CHAPTER-1

Knowledge in Islam :An Outline of Madrasa Education

Like any other religion of the world, Islam also has increasingly

emphasized on a responsible life of an individual with profound

knowledge of creatures and their Almighty Creator. It is Islam

that discourages ignorance in the strongest possible terms, rather

condemns it in a severe manner. The Pre-Islamic Arabia was not

totally ignorant of the world, however, whatever evidence has

been preserved, makes it clear that there was not a sublime place

for knowledge. Nevertheless, Islam, for the first time in the history

of Arabian peninsula made knowledge an instrument to comprehend

life and its realities. Hence knowledge occupied an important and

lofty place in the society. Muhmmad, the unlettered messenger of

God proclaimed that "God sent me to educate the people" In other

words, Islam is synonymous of scholarship. We know that writing

was not much in vogue, and hence not a single book was written

in Arabic in the pre-Islamic Arabia. With the advent of Islam,

Arabic became a very important language. And now with the

passage of time it has come to be recognized at the international

level as a living and dynamic language.

After the excavations of Lehyan, Maiin and Saba (Kingdoms)

the archaeologist have concluded that there had been a well advanced

civilization in the central and southern Arabia even before the

emergence of Athenian civilization. Moreover, the civilization lost its

existence and went into oblivion well· before the advent of Islam,

even its language and script became illegible to the Arabs. 1

1. Hamidullah (Dr) Ahd-e-Nabavi P 02

1

However, one can't rule out the potentials of Pre-Islamic Arabs.

When the Islamic teaching made its place in the hearts of the

Arabs they took the entire world with surprise, started challenging

the super powers of that time-Iran in the east and Byzantine in the

west, and finally subjugated these gigantic empires. This dramatic

success compelled researchers and scholars of the time to think

that this development can't be a sudden incident in the human

history.

It is very difficult to ascertain the level & extent of learning and

the gamut of knowledge in the Pre-Islamic Arabia in the absence

of any written work. Whatever knowledge they had of the world,

its transference was confined to oral transmission. Whatever

information had been committed to writing in the beginning of

Islam, that was put ablaze by Hulaku Khan in Baghdad and Cordova

in 14th century. "The eruption of the Mongols upon the. saracenic

world was not like the invasion of the Roman empire by the

Northern barbarians. These had proceeded slowly in their

comparatively gradual progress to words the heart of the empire.

They had become partially softened, and had to some extent cast

off their pristine ferocity. The case was otherwise with the hordes

of the devastator, Chingiz. The swept like overwhelming torrents

over western Asia. Wherever they left misery and desolation. " 1

Syed Amir Ali further says "The Sack of Baghdad by Mongols

1. The Spirit of Islam, P. 382

2

exemplifies what happened in other cities, but in order to give true

conception of the fearful atrocities perpetrated by the savages, it

requires to be painted by another Gibbon. For three days the

streets ran with blood, and water of the Tigris was dyed red for

miles along its course. The horrors of rapines, slaughter, and

outraged humanity lasted for six weeks. The places, mosques,

and mausoleums were destroyed by fires or levelled to the earth

of their golden domes. The patients in the hospital and students

and the professors in the colleges were put to the sword. In the

mausoleums the mortal remains of the Sheikhs and pious Imams,

and in the academics the immortal works of the great and learned

men, work consumed to ashes; books were thrown into the fire,

or were that was distant and the Tigris near were worried in the

waters of the latter. The accumulated .treasures of five centuries

were thus lost forever to humanity. The flower of the nation was

completely destroyed. '11

And since there was no printing press facility at that time

nothing could be saved except some scattered pieces of information

& literature like poems, proverbs, wills, speeches and elegies &

eulogies. History narrates that in the Pre-Islamic Arabic Tubba

community in the south and Ghassanids Munadhirites in the north

were quite familiar with the Art of writing, though their writings

have yet to be deciphered. This assumption indicates that there

1. The Spirit of Islam, P 402

3

. might have been a few persons who were equipped with the art

of reading and writing. 1 Jahiz*, the great Arab scholar observes

that there were three persons of this kind. They can be named as

Laqeet bin-ai-Umair-ai-Ayadi, Adi-bin-zaid-ai-Ayadi and his son Abu

daud-ai-Ayadi. 2

The Credit for writing in Arabic goes to a Jew who trained the

Medinite children in the art of Arabic writing. On the eve of the

emergence of Islam Saad-bin-Ubada, Mundhir-bin-Amr, Ubai-bin­

Kaab and Zaid-bin-Thabit- (R) were among the important II Kuttab II

(Those who knew the art of writing). Zaid-bin-Thabit (R) was

bilingual i.e he knew both Arabic and Hebrew. 3

This is recorded that Sufiyan bin Umayya and Abu Qais bin

Abd-i-Manaf were front runners in the field of reading and writing

at Mecca. Bashar-b-Abdui-Malik, a Christian from yathrib, had

thought them. The first person who adopted the teaching

profession in Arabian peninsulas was from Wadi-ui-Oura. By dint

of his labour the number of literates in a particular sense, increased

at Mecca. On the eve of Islam there were seventeen persons in

* The great Arab prose writer born in Basra in 776 AD, a mutazilite by thinking spent his major life in Baghdad. During his last days he went hack to Basra where he died in 868 AD. He was written almost 200 books out of which only 30 are available. Rest of his works could not be traced.

