Strukturalne promjene rubnih dijelova grada: prilog proučavanju urbanističkog razvoja Zagreba. Zagreb: PhD Thesis. Feletar, Dragutin; Stiperski, Zoran. 1990. „Razvojne faze i procesi disperzije industrije Zagreba.“ Acta historico-oeconomica Iugoslaviae, vol. 17, no. 1: 175-198. Feletar, Dragutin. 1994. „Razvojna razdoblja industrijalizacije Zagreba.“ Geografski horizont, vol 40, no. 2: 98-105. Oswalt. Philipp; Overmeyer, Klaus; Misselwitz, Philipp. 2013. Urban Catalyst, The Power of Temporary Use. Berlin: DOM publishers. Paladino, Zrinka. 2012. „Zaštita zagrebačke industrijske baštine izradbom konzervatorskih elaborata Gradskoga zavoda za zaštitu spomenika kulture i prirode u Zagrebu.“ Godišnjak zaštite spomenika kulture Hrvatske, vol. 33/34, no. 33/34: 147-172. Premerl, Tomislav. 1983. „Industrijska arhitektura između dva svjetska rata?“ Čovjek i prostor, 8 (365). Šmit, Branka. 1980. Osnovna obilježja i planiranje prostornog razmještaja industrije na području grada Zagreba. Zagreb: Master’s Thesis.


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MULTIFAMILY HOUSING IN BELGRADE – ENERGY PERFORMANCE IMPROVING POTENTIAL AND ARCHITECTURAL CHALLENGES

Nataša Ćuković Ignjatović1 Assist. Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Dušan Ignjatović Assist. Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Bojana Stanković Teaching assistant, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Although Serbian residential building fund is dominated by single-family housing, multifamily housing is prevailing in central zones of major cities, as well as in numerous suburbs planned and constructed during socialist period. This phenomenon can be observed particularly well in Belgrade metropolitan area, where significant portions of entire municipalities are almost exclusively dedicated to multifamily housing. Majority of multifamily housing units was constructed during the 1960s and 1970s following the socialist doctrine and exploring modern(ist) approaches in architectural design and urban planning. These buildings are characterized by poor energy performance and it is estimated that today they account for 20% of total energy consumption in housing sector, and improving their energy performance thus presents a strategic issue of national importance. Overall architectural values of these buildings are quite diverse, ranging from basic utilitarian, nowadays obsolete, to some of the most significant assemblies of the time. On the other hand, the geometry, structure, materials and facade finishes vary a lot in this period, presenting a specific challenge for contemporary adaptations. Architectural interventions regarding energy upgrades therefore require complex, holistic approach, capable of transcending the purely technical modifications that often compromise the original architectural values or don’t recognize, let alone fulfil, the overall potential of such interventions. Being 40-50 years old, these structures have accumulated numerous unresolved questions while aging: poor physical and technical condition (leaking roofs, deteriorated facades, dysfunctional technical systems etc.) and, what is even more important, functional layouts that do not match contemporary housing needs and standards. The paper is exploring the capability of resolving these issues through various adaptation/refurbishment options, which combine energy efficiency, technical, functional and aesthetic aspects into cost-effective, sustainable proposals. The research is based upon the study “Belgrade IR Atlas: energy characteristics of Belgrade’s building envelopes”, further exploring the topics derived from initial study results.

Keywords: Multifamily housing, Energy optimisation, Building adaptation, Facades upgrades



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INTRODUCTION Belgrade’s building stock is comprised mostly of buildings that were built in the second half of 20th century, with more than 57% of buildings constructed from 1946 to 1980, with very poor energy performance. Energy optimisation of these buildings is a complex issue, involving architectural, technical, legislative and economic aspects. In 2011 and 2012, the extensive research on this issue was conducted at the Faculty of Architecture, resulting in a study “Belgrade IR Atlas: energy characteristics of Belgrade’s building envelopes”. In the meantime, a major research project of defining the National Typology of Residential Buildings in Serbia was completed (designed and executed by the team from the same institution), and new legal framework was established. Out of 32 buildings examined within “Belgrade IR Atlas”, 10 buildings were selected and energy improvement models were explored by adjusting the original methodology to the new Rulebook on Energy Efficiency of Buildings [Pravilnik o energetskoj efikasnosti zgrada] and by further developing strategies defined in National Typology in order to provide comprehensive material for stakeholders (on-going project “Conserving Energy” and work on author’s PhD thesis). The paper presents findings of two different buildings, showing the refurbishment options in relation to energy savings and expected payback.

BELGRADE BUILDING STOCK Area of the City of Belgrade comprises of 17 municipalities with quite different characteristics, ranging from flat to hilly terrain, highly urbanized and densely populated districts to almost rural outskirts with agricultural activities. This results in a typologically diverse building stock, with a large number of different manifestations.