1. Hamidullah (Dr.) Khuthat PP. 298-300

2. Al-Bayan, P. 333

3. Ahd-e-Nahavi, PP. 10-11

4

quraish tribe who could read and write. Keeping in view the gravity

of the religio-political needs, Islam not only encouraged learning

but at the very outset, the persons who. could read and write were

appointed as amanuensis of the prophet. Nevertheless the teaching

remained in the hands of Non-Muslim for quite long. Each among

the prisoners of the battle of Badr who could read and write, was

assigned the work of teaching ten Muslim kids instead payment of

ransom for the freedom.

Like other communities of the world, Pre-Islamic Arabs were

also fond of story-telling. In their leisure time, particularly during

the moonlight-night they used to assemble at "Naadi" (Club) or

"Dar-un-Nadvah" (Conference hall) for musamarah and exchange

of thought (Night-gossip). The jews and the christians of the

region were also equally fond of literary activities. We can mention

the names of Samuel bin-Adiya and many more. 1 In the Pre­

Islamic Arabia the Arabs used to assemble at famous markets like

Ukaz, Dhui-Majaz and Dhui-Majanna where they recited their fresh

poems in the presence of hundreds of people to win applause &

laurels. The selected poems used to be hung onto the walls of

Kaba, Sab-Muallaqaat (the seven odes) are seven such poems

each of them is the masterpiece of its author. 2

Taif a complementary part of Mecca as referred to m Holy

1. Ahd-e-Nahavi, PP 11-12

2. faizul Khatir, PP 265-287

5

Ouran by addressing "Oaryatain" 'two towns 11, provided a good

number of learned persons. Gheelan-bin-Salma-ath-Thaqafi used

to organize a literary gathering once-a-week. Hadith-bin-Kalda­

a~h-Thaqafi, the famous physician had dictated a book on medical ·~.

science which is untracable. And Waraqa-bin-Naufal, a Mecca-

based theologist desseminated the message of Bible in Hebrew.

As a matter of fact the intellectuai history of Islam does not

need any explanation for its vigorous propagation of knowledge.

Indeed it is replete with the eternal message of learning. To

substantiate this, one has to cite some verses from the Holy

Ouran, a few sayings of the prophet and the statements of great­

Islamic savants. The importance of knowledge in Islam is very

much evident from the frequent use of the word "ilm" (knowledge)

in the holy scripture. It has been used in not less than 750 verses

most of which were revealed in Mecca, Whereas the verses

pertaining to "Amal" (action) revealed during the stay of prophet in

Medina. God created Adam, the first man and the prophet as his

caliph on the earth and ordered the angles to bow before him for

being a knowledgable man, which was accepted by all except

bills, the devil. God taught. Adam the names of all things in the

word. 2 Hence, God is the first teacher. The verse points out to

the superiority of a person who knows to a person who know not,

1. The Holy Quran, 43:31 P. 1502

2. The Holy Quran, 2:30-34 P. 16

6

Whereas the scriptures of Hindus and the Jews are full of

glorification of the god goddess and the human being had always

been portrayed as worshipper and hermit. To further understand

the significance of knowledge, one has to look at the verses

where God says: " They ask thee what is lawful to them (as

food) say: lawful unto you are (all) things good and pure: And

what ye have taught. The beasts and birds of prey, Training them

to hunt in the manner directed to you by Allah. 1 Knowledge is of

prime importance in Islam as is evident from the first revelation,

Which reads as follows: "Read in the name of thy lord and

cherishes who created. Created man out of a leech-like clot.

Proclaim! And thy lord is most bountiful. He who taught (the use

of) of the pen. Taught man that he knew not" .2 This is the first·

commandment of God wherein He orders His unlettered prophet

and his followers to read and write. The word Oalam (pen) denotes

that it is the key to all success. Even prophet once said that God

first of all created pen and this is quite natural to write the

destiny of his creatures. God ranks the scholars after himself and

the holy angles, sayings" there is no God but he. That is the

wetness of Allah his angles and those endued with knowledge" 3

As the darkness can't be equal to the light the illiterates can't be

equal to those who are literates. God asks, "Are those who know

I. The Holy Quran 5:4 P. 279

2. Ibid 96: 1-5 PP. 1980-81

3. Ibid 03:18 P. 14-1

7

equal to those who do not know? 1 Definitely not, because literates

can differentiate between good and bad whereas illiterates can't.