Although we perceive Belgrade as a mostly urbanized entity, researches conducted at the Faculty of Architecture during 20112 showed that the highest share of residential buildings is, in fact in form of single-family houses (44.43%). Free standing multifamily residential buildings comprise 36.08% (including lamellas in the open city block structure), those within the traditional city blocks less than 15% and high-rise dwellings even less than 4.74% out of the total number of residential building units. These data give a quite different image and indicate a very heterogeneous structure of the building stock with a high percentage of the open city block in the urban layout. This research also gave insight into the age structure of residential buildings, as shown through percentages in Figure 1. It is apparent that most of the existing buildings were built in the post – war period (37.07% were built between 1946 and 1970, and another 20.02% in the following decade). Intensive building activity lasts throughout the 1970s, while its decay starts in the 1980s, and culminates during the politically and economically turbulent 1990s, when not only housing construction was degraded, but also the entire construction industry. With the rising need for appropriate housing units for large number of refugees and emigrants that settled in the Belgrade area, and no strategies and solutions for their situation, ad-hoc solutions in forms of illegal housing units became standard practice, with long lasting consequences on the urban image and housing quality. The beginning of 21st century brings a positive shift, although mostly in small-scale buildings. Only recently we witness some organized attempts of building large-scale residential complexes.

2 Results published in the form of internal report: Jovanovic Popovic, Milica, Ignjatovic, Dusan et al. 2011.


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Figure 1: Belgrade multifamily residential building stock by construction year (Ignjatovic Dusan and Cukovic Ignjatovic Natasa 2012)

Figure 2: Belgrade residential building stock by building type (Data from 2011 Internal report aligned with 2013 National Typology of Residential Buildings in Serbia)

The National Typology of Residential Buildings in Serbia (Jovanovic Popovic, Milica, Ignjatovic, Dusan et al. 2013) defines 6 building type classes. Types 1 and 2 refer to single-family houses (1- freestanding and 2- in a row), while types 3-6 refer to multifamily housing (3- freestanding, 4- lamella, 5- in a row, 6- high-rise). Distribution of building types in Belgrade region is presented in Figure 2, showing that more than 40% of building stock is allocated within open city block matrix (Types 3, 4 and 6), allowing easy access and offering variety of options for architectural interventions.

METHODOLOGY Various payback scenarios, together with the estimated investments were considered for each selected building.

As a first step, the elements of the thermal envelope that generate the most of the heat losses were identified; infrared imaging was used to analyse façades. Elements that may not be crucial for the overall building performance but that are related to significant discomfort in certain areas and/or are in poor condition, yielding repairs that are not related exclusively to energy efficiency were also considered. Their payback period calculated via energy savings is rather long, but for the dysfunctional and obsolete elements it may be immediate in practice.

Secondly, the improvement options were considered for each element, having in mind technical and architectural constraints, as well as current regulations. Heat losses were calculated


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according to the current Rulebook on Energy Efficiency of Buildings for each measure separately as well as for various packages in order to determine which interventions are relevant for each building. The separate savings deriving from single element improvements were calculated as simple payback with current prices.

Finally, various refurbishment packages (combinations of single-element improvements) were considered and the proposed package was calculated in detail, resulting in summary table showing estimated savings and payback period deriving from such intervention. Initial investment is calculated in total, but is also presented as investment per 1m2 of heated area and investment per flat. Pie chart showing potential energy savings is presented, as well as short and comprehensive description of measures and improvements taken into the calculation. The most interesting observations from the various package analysis and alternative refurbishment scenarios are described in the notes below the pie chart.

SAMPLE BUILDINGS The sample buildings are selected to show as much variety as possible, regarding architectural design, materials and practical options and refurbishment challenges. Building 01 is a typical post-war construction, built using traditional techniques, modest, simple and compact, while Building 02 is prefabricated concrete structure. Symbols from National Typology were used to illustrate the general characteristics of each building.

Building_01 Building_01 (Figure 3) is typical building from the immediate post-war period. Basic, cubic form and simple geometry form compact layout for small working-class flats. These buildings were constructed using traditional building techniques, with massive load-bearing bearing brick walls covered in mortar with no thermal insulation. Concrete slabs are visible as warmer (brighter colours) in IR image.

Figure 3: Building_01; conventional (top left) and infrared image (top right); National Typology type C4, characteristics shown below

The proposed measures included façade refurbishment with 8cm of thermal insulation and simple finishing, window replacement, 4cm of thermal insulation on the corridor walls and 8cm of thermal insulation on the ceiling floor slab. All proposed measures are designed to meet the minimum code compliance according to the current regulations, with resulting savings and payback period presented in the Table 1. Combined, these measures result in energy upgrade from class F to class D (more than mandatory upgrade for min. one EPC), and reduction of 42%


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compared to the existing condition. Since the façade walls refurbishment alone yields savings of 28% with only 3 years payback, it is reasonable to consider better insulation. Also, thicker insulation on the attic would not impact the overall energy performance of the building, but it would significantly improve thermal comfort in the apartments directly below. However, for higher EPC (classes C or B) more elaborated remodelling should be considered, preferably with the sunspace on South facades.

Table 1: Proposed measures and calculated savings and investments for Building_01

Building_02 Prefabricated concrete buildings were designed throughout the 1970’s and many apartment blocks like the one shown on Figure 4 were constructed even in the first half of the following decade. Although all the elements of the thermal envelope were designed as insulated, the thermal insulation is insufficient and joints between the concrete panels are displaying significant thermal losses than can be seen on the IR image.

Figure 4: Building_02; conventional (top left) and infrared image (top right); National Typology type F4, characteristics shown below


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Table 2: Proposed measures and calculated savings and investments for Building_02

The proposed measures included adding 4 or 6cm of thermal insulation on the exterior of the existing multi-layered façade walls, window replacement and flat roof rehabilitation with additional 10cm of thermal insulation. All proposed measures are designed to meet the minimum code compliance according to the current regulations, with resulting savings and payback period presented in the Table 2. Combined, these measures result in one class EPC upgrade (from class E to class D), which is minimum upgrade required by the Rulebook. However, opting for high-performance windows could be a very efficient strategy for this building. Replacing existing windows with the ones with U=0.1 W/m2K results with achieving D energy grade (under 105kWh/m2) without any other interventions on the building’s envelope. For achieving higher energy grades, it would be necessary to explore options for extensive remodelling, probably converting some sections of the assembly into sunspaces, thus providing both more efficient form and buffer zones towards heated areas. These buildings have atriums (Figure 5) that can be glazed, thus providing thermal buffer, covered space in the winter. To avoid overheating in summer, sections of glazing should be operable in order to provide sufficient airflow.

Figure 5: Buildings like Building_02 (shaded darker) in Block 70, New Belgrade, with 40 atriums that can be glazed (shaded blue) | Buildings disposition from geosrbija.com


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Buildings 01-10: an overview of potential savings Calculations like the ones presented in Table 1 and Table 2 were performed for 10 buildings that were selected to represent various layouts, construction techniques, designs and materials, typical for Belgrade and Serbian building stock in general. The overview of calculated savings is shown in Table 3. It can be noticed that all the buildings constructed in 20th century can be refurbished according to the Rulebook (min. one EPC grade improvement), with highest savings expected for buildings constructed before 1980s.

CONCLUSIONS Architectural diversity of, sometimes seemingly similar, multifamily buildings doesn’t allow use of universal, prescribed sets of measures. Depending on building’s layout and structure of thermal envelope, some measures that are extremely efficient and cost-effective for one building, could be completely unnecessary for another. In order to optimise the package of energy efficiency measures, all elements of thermal envelope should be taken into consideration and than filtered through a set of criteria. The detailed calculation executed for 10 different buildings has shown that significant reduction in energy demands for heating could be achieved through various sets of EE measures for all buildings constructed before mid-2000s. Exploring the options for energy rehabilitation of multifamily residential buildings while targeting higher EPC ratings (B or C) yields more elaborated architectural approach, preferably with passive solar features introduced and general redesign of a building.

REFERENCES Ignjatović, Dušan and Ćuković Ignjatović, Nataša. 2012. Termovizijski atlas Beograda (studija energetskih performansi omotača stambenih zgrada). Beograd: Uprava za Energetiku Grada Beograda i Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu Jovanovic Popovic, Milica, Ignjatovic, Dusan et al. 2011. Residential Buildings in Serbia - Preliminary Typology. Belgrade: University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture and GIZ (internal report) Jovanovic Popovic, Milica, Ignjatovic, Dusan et al. 2013. National Typology of Residential Buildings in Serbia. Belgrade: University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture and GIZ Ministarstvo životne sredine, rudarstva i prostornog planiranja Republike Srbije. 2011. Pravilnik o energetskoj efikasnosti zgrada. Beograd: Službeni glasnik RS br. 61/2011. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2014. Comparative Overview Of The Number Of Population In 1948, 1953, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2002 And 2011 - Data by settlements www.geosrbija.rs/rga/default.aspx?gui=1&lang=3 last accessed January 16th, 2016.

Table 3: Buildings 01-10: overview of basic data and calculated savings and expected costs

Construction year

EPC rating (existing)

EPC rating (refurbished)

Calculated savings (%)

Calculated costs (€/m2)

Building_01 1939 F D 49 50 Building_02 1951-1957 F D 42 41 Building_03 1958 F D 55 56 Building_04 1963 F D 52 60 Building_05 1972-1975 E C 47 55 Building_06 1980-1986 E D 29 44 Building_07 1980 F E 18 48 Building_08 1974-1984 F D 30 72 Building_09 1988-1994 E D 28 58 Building_10 2006 D D 5 35


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SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF THE SUBURBAN ZONES IN SELECTED ENTREPRENEURSHIPS NESTS OF THE TRICITY METROPOLITAN AREA

Grzegorz Peczek1 Sopot University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Architecture, Rzemieslnicza 5, 81-855 Sopot, [email protected]

Justyna Martyniuk-Peczek Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, G. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The paper describes the spatial structures and the forms of Polish suburban zones demonstrated on the example of two selected towns in the Tricity Metropolitan Area (TMA). The description of the spatial characteristics of urban sprawl, with focus on entrepreneurships nests, is illustrated by the choice of typological features, such as: the form, land use, density.

Suburbanization is described as global, however one can observe individual characteristics of the spatial structure of suburban areas, depending on the country and the region. As widely discussed, urban sprawl has a range of negative consequences.