For the cognizance of His existence He created many signs between

the earth and the sky but there sings also can't be identified

without knowledge." God says, "He it is that cleaveth the daybreak

(from the dark): He makes the night for rest and tranquility. And

the sun and the moon for the reckoning (of time) :2

He promises the upliftment of the learned saying, " And when

ye are told to rise up, Rise up: Allah will rise up to (suitable) ranks

(And Degrees), those of you now believe and who have been

granted knowledge. "3

The very proclamation of the prophet, " I am born as a teacher"

gets approved from the Ouranic verses to when Ouran says, "

Our Lord! Send amongst them a messenger of their own, who

shall rehearse they signs to them and instruct them in scripture

and wisdom, And purify them. 4

The great Islamic scholar Mansoor Fauri made a comparison

between the supplications of variant prophets. Nuh (A) asked his

Lord. "0 my Lord forgive me, my parents all who enter my house

1. The Holy Quran 14:35 P. 703

2. Ibid 38:35 P. 1381

3. Ibid 03:38 P. 151

4. Ibid 20:114 P. 907

8

in faith and all believing men and believing women. " 1

Ibrahim or Abraham (A) supplicates to his lord, "Make this city

one of peace and security and preserve me and my sons from

worshipping idols. " 2 Sulaiman or Soloman (A) supplicates to his

lord," Forgive me and grant me a kingdom which will not belong

to another after me. " 3 Zakariya or Zachariah (A) supplicates to his

lord," grant unto me from thee a progeny. " 4 And the last prophet,

Muhammad (S) supplicates to his lord," increase me in knowledge. " 5

Space prevents me from mentioning more quotes from Ouran

to underline the significance of knowledge before the prophet of

Islam. In the above and a few more verses of the holy Ouran we

find the names of almost essential stationary items like Kitab

(Book), Oalam (pen), Oirtas (paper), Mid ad (Ink), AI wah (Slates),

Khatam (stamp), Sijill (Register) etc. To think about these articles

m the early 7th century on the Arabian peninsula was a far cry.

The traditions of the prophet have also emphasized in

unequivocal terms that life without knowledge is hollow and barren.

Knowledge is a great fertilizer for the human mind, and to have

the maximum harvest out of human existence, it is essential to

1. The Holy Quran 71:28 P 1828

2. !hid 1-1:35 p 703

3. !hid 38:35 p 1381

-1. !hid 03:38 p 151

5. !hid 20:11-1 p 907

9

enrich one's life with continuous learning. The entire Hadith literature

is replete with this kind of references which ultimately prove that

knowledge and religion are two main pillars of human life.

Knowledge can make the life radiant with spiritual, material and

moral richness. Without knowledge one can't recognize his creator

and sustainer. 1

AI Bukhari* in his monumental work attributes a tradition to the

prophet which says that disappearance of knowledge and absence

of scholars from society would spell the demise the human

civilization. 2

Highlighting the importance of Knowledge. The Prophet said,

"a person who follows the path for acquiring knowledge, Allah

will make easy his passage to paradise." (Muslim) * 3 and added,

"a person who goes out of his house in search of knowledge, he

is Allah's path and he remains so till he returns." (Tirmidhi). 4

Comparing a learned person to others the prophet (S) said, "a

*Imam Bukhari (194-256 AH) travelled to places far and wide to collect the gems of traditions. It is said that he collected 3 lakhs Hadith and he himself memorised 2 lakhs. Although he memorised such a large number but he only mention approximately 7275 authentic Hadith in his book Al-Bukhari.

*Imam Muslim (817-875 AD) travelled widely to collect traditions. He wrote many hooks and treaties on Hadith, but the most important work is the collection of Sahih Muslim. Although he collected 3lakhs traditions like Imam Bukhari, but after a thorough exami­nation mentioned only 4 thousands in his book.

1. Intellectual foundation PP. 3-6 2. Ibid 3. Riyadus-Saleheen P. 657 4. Ibid P 657

10

learned person is much superior to a worshipper as I am superior

to an ordinary Muslim among you." He further outlined, "God, His

angels all al those who live in the heavens and on earth even the

ants in their holes and the fish in the supplicate for those who

instruct people in various knowledge" (Tirmidhi). 1

A learned person is superior to a worshipper as the full moon

1s superior to all the stars. The learned the heirs of the prophets

and the prophets don't leave any inheritence in the shape of

Dirhams and Dinars (wealth), but they do leave knowledge as

their legacy. As such, a person who acquires knowledge acquires

his full share (Tirmidhi). 2

The Prophet (S) said, "the word of wisdom is the lost property

of a wiseman, so he has a better right to it (than any one else

wherever he finds it" (Tirmidhi & Ibn Majah). 3

Referring to the demise of knowledge the prophet said; "Allah

will not withdraw knowledge by snatching it away from people,

but it will be withdrawn as a result of the death of learned

person, people will appoint ignorant persons as their leaders and

ask them for guidance in religious matters, and they will issue

religious edicts (Fatnas) without knowledge. Thus they will go

astray themselves and lead others astray. " 4

Drawing a line of demarcation between a scholar of religion and

1. Riyadus-Saleheen, P. 658 2. Ibid P. 658 3. Mishkatul Masabeeh P. 135 4. /hid P. 129

11

a devout person, the prophet said, "a single scholar of religion is

more formidable against a devil than thousand devout persons"

(Tirmidhi). * 1

And he said, "acquiring knowledge in a company for an hour

in the night is better than spending the whole nigh in prayer. "2

Once his prophets asked his companions "Do you know who

is most generous?" They said; "Allah and His messenger know

best", whereupon he said, "Allah is the most generous to mankind

and the most generous persons after me would be the person

who acquires knowledge and disseminate it. He will come on the

day of resurrection singly singly like a ruler. " 3

The prophet said, "acquire knowledge because its acquisition

is fear of God, search for it is worship and jihad, its study is

praise, teaching it to a person who does not know is alms giving,

imparting it to those who are meritorious, performs an act of

devotion to God, it is friend in journey, companion in solitude,

guide to religion, and light to them in darkness and misfortune,

bosom friend to strange, and it leads to the path of paradise.

*Abu !sa Muhammad bin /sa known as Imam Trrmidhi due to his domicile at Trrmidhi or Trrmudh, a city located at the upper portion of Amu river near Balkh was probably blind by birth. He died in 892 or 893 AD. He is known for his immortal contributions to tradition called Shamail Trrmidhi.

1. Mishkatul Masabeeh P. 135

2. Ibid P. 147

3. Ibid P. 148

12

Through it God exalts a nation, makes them leaders and guide.

them to good. Seeing them, others also become guide to good

and people follow them. the angels urge them to work. Every

thing dry and resh, seeks forgiveness for them even the fish in

sea, insects and worms in forest, cattle and sheep and even the

starts in sky, seek forgiveness for them. Knowledge gives light to

a dead heart; it is a light of eyes in darkness for them. Knowledge

gives life to a dead heart; it is a light of eyes in darkness and

gives strength to body after removing weakness. By its help the

man reaches the rank of the pious. To think of it, is like fasting

and its study, is life prayer, By its help God is obeyed and

worshipped. By its help warning is given. By its help unity of God

is understood, tie of blood is maintained and lawful things are

known. " 1

The prophet said as reported by one of his companions, "the

simile of guidance and knowledge with which God sent me is like

that of profuse rain falling upon certain locality. One spot becomes

full of water and consequently absundant herbs and grasses grow

therein. The ditches and canals in another spot reverse water and

God gives benefit to mankind therewith they drinks water there

from irrigate their lands and grow crops. Then there is a spot

which neither boards water nor grows any grass and herb. The

first is that of a man who gets benefit from his knowledge, the

1. lhya ulum-id-Din PP 14-23

13

second simile is that of a man who does benefit others. The third

simile is that of a man who is deprived of both the benefits. 1

The prophet said, "he who seeks knowledge to revive Islam

and dies in that condition, there will be the difference of only one

step between him and the prophet. "2

The Prophet said, "there is a difference of one hundred degrees

between a worshipped and a learned man. The distance. between

two degrees is as the run of a racing horse for seventy years. " 3

These are a few examples from the sayings of prophet to

comprehend the essentially of knowledge for the development of

humanity otherwise the entire Hadith literature is replete with this

kind of encouraging statements. But since highlighting the

importance of knowledge is not my end but it is just a means to

reach the desired destination. Nevertheless, besides saying of the

prophet, one can't ignore the statement of his companions and

later on Islamic sages who have been the pioneers of knowledge

in different phases. Umar Farooque (R) said, "he who learns

Hadith and induces one to acted upon it, he will get the rewards

of one who translates it into action." He further said, "the death

of one thousand persons who pray all the nights and fast all the

days is a lesser calamity than the death of one learned man who

1. lhya ulum-id-Din PP. 14-23

2. !hid

3. Ibid

14

is well versed in lawfui and unlawful things of God."

Ali, the father Caliph (R) said to Kamil, "Knowledge 1s better

than wealth, knowledge guards you but you guarding wealth,

knowledge dispenses justice while wealth seeks justice. Wealth

decreases with expense while knowledge increases with expense.

He further said; "a learned man is better than one who prays and

fights in the way of God. When a learned man dies such a

calamity befalls on Islam which can't be compensated except by

his successor."

Ibn Abbas (R) said, "If a man teaches good to the people,

everything seeks forgiveness for him, even the fishes of the sea."

He added, "when I sought knowledge became degraded but when

I was sought for knowledge, I became exalted." He went on

saying, "to discuss about learning in a portion of night, is dearer

to me than to keep up awake throughout the night in prayer. And

that the ranks of the learned is seven hundred times higher than

that of the believers and that the difference between the two

ranks is the distance of the path of five hundred years." Abu

darda (R), a prominent companion of prophet, said, "to learn one

point is better than to pray the whole night." Ibn Masud, the

prominent narrator of Hadith, said, "you should acquire knowledge

before your death. By one is whose hand there is my life, those

were killed in the way of God would every time wish that God

should resurrect them as learned men, as they will find the honours

15

meted out to the learned men there." Hasan Basri, the prominent

saint, said "learning takes a man to the limit of humanity from the

limit of animality. And the link of the learned will be weighed

against the blood of the martyres." The sage As wand said, "nothing

is more honourable than knowledge, while the kings rule over the

people, the learned rule over the kings." Ibn Mubarak said, "I

wonder for one who does not seek knowledge, how can he call

himself towards honours?" Once the saint Futuhul Musoli asked,

"does not a sick man die for want of food, drink, and medicine?"