There are several known approaches to urban sprawl description, based on the form, land use and density. There are also publications regarding its relation to its impact on the environment, to the social aspects and regional development. However, there are very few publications on the topic, which would address the countries that have undergone substantial political, economic and social transformations in the last 25 years.

Previous research carried out by the Authors shows, that the Polish dimension of suburbanization has a unique quality associated with the small and medium enterprises’ activity (SMEs). The paper takes into account the impact of this quality on the processes of suburbanization, with special focus on the urban form of suburban areas.

The choice of the towns and the places for the spatial structure analysis follow sprior identification of the entrepreneurships nests.

Conclusions refer to the qualitative studies conducted using a questionnaire distributed to the entrepreneurs in the selected areas.

This paper is written within the project UMO-2013/09/B/HS4/01175, financed by The National Science Centre in Poland.

Keywords: Poland, urban sprawl, suburbanization, entrepreneurship, Tricity Metropolitan Area.



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INTRODUCTION Suburbanization is a phenomenon presently well-known worldwide. One of the forms of this process’s development has been described as urban sprawl. It describes the spread of the urbanized areas that is caused by an uncontrolled, uncoordinated and unplanned growth. In Poland, this type of development of the suburbanization process is currently being observed. This issue has been quite broadly described in world literature and it constitutes an important element of the studies on city development [Gillham, 2002; Bruegmann, 2006; Clapson, Hutchison, 2010]. In this context, it seems, however, that the Polish version of suburbanization has a slightly different, unique character. It should be analyzed with reference to the genesis of the changes occurring in Easter-European countries, particularly in the post-communist countries [Stanilov, Sykora 2014].

Development after 1989 was also characterized by another phenomenon. Parallel to this process, dynamic development of the small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) sector was taking place in the economy. National enterprises collapsed and in their place new companies were created. As the Authors’ previous studies indicate, these phenomena were simultaneously occurring within the suburban areas.

The characteristic Polish efficiency, enthusiasm and energy existent at the turning point of the political transformation caused, inter alia, development of two phenomena inherent in neoliberal occurrences – suburbanization and appearance of small entrepreneurship of the SME sector. Correlation of these two phenomena resulted in emergence of an urban form of the Polish suburbs, recognizable for the Polish situation.

In the article, the Authors form a thesis, that the Polish suburban zone is characterized by a very fragmented structure and a high indicator of entrepreneurship in the SME sector. Additionally, a research question emerged, regarding the impact of the SME sector’s economic activity on the shaping of the spatial structure and on the development of the buildings in suburban areas. The Authors contemplate whether Poland exhibits a unique character of the urban sprawl, as opposed to the suburbanization phenomena commonly described.

Figure 1. A zoom on the Spatial structure of 1. The TMA 2. The core cities and its suburbs 3. The Chwaszczyno Municipality Source: the Authors


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THE GENESIS OF POLISH CREATIVITY IN THE SUBURBS – CORRELATION OF TWO PHENOMENA – I.E. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUBURBS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MICRO, SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISE SECTOR

The roots of Polish suburbanization In 1989, in Poland and in other countries of the so-called Eastern Block, a radical change of the political-economic system and a shift from a centrally planned economy towards democracy and a free-market economy took place. Following this, Polish cities also experienced radical changes associated with land development. Increased activity could be observed in the suburban areas of large cities, related to, inter alia, an increased migration of the residents changing their place of employment and residence. More on the subject of suburbanization in the post-communist countries has been written by e.g. Nuissl, Rink, 2007; Liskowski, Mantey, Wilk, 2014. The phenomena observed during the period of the 1990’s were broadly reported in Polish literature, referring to the impact of suburbanization on the shape of modern Polish cities [Lorens, 2005; Lisowski, Grochowski, 2009; Kajdanek, 2012]. The changes, in many cases, were quite rapid and not very well controlled.

During the summer of 1990, the newly elected local-government authorities,for the first time, took over the matters of land development. In the democratic system, lack of experience in spatial planning fructified, inter alia, interpretation of the land ownership law as a false sense of the freedom to dispose the land in any way. It resulted in quite strong fragmentation of spatial planning. Aversion to central planning from the previous regime, led to emphasis of a point-intervention planning, which took the form of local spatial-development plans and the decisions about the building conditions. Very often, specific interpretation of the freedom of spatial development let authorities to focus attention on meeting the requests and the demands of land owners. An exclusive, at the time of the communist regime,option of living in an own house with a garden, outside the city, suddenly became more accessible for a larger number of residents. This possibility quite fast took the form of the building permits massively granted in suburban areas [Grochowski, Lisowski, 2009; Kajdanek 2012]. This phenomenon was, unfortunately, also accompanied by a quite significant number of the so-called unpermitted buildings, that is, production of buildings without the permits required by law. As a rule, land in the suburbs was private property of private individuals, which favored allocation of single-family housing. As opposed to the suburbanization phenomenon known in other countries (e.g. USA, Great Britain), in Poland it was the individual building investments realized as single-family housing by private owners, which constituted vast majority of the urban sprawl phenomena. This occurrence also coincided with increasing problems associated with privatization of the city land and the real estate previously owned by the state. Because allocation of the investments related to entrepreneurship in the cities turned out to be, therefore, difficult, suburban areas, in this context, appeared to be very attractive in terms of setting up own business. The demand for housing was increasing, while simultaneously investments in multi-family housing in the cities decreased [Grochowski, Lisowski 2009]. Former state-owned construction companies ceased to exist, while newly emerging developer companies struggled with the problems of making it in the free-market economy, while still not being strong enough to cope with the challenges. These phenomena were additionally superimposed by the competition between local governments and those of the neighboring municipalities, which in order to attract residents and investors, strengthened the trend of successively committing suburban areas for construction-investment purposes.


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Figure 2. Lublin – structure of a large city – in the foreground: residential blocks from the 1980’s, in the background: new suburbs. Source: http://regiodom.pl/portal/wiadomosci/inwestycje/lublin-nowe-mieszkania-na-przedmiesciach

Figure 3. Chwaszczyno – a look into the suburbs

Source: the Authors

At the beginning of the 21st century, as the society became richer, the trend of seeking a better quality of life and growing consumption intensified. A way of life involving living outside the city and commuting daily using own means of transportation, which also functions as a determinant of the social status, became attractive. At the same time, the demographic decline intensified. In 2004, the trend of the outflow of residents from the cities into suburbs was the strongest.

The birth of the micro, small and medium enterprise sector As a result of the economic transformations, unemployment began to increase in Poland, which resulted in the society’s need to seek new forms and possibilities of employment. Naturally, rapid development of the SME sector resulted, later on stimulated by the funding from the European Union (after the accession of Poland to the EU in 2004).

Figure 4. Urban design in Poland before 1989 - The Northern Ursynow Plan, Source: ursynow.org.pl

Figure 5. Spatial planning in the municipality today. The local plan systems. Source: http://www.kosakowo.pl/strona/?q=zagospodarowanie_przestrzenne


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Previous studies carried out by the research team, including the Authors, have shown that Polish suburbs, continuing to develop over the past two decades, are areas of particularly intense economic activity. This fact significantly differentiates them from their foreign counterparts, inter alia, from the classic pattern of American suburban zone.

The small and medium enterprise sector constitutes an important development motor in the European free-market economy. In Poland, SMEs constitute about 99% of all enterprises, employing about 60% of the total working population and generating nearly 50% of the national GDP [Martyniuk, Martyniuk-Peczek, Peczek, 2016]. The entities within the SME sector in Poland create the economic basis for formation of the current middle class [Struzycki 2004; Lichniak 2011]. As such, a close relationship between development of the SME sector and spatial development on a local and regional scale can be observed.

Suburban areas of the Tricity Metropolitan Area2 seem to be a very good illustration of the phenomena occurring within the sphere of the relations between the economic activity of small and medium enterprises and the suburbanization processes3.

METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH CONDUCTED The studies in the project were divided into stages, which, step by step, explore the subject of the search for the development stimulants of entrepreneurship in the suburbs.

Part 1. Identification of the „suburban entrepreneurship nests” In order to examine the impact of entrepreneurship on the building structure of suburban areas, previous elaborations of this research team in the field of economic activity in selected municipalities of the Tricity agglomeration4 were used, where main entrepreneurship nests were identified. The nests were identified based on the studies of two indicators: the suburbanization rate and the index of the SME entities’ concentration. To determine the suburbanization ratio, migration analysis and the construction activity index were used, on the basis of statistical data. Intensity of economic activity was measured by the location quotient (LQ), which is a measure of the degree of concentration of a given characteristic in a given area (in % the characteristic in general) in relation to the degree of population concentration in a given area (in % of total

2 The Tricity Metrpolitan Area has been defined based on the elaborations done by the Pomerania Province management (studies on the Tricity metropolitan zone). It consists of the three central cities (Gdansk, Sopot, Gdynia) composing the so-called Tricity, five smaller cities (Rumia, Reda, Wejherowo, Tczew, PruszczGdanski) and eighteen neighboring municipalities. More information in [Auksztol, Matczak et al., 2011]. 3 The Tricity metropolitan area is the most important economic and social center of the Southern Baltic zone, while the Pomerania Province takes the second position in the ranking of Polish provinces, in terms of entrepreneurship. See: [Martyniuk, Martyniuk-Pęczek, Pęczek, 2015]. 4 Described in detail in: [Martyniuk, Martyniuk-Peczek, Peczek, 2015]

XIX/ XX w. 19891945 2012

25 years oldPlanned economy

Market economy

Figure 6. The scheme of the SME sector’s growth in Poland Source: the Authors


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population). In general, it is assumed that a location quotient higher than 1.25 indicates a reginal concentration of a given characteristic5.

Figure 7. Scheme illustration of the research choice of entrepreneurship nests, based on the image of the spatial structure of the TMA. Source: the Authors

For a detailed analysis of the spatial structure two cities were chosen from the identified entrepreneurship nests, for which, in previous studies, the highest rate of the location ratio was found – i.e. Chwaszczyno and Straszyn6. The suburbanization ratios for these two towns were within the 1st – 3rd place, while their indices of SME entities’ concentration were the highest among all the examined municipalities. The location ratios amounted respectively to 1.1398 for Chwaszczyno and 1.2418 for Straszyn, at the maximum value for the entire metropolitan area equal to 1.5925 (Sopot), the minimum value equal to 0.4832 (municipalities without the central cities) and the average value equal to 0.7854.