The people replied, "Yes". Then he said, "such is the condition of

heart when the heart is not given wisdom and knowledge for

three consecutive days, it dies." The above paragraphs certainly

suffice to highlight the importance of knowledge in the eyes of

Islam. lnfact this is such a vast topic which needs a ful-fledged

project work instead of a portion of a thesis.

The connotation of madrasa has kept changing through the

ages. The genesis of this word can be traced out in the classical

Hebrew. Generally it is believed that the word 'madrasa' has been

derived from an Arabic infinitive 'OARS" meaning 'to study' and

mad rasa being and adverb of place carnis the meaning of, place

of studies or the place of learning; however, there were places in

the pre-islamic Arabic know to the Jews called "Midrash" where

they used to worship and sort out the community problems, and

their clergy men used to teach religious doctrines "Mid rash" is

said to have been derived from its Hebrew or Aramaic root word

16

"DARSH" thus the concept of madrasa in its present meaning 1s

not necessarily an Islamic concept rather it may borrowed from

Jewish, the most ancient Semitic religion. 1 As far as the concept

of present maktab is concerned that too has a bearing with the

pre-islamic history.

Imam Ghazali classified the non-religious science in three

categories; ( 1) praiseworthy (2) permissible and (3) blameworthy.

The science which are necessary for progress & development of

the world the humanity as a whole, are praiseworthy. This includes

medicine, mathematics, true, administration, industry, horticulture,

weaving, tailoring, haircutting, plumbing, carpentry etc. And

learning poetry, History, Geography, Biology etc. are permissible

science while sorcery, Talismanic science, Jugglery and the like

are blameworthy sciences.

However, one should not misunderstand that there is no room

in Islam for modern sciences. Every kind of knowledge is included

in the gamut of learning propagated by Islam. Modern science &

information that contribute to the development of human society

is that to Islamic concept. Of course there has been a education

at the cost of modern education. However, the fact however

remains that Muslims give considerable weight to religious

education also. Simultaneously we find that Islam has always

encouraged the scholars of all hues. Learning has been always

1. 7arikhul Arah Qahla/Jslam PP. 99-100

17

held in high esteem. Intellectuals occupied a high position in the

society and commanded the confidence of the people. The

education was supposed to be in incumbent upon each and every

Muslim, irrespective of gender and race. Islam, not only, admits

the modern education but it encouraged the same. The pre-islamic

Arabia used to have notable Kuttab (PI katatib) instead of maktab

for primery education of the children. To my mind the selection of

the word kuttab (Maktab) for primary seat of learning and Midrash

(Madrasa) for the place of higher studies, by the pre-Islamic Arabs,

point out to the emphasis on the subject matter. 1

II

1./hidP. 291

18

The studies stimulated by Islam, were from their very nature

associated with the mosques. The learning Ouran and the study

of Hadith (Traditions) formed the starting point and the new

branches of study like the study of languages and linguistics, and

in this connection, the study of classical poetry, philosophical and

speculative studies and logic were added as a result of contact

with ancient cultures and civilization. Even after the incorporation

of new branches of learning to the old studies, the mosques

remained the chief centres for dissemination of knowledge, and

the study of Ouran and sunnah, was maintained as a focal point.

This may have been facilitated the fact that the educational

institutions of Christians and Jews in the pre-Islamic Arabia, were

associated with the chruches and synagogues wherein they also

concentrated on religious studies. 1

Kuttab: This kind of institutions preceded the emergence of

Islam, though, in a negligible number. This was meant for teaching

to read and write, well isolated from places for teaching Ouran

and the .Primary Islamic theology. Generally located at the

residences of the teachers on a place adjacent to the mosque,

particularly in the east. Here Ouran was taught and the elementary

religious knowledge was imported. The curriculum of kuttab was

basically entered around the holy Ouran as a text book. Ibn

Khaldum elaborated the· curriculum of kuttab under a chapter

1. 7areek-e-Taleem PP 51-95

19

entitled, "different was of kids education: saying that after Quran

and basic theology in Eastern countries and Spain, poetry. primary

morphology, syntax and elementary maths were taught. Art of

winning was a point of emphasis in Spain, whereas in the Maghrib •

countries, only Quran remained the focal point. Without command

over Quran, none can proceed to other branches of learning. The

teachers have to be Hafiz of Quran (who have learnt the Quran

by heart), From the very beginning, the was laid memorization of

Quran one can conclude that the prophet, right from the inception,

was very particular to the preservation of Quran, as it is a revealed

book of Allah. He wanted to protect it from all kinds of changes

as were introduced in the previous semitic religious scriptures to

suit individual wielding influence. This is also worth mentioning

that the nature of maktabs in the subcontinent, right from their

origin, is altogether different nature from the Khuttab, because in

maktab the kids have nothing to so with the comprehension of

Ouran. They just read the whole Quran even memories it without

understanding a word, contrary to the notion of kuttab, encouraged

and spread by Arab predecessors.

In the entire Islamic world, the curriculum was formulated in

consonance with the future profession of the students curriculum

for the royal children, was formulated and modified if and when

needed as per the needs and desires of the parents. The children

* Maghrih Countries means, those countries which are located in the western part of Africa. This includes Algeria, 7lmisia, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania etc.