Part 2. – Urban study and analysis of the spatial structure of entrepreneurship nests For analysis of the spatial structure the Authors selected the methods of urban analysis. Analysis of the researched area was contained within the elaborations concerning the links between the zone and the surroundings, in particular, the links between the zone and the communication system (the current and the planned) described as a developmental factor. Next, urban morphology of the selected towns Straszyn and Chwaszczyno was investigated by examining the patterns of their component parts and the process of their development. The study involved analysis of the physical structures at different scales as well as analysis of the patterns of land use, which are contained in various planning documents (on a regional and local scale). This was followed by an analysis of the physical form, focused on the street pattern, the plot pattern and the building pattern. The studies were carried out based on cartographic sources and by comparison of various maps. The spatial structure of the selected towns was additionally illustrated using panning drawings and photographs of selected places.

Figure 8. Scheme illustration of the spatial studies and the analyses of selected entrepreneurship nests. Source: the Authors

5 More in: [Martyniuk, Martyniuk-Pęczek, Pęczek, 2015] 6See: [Martyniuk, Martyniuk-Pęczek, Pęczek, 2015]


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Part 3. – Qualitative studies – direct interviews with entrepreneurs The study covered 251 entrepreneurs who conduct business in selected municipalities within the region of the Tricity Metropolitan Area. The sample was prepared on the basis of a database of 3500 companies. Selection of the sample was intentionally–random in nature, at the trust level of 0.9; the maximum error of 0.05. The reserve enterprises, in case of an additional draw, constituted 10% of the sample. Segmentation of the enterprises in the sample was subject to stratification by municipalities, towns and the company sizes. The purpose of the CATI study was to determine the relations between the development of SMEs in the Tricity Metropolitan Area and the suburbanization processes occurring in the area covered by the study.

Figure 9. Illustration of the qualitative study schemein selected suburban municipalities within the Tricity Metropolitan Area region. Source: Authors

THE FINDINGS

Determining the “entrepreneurship nests" With respect to the above presented methodology, it should be underlined that part 1, which is an attempt at identification of entrepreneurship nests, was already specified in the earlier stages of the study. As a result, two towns were selected Chwaszczyno and Straszyn, which have the highest concentration of enterprises from the SME sector per the number of inhabitants. At this point, the Authors attempted to analyze the spatial structure of both selected towns.

Figure 10.Density of road infrastructure. CH – Chwaszczyno, ST – Straszyn. Source: KestutisZaleckis, the Authors


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The synthesis of the spatial analyses of Chwaszczyno and Straszyn The results of the study can be divided into two groups: those referring to external conditions, including those related to the spatial policy, and those referring to the internal structure and to the form of spatial development.

The transportation network As a result of the analysis of external conditions, the Authors noticed, that in the current situation, both towns are not located on the main intersection of the transport corridors identified by the Pomeranian Regional Planning Office (transport availability PROW 2014-2020 – a Rural Development Program for the years 2014-2020). Both towns, however, are in close proximity (about 30-minute car drive) of the central cities, while Straszyn is adjacent to the current Tricity beltway, which is the main transport axis, and Chwaszczyno is located the intersection of provincial roads, but is not connected to the beltway. Additionally, the situation of both towns will, in near future, change (Figure 12), due to a planned development of the transportation infrastructure. The so-called Kashubian route will run through Chwaszczyno, which is the main connection with the North-Western part of Poland, including Szczecin, and further Berlin in Germany. Whereas, a junction of the new Tricity beltway, along with the main outlet in the direction of Warsaw, will be located near Straszyn. Main routes as well as the planned road junctions run through both towns. However, as evidenced by the qualitative studies presented below – company owners are not very familiar with the future planning situation, nor with the development of the transportation system. It is thus difficult, at this stage, to state that infrastructure was of key importance. Perhaps, in future, at the Chwaszczyno junction on the international section of the Kashubian route the tendency for formation of an entrepreneurship nest will become stronger.

Figure 11. Transportation availability PROW 2014-2020 - Rural Development Program for the years 2014-2020 Source: http://pbpr.pomorskie.eu/pzpwp2030 accessed: 08.01.2016.

Figure 12. Planned development of the transportation infrastructure Source: the Authors


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The spatial policy Analysis of the spatial policy contained in the planning documents, at a local level, revealed discrepancies between the intentions of municipal authorities and of the designers outlining the development plans for those areas, and the actual state of their development. In the Kosakowo municipality, which Straszyn belongs to, authorities assumed that Kosakowo will be an entrepreneurship nest and the service-functional center. The Authors’ studies, however, prove that Straszyn is the entrepreneurship nest. Here, the municipal policy diverges from reality. The study records are flexible and therefore they allowed such development of the situation, which was dictated by a grassroots activity of the inhabitants / investors.