20

from royal families continued their higher studies after the

completion of elementary education in the palace itself. The

teachers were called II Muaddib II derived from its root word "A dab",

which includes intellectual as well as moral aspects. Generally the

teachers lived in a corner room of the palace with his students to

look after them and mould their character. And sometimes, a

teachers lived outside the palace. In that case, the furniture &

other contents of the room where the tutor imparted his first

lesson, was moved to less residence. When the royal order for

Ameen's teacher. Ahmar's teacher Ahmar was issued to shift-the

entire luggage of the room where Ameen received his first lesson,

to the teachers house, Ahmar exclaimed "where would I dump

this luggage since I don't have spacious house. Haroon Rasheed,

the caliph immediately purchased a house and shifted the luggage

over there Despite the elevated and esteemed position of the

teacher, many scholars did not like to work for the royal palaces.

When Haroon Rasheed requested Abdullah-bin-ldrees, a prominent

narrator of Hadith to equip Mamoon with the precious knowledge

of Hadith, he replaced, "if Mamum attends my classes which I

conduct in the interest of general people, he will also be benefited."

Similarly, when Sulaiman-bin-Aii sent a messenger to the residence

of Khalil-bin-Ahmad, the master of Arabic syntax to ask him for

teaching his sons, Khalid went inside his house and came back

with a few pieces of dry bread and invited the messenger to have

it, because "I have nothing to serve your except these pieces of ~nn ~1s. \>l i @.) 7). 4 4-

\l'i)J 21

THESIS 371.077 R1478 Ma

fllfllfllllll/1//llflfll/ TH8792

breads, and so long I get even this kind of bread, I would not need

a royal service." 1

Book Stall : It seems that eminent fairs of Ukaz, dhul-mijanna

and dhul-majaz have been replaced with emerging bookshops in

the Islamic world. The tradition of book-shops which started under

the Abbasids engulfed the whole Islamic world within no time.

Surprisingly enough, the exclusive book markets propped up in all

the important cities of Islamic world within a short span of time.

Unlike today the booksellers were not merely professional but

they were disseminators of knowledge and authors of books.

They provided the rare books to the public after copying from the

original manuscripts. lbn-e-Nadeem, the author of AI-Fihrist, Yaqut­

ai-Hamawi, the author of Mujam-ul-udaba, were not only the

booksellers, rather they were immortal writers. Jahiz, the Arab

Linguist used to pans sluples nights in the book-shop, engaged in

reading. It was the place for frequent religious debates where

scholars and men of nobility from far flung areas of ten made a

haunt. 2 T, Cj (cp)'?), 4Lf THE!:> IS ·

Residence of ulemas : Though residence is not proper place for

public education due to the inconvenience caused to students,

teachers and their family members, yet under some unavoidable

circumstances ulemas had to choose their houses for imparting

1. !hid pp 64-65

2. !hid pp 65-69

22

education. And the fact is that it is the houses of ulemas which

served the purpose of teaching until the construction of mosques.

The house of Arqam (R) is a well-known place in Islamic educational

history, where umar khattab (R) turned up to embrace Islam while

the prophet was teaching his companies. 1

Literary Clubs : Literary Clubs actually originated and took

shape under the Abbasids, though it was initiated by the four

righteous caliphs. The caliph, in principal, was considered to be

not only a political head but a spiritual guide with profound

knowledge of religion. Invariably the general masses posed a

horde of religious queries to the caliphs and the caliphs were

supposed to answer them and they did so. In case of doubts in

any matter they used unhesitatingly ask other companions of the

prophet or the great ulemas of that time. In fact, we can safely

say that literary clubs patronized by the Abbasids, were merely a

continuation of an academic tradition initiated by the righteous

caliphs. These salons surely constituted the forums where

knowledge weighed and development though discussions. The

earlier ones were open t~ all public with simple norms. There was

no special seating arrangement. Mats, carpets and simple floors,

were used for sitting by the participatns. The participants used to

take their seat after greeting the caliph either by name or by

1. Ibid PP. 69-72

23

mentioning the title "Ameer-ui-Mumeneen", the leader of the faithful.

The later literary salons with a lot of pomp and show. The entry

to them was confined to a particular class of scholars ver tough

rules & conditions. The literary salons' culture reached its zenith in

this period. Even this kind of salons were organized at the villas of

the ministers. Punctuality was an essential condition. No other

than caliph could initiate the discussion who was assumed to be

the patron of knowledge. Different kinds of subjects were discussed.

Sitting arrangement was made in accordance with the status of

the participants. some particular gesture of the caliph was the sign

of conclusion of the meeting. The importance of literary salons can

be understood by the fat that caliphs started reserving some space

exclusively for educational discourses. When royal palace "As­

Shamsiya" was under construction Mutadid billah. The Abbasids

caliph ordered to reserve some space for educational discourses. 1

Nevertheless, the literary salons point out to the affluence,

prosperity and cultural diversity of the society. When in the Islamic

world a great number of independent and semi-independent status

came into existence, they all patronized the learning through this

kind of salons. As a result, a competition started through out the

Islamic world which paved way for the furtherance of salons.

Badiya: (Remote villages), it is a well known fact that the Arabs

happen to be very particular to the purity of their language.