Although in both municipalities, these towns exhibit a full range of functions, from industrial, through housing and service, to recreational, documents did not reveal any potential resulting from the SME sector’ business activity. Fortunately, the guidelines included in the study, at this level, constitute the directions for development, and not the local law. The right to develop a building site is obtained on the basis of another document, i.e. the local spatial development plan, or through a decision about the building conditions. It is in these more detailed documents, where the construction parameters and the indicators are contained. Therefore, in order to identify the spatial structures, the need for a deeper analysis of the towns themselves and their morphology emerged.

Figure 13. A dimensioned drawing resultant from theStudy on the Conditions and the Directions of Spatial Planning (SCDSP) for Chwaszczyno Source: own elaboration based on the SCDSP of the Zukowo municipality

Figure 14. A dimensioned drawing resultant from the Study on the Conditions and the Directions of Spatial Planning (SCDSP) for Staszyno Source: own elaboration based on the SCDSP of the Kosakowo municipality

Analysis of the urban morphology of Chwaszczyno and Straszyn In order to analyze the structure and to identify the characteristics of the spatial traits in selected entrepreneurship nests (Chwaszczyno and Straszyn), a series of analyses was carried out, which have been synthetically described in table 1.


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Table 1: Characterization of the spatial traits in selected entrepreneurship nests7

The developmental

factor

Occurrence of individual elements Chwaszczyno Straszyn

Transportation infrastructure

Road transport infrastructure

National road - accelerated motion - √ National road √ √

Provincial road √ √ Regional road √ √

Local road √ √ Regional communication hub √ √

other - - Public

transportation infrastructure

Public transportation hub - - Commute time to the city

– using public transportation 20 mins.

30-45 mins.

other - - Key planned

elements of the transport system

in the Gdansk metropolis

Supra-local road network √ √ Public transportation - -

Other infrastructure - -

Availability of the markets

Dominant spatial

functions

Residential functions- single-family √ √ Residential functions–multi-family √ √

Local services √ √ Large-area trading - -

Production and craft companies √ √ Other √ √

Social infrastructure

Kindergartens √ √ Primary schools √ √

Secondary schools √ √ High school - -

Cultural objects, including tourist attractions

√ √

Local sports objects - √ Health centers - -

other - - Forms of urban

tissue Compact structure - -

Loose structure √ √

Two development factors have been specified, which have impact on the studied phenomenon of entrepreneurship development in suburban areas: the factor related to transportation infrastructure as well as availability of the markets.

Interesting seems to be the fact that dynamic development of entrepreneurship in selected towns is not interrupted by the lack of a developed public transportation system. Having access to the network of public roads is sufficient for a dynamic development of entrepreneurship, in terms of the infrastructure factor. It is worth noting that both towns are located near important road communication hubs, where one of them is located near a national road (Straszyn), which probably also positively influences development of entrepreneurship. Both towns are also located within the area of planned road infrastructure investments. It is worth noting that building a public transportation infrastructure near both towns is not planned. 7As per: [Martyniuk, Martyniuk-Peczek, Peczek, 2015]


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As for the factor of market availability, both towns have identical spatial characteristics and social infrastructure. Also both are characterized by a similar form of the urban tissue (diffused). There is no public space, the buildings are localized chaotically and without a structure plan. It can be said that it reflects the aspirations and the needs of the people – investors, and not a designed spatial system. The question regarding the stimulants of entrepreneurship development in the suburbs is the more bothersome.

Figure 15. The structure of the buildings in Chwaszczyno. The entities included in the survey are marker in red. Source: the Authors

Figure 16. The structure of the buildings in Straszyn. The entities included in the survey are marker in red. Source: the Authors

Successively, a series of analyses of a physical form was carried out, which focused on the street pattern, the plot pattern and the building pattern in all selected areas. The companies which, selected randomly, participated in the qualitative study, were located on these sites. The purpose of these analyses was to find the spatial rules prevailing around those objects. It turned out, however, that the group of examined objects included both small, almost temporary commercial buildings – pavilions, garages, and residential houses with commercial premises, rarely of big volume. Images of both towns present a general spatial chaos, which can be called a diffusion and a lack of spatial cohesion. The landscape of both towns is characterized by contrasting buildings and the visual advertising clutter. Fragments of the analysis of Chwaszczyno and Straszyn are presented below.

Figure 17.The structure and the building forms – Chwaszczyno. Source: the Authors

Figure 18.The structure and the building forms – Straszyn. Source: the Authors


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Direct interviews with the entrepreneurs One of most interesting tools used in the study was the qualitative study – interviews with the entrepreneurs. The purpose of these investigations was to obtain an answer regarding individual preferences in terms of business allocation in the suburbs. Among the 251 entrepreneurs from the SME sector (form the suburban areas of the entire TMA), the largest share have the enterprises from the PBC (Polish Business Classification), divided into types:

- wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, including motorcycles – 26.3 % - industrial processing – 18.3 % - construction – 11.2 % - education – 9.2 % - professional activity, scientific and technological – 7.2 % - transportation and warehouse business – 6.4 %

This percentage share is essentially in line with the Polish picture of the SME sector. Only the construction sector is twice higher than the average in Poland. This surplus is compensated by a bit smaller share of services, compared to the average in Poland.

Among the results from the survey that was carried out among the companies conducting business in the investigated towns, such facts come to particular attention as:

‐ registration of the company’s activity at the owner’s place of residency or his/her registration of residence (44.6% of the surveyed)

‐ running the business at the place of its establishment (over 70%) ‐ moving the business from the city to the suburbs (32 companies moved from Gdansk, 17 from

Gdynia, 3 from Szemud and Pruszcz Gdanski)

These results, on one hand, show preferences for allocating the business near home. Answers for the next question confirm this statement, because as many as 42.3% of the surveyed recognized connection to the place of residence as a determinant of business allocation, while 30.4% recognized proximity to the place of residence of the company’s owner. Only 1/3 of the persons indicated proximity of the tricity metropolis as a location determinant.

On the other hand, puzzling is the question whether was it not living at a considerable distance from the city that somehow enforced creativity and the need to open a business in the suburbs. This thesis can be supported by the answer to subsequent questions, where the surveyed considered mainly the issue of access to the transportation system as important. Among the troublesome deficiencies in the immediate vicinity of the companies, the surveyed indicated:

‐ lack of paved roads and sidewalks (28.3%) ‐ lack of parking and road lighting (18.7%) ‐ lack of access to public transportation (12%) ‐ lack of access to the Internet (11.2%)

Surprising is the result showing that the price of land in the suburban areas did not have a major impact on the decision about allocation of the company. Only 8% of the surveyed indicated attractive price of real estate as an important factor influencing allocation.

When it comes to financial considerations, it turns out that, for most of the surveyed, property tax is not a significant cost in company’s activity (62.9%),

The above results correspond with the answers regarding the elements necessary for modification in the immediate area. Most of the surveyed (75.3%) indicated, however, that there was no need for modification, only 39.5% indicated the need for development of road infrastructure, while as little as 3.2% indicated the need for building a bus stop.


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Interestingly, 31.3% of the researched expressed a will to participate in the activities contributingto improvement of the look and functionality of the area,in the form of donations in-kind. As much as 61% of the surveyed were not interested in any participation in such activities.

Entrepreneurs were also asked about their knowledge of the documents referring to the spatial planning in the municipality8 , in relation to the areas in which they operate their business. Only 55% of the surveyed are familiar with the records of the local spatial development plan, while this awareness increases with the size of an enterprise.

Only 34.4% of the surveyed were familiar with the records that were included in the study of the conditions and the directions of spatial planning in a municipality.

Only 16.8% of all the surveyed entrepreneurs declared that the solutions in the planning documents do not foster development of their companies; while this percentage increased among smaller companies.

As much as 76.5% of entrepreneurs do not participate in the process of spatial planning of their surroundings, despite such possibility which they are granted by the law.

The surveyed entrepreneurs have no intention to change the location of their companies in the near future, and they consider the location of their business as good or very good. They also rate administration as good. Opinions on the support from the local authorities provided for entrepreneurs are divided, yet a large group of business owners rate help provided by administration rather well.

CONCLUSIONS The Spatial structure of the Polish suburbs is very diverse. What distinguishes it, on the functional level, is an extraordinary accumulation of the companies from the SME sector. In some towns, such as Chwaszczyno and Straszyn, it is much higher than in the central cities. Therefore, a question emerges about the stimuli causing such situation.

Spatial analysis of the selected towns proved that spatial planning sometimes cannot predict the real nodes of SMEs’ allocation. Based on the knowledge and experience, it can be assumed that other locations have bigger potential to become entrepreneurship nests, e.g. considering such development factors as transportation infrastructure, or access to the markets. Documentation at ta regional or local level in a municipality sometimes differs from reality and does not recognize the potential of a given place.

The spatial form of the investigated towns is chaotic and inconsistent. Lack of spatial order is clearly visible in it. Scattered buildings have been constructed in different configurations and there is no explicit urban rule. Therefore, it is puzzling why these particular towns are becoming entrepreneurship nests. The answer to this question can be found only in the answers from the direct interviews with entrepreneurs. Based on those surveys, it is clear that, generally, there is lack of knowledge on the subject of the future planning carried out at a municipal level and higher. As such, it could not have been a development stimulant. Secondly, the price of land was not an important factor. What distinguished all the answers was the proximity of residence and work. At this stage of the study, it can be concluded that the key element is the convenience associated with working near/at home.

The Authors of the article also wanted to attempt description of their own model of investigating the urban sprawl. Different approaches to description of the urban sprawl are known: by the form (Ewing 1994, Pendall 1999), based on land use (Downs 1999), based on its impact (Ewing 1994, Johnson 2001), and on density (Longley et al. 2002). What characterizes our approach, is

8The study on the conditins and the directions of the spatial planning in a municipality and the local spatial development plan.


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permeation of economics and urbanism. Delving into other layers of the research subject allows us to explore new fields and to deduce interesting conclusions. The prospect of further studies was expressed as an attempt to search for the stimulants of entrepreneurship development. We will base that on analysis of selected sites and building forms. A closer look at the space around those companies perhaps will allow us to find the development stimulants.

Figure 29. Urban structure in Chwaszczyno. The firms included in the survey are shown in red. Source: Authors

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