1. !hid pp 73-86

24

Throughout the history of Arabic peninsula in a particular and Arab

world in general, Arabic remained a medium of expression on

various forms. The revelation of the glorious cloven Ouran in Arabic

made this language immortal. In other words, Islam paved the way

for its dissemination throughout the world. But unfortunately with

the passage of time Arabic could not remain unadulterated due to

(i) the commercial contacts of Arabs with the outer world, (ii)

religious conquest outside Arabia, (iii) marital relations with non­

Arabs and (iv) interaction with foreigners on the occasion of Haj. 1

As a result, a new section named as "Muwalladum" emerged in

the society who, quite often, committed mistakes in the recitation

of Ouran, in the pronouncement of adhan (prayer call) and other

functions of Islam. In this pathetic situation, Badiya remained the

centres of pure and unadulterated Arabic language where children

of nobility and aristocracy frequently visit to stay to learn the good

Arabic language. Similarly, this also provided an opportunity for

Bedounis to rush up to the cities like Madina, Kufa, Basra, Damascus

and Baghdad for their livelihood through the dissemination of original

Arabic free from grammatical errors. And thus imparting mistakes

Arabic became a lucrative profession for Bedouins. 2

Monastery : There are words like zawiya, Khanqah, Ribat and

sometimes even Saumaa for monastery in Islam with little

differences of connotaion. However, there is a close relation

1. Madrasa education PP. 07-10

2. lareekh-e-!slam PP. 87-90

25

between monastery and madrasa. The devout Muslim scholars

generally lived permanently in a small room adjacent to the mosque

to meditate as well as impart education to the aspirants. Ascetics

and sufis has a number of monasteries under their possession.

The development of monasteries is quite analogous to that of the

madrasa, the one institution merges into the other because learning

and of piety are quite inseparable in Islam. In the 8th and 9th

century this combination of the two institutions became quite

frequented. Even at present day we find students living in a

monastery attend lectures in a madrasa.

Mosque : To understand the importance of mosque in Islamic

history a place of worship, court of justice, centre of politics and

above all as an educational institution, we should not forget that

it was the first construction made by the Muslims wherever and

whenever they went. When prophet was on the way of Medina

from Mecca, he built a mosque at Oaba, having reached at Medina

he ordered for the construction of a magnificent mosque (Masjid­

e-Nabavi), where educational activities had started at suffah,

literally (Platform). The muhajereen (Emigrants from Mecca to

Medina) were gradually admitted to this first residential Islamic

university to learn Ouran and Hadith. Many graduates of his

university shot to prominence for their immortal contributions to

the preservation of the traditions. Abu Hurairah (R) the well reputed

companion of the prophet and the graduate of this university enjoyed

popularity for the authentically of the traditions. After the death of

26

prophet a special class of students was formed who spread the

knowledge of traditions throughout Muslim world. They collected

people around them to instruct them in the most necessary principles

of the demands of Islam. In this simple form of instruction which

was in distinguishable form edifying admonitions, lay the germ of

Islamic studies. Omar Farooqu (R) sent the teachers of Ouran in all

directions and ordered the people to appear every Friday at the

Mosque. The important nature of the subjects of study resulted, at

principal centres of Islam, in the formation of not only guild of

teachers but a regular system of instruction. Arabic Philological

studies were ardently prosecuted in the mosques. The interest of

the early Arabs in Rhetoric and Poetry survived under Islamic

educational system in mosques.

Establishments of formal Madrasas :About the foundation of

Madrasas separated from the Mosque, Dr. Kuldeep Kaur says

with spread and expansion of Islam the number of students as

also of Halaqahs (circles) gradually increased and consequently

the number of Halaqahs in the Mosque. It began to cause

inconvenience and prevent worship from being properly conducted.

Moreover new subjects also came up for discussion and debates

which could no longer be adequately conducted inside the

Mosques, where every one is expected and required to be reverent

and quiet. Under these circumstances the evolution of specialised

place for education (Maktab and Madrasah) was natural. The

Madrsas were established also to provide decent living and

27

sufficient stipends to those engaged in teaching. 1

The above explanation given by Dr. Kuldeep Kaur is taken from

History of Muslim education by Dr. Ahmed Shalaby, but Dr Van

Karimer does not agree with this opinion as he maintains that

narrowness of the space in the Mosques or disturbance in prayer . can't be the reason for the foundation of specialised Madrsas.

Actually this refers to the emergence of a professional class of

the intellectuals who were later called ulemas. This newly emerged

class of scholars wanted some kind of remuneration out of excess

obsession with the academic activities for their livelihood. 2

As matter of fact, in most of the Madrsas, education remained

restricted to the religious subjects and the. branches of worldly

education completely or partially neglected and most of the

Madrasas were dedicated to four Sunni schools of thought.

The countries like Iraq, Greater Syria (presently Syria, Jordan,

Lebanon and Palestine) and Egypt, were under the two shiite

Dynasties - Bani Buwaihids & Fatimids, and the Madr~as founded

by them were the centres of learning for Shii doctrines. Nevertheless,

the aforementioned dynasties were succeeded by saljuqes and

Aiyubids who not only founded new Madrsas to propagate Sunni

doctrine but introduced it in the previous Madrasas too.

· 1. Madrasa education P. 11

2. Contribution to the history of Islamic civilisation P. 258

28

Nizam-ui-Mulk Toosi, The vizier of Alp Arslam and Malik Shah,

two saljuqe rulers, shot to prominance for his immortal contributions

to the establishment of Madrasas throughout vast kingdom.

Following the foot prints of Nizam-ui-Mulk, Noor-ud-Din the founder

of Aiyubid dynasty also spread the network of Madrasas, and

even Mamluks (The slave dynasty in Egypt) excelled in this During

their reign the number of Madrsas increased to an extraordinary

degree.

The journey of the formal Madrsas started from the last decade

of the 4th country Hejra with on unending mission. The new

buildings of Madrasas, were built in such a big number that no

village in the Islamic world was left without it. Huge wealth and

property was endowed by the Govt as well as the affluent people

to meet their expenses. To setup a Madrasas and donate property

for it to meet its expenses, became an act of virtue. This immense

cooperation to Madrsas survived paved the way for their existence

and through out the Muslim world. 1

Hakim Beamrillah founded a Madras a in 400 AH. This was the

first Madrasa to be founded and funded by the Govt of that time

later on the centre shifted to Nishwapur where studies wer

vigorously prosecuted in the Mosque, and many such institutions

came to exist. In the first half of the fifth century there were

many famous Madrasas in Nishapur. AI Madrasa-ai-Baihaqiya, was

1. Qadeem Is/ami Madaris PP 99-103

29

founded by ai-Baihqi, when he became a teacher in Nishapur. It is

said that lmam-ui-Haramein, the teaher of Imam Ghazali after

receiving early education from his father Shaikh Abu Muhammad

Abdullah admitted to this splendid Madrasa. The third Madrasa

was AI-Madrasa-as-Saidiya founded by Amir Nasr-bin Subuttain

(Governor of Nishapur). Syed Sulaiman Nadvi referring to Allama

Subki stated that the first Madrasa in Nishapur was built by Nasir­

ud-Daulah Abul Hsan Seejuri, a Samanid ruler for Abu Bakar

Forak. The name of Madrasa couldn't be traced. The fourth

Madrasa was built by Allama Abu lshaq Asfararini. The fifth

Madrasa (Madrasa Tughril Beg) was built by Tughril Beg. And

seventh Madrasa (Madrasa Nizamiya) was built by Nizam-ui-Mulk

Toosi for lmam-ui-Haramein.

After the conquest of Mathura, Sultan Mahmud Ghazanavi

constructed a grand Madrasa with a beautiful library in Ghazana and

endowed a number of village to it to meet the Madrasa expenditure.

This way, seven Madrasa in Nishapur, one in Egypt and one in

Ghazana had been set up within a century. These madrasas are

pioneer in Islamic history of education. Last but not the least,

Madrasa Nizamiya in Baghdad was the first Madrasa with the

facility of scholarship, fellowship to the students. 1

A.L. Tibawi in his monumental work "Muslim education is the

golden age of the caliphate" says that before this, there were

already two buildings, though the were not called Madrsas but

1. See for detail, Is/ami Nizam-e-Taa/eem

30

they were very much identical to Madrasas. One of them was in

Jama Masjid Cordova under the patronage of Abdur Rahman Ill and

AI-Hakam II which is a university in the words of Rhen Dozy hart,

the prominent scholar of this subject. It is said that AI-Hakam

founded 27 Kuttab i.e. elementary Islamic Madrasas in the outskirts

or cordova to educate the poor children, and second is AI-Azhar.

Ill

In India right from the very first day, Madrasas and Maktabs

generally have been financed by individual or private bodies. The

31

government played hardly any substantial role in the matter. There .

was no education department in specific term during the Delhi

Sultanate. The generosity and magnanimity the rulers as well as

affluent persons, at individual level, was more than sufficient to

finance the educational affairs of the time. It was only during the

Mughals that educational matters were systematically arranged.

The public works department was assigned to look after the

educational affairs. 1

Presently the entire network of Indian Madrasas, is solely

depends on public contribution and charitable endowments raised

by a few person appointed by Madras a authority as "Muhassils

(Money Collector) or Mubaligh (preacher), either on the basis of

fixed salary or on the basis of proportionate commission. Moreover,

the presence of a large network of Madrasa system of education

in a country like India where the majority of the Muslims live

below the poverty line, point out to the magnimity of the Muslim

community as a whole to patronise the Islamic learning and to

preserved religious heritage. This is also a fact that uncertainity

always looms large over the Madrasa education due to its very

nature of fund generation. It is also worth mentioning that the

state Govts like Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar

Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa played a significant role in financing

the Madrasa education.

f. The finace of Indian education PP 151-166

32

This financial aid is not confined to Govt aided Madrasas rather

it is extended to non-Govt-aided Madrasas too. Thanks to Madrasas

that outrightly rejected all kinds of financial help offered by the

Gods whatsoever, Country to the Govt-aided-Madrasas that are

more a handi-work of the Govt than spiritual seat of learning. It

is very much appeared from the statements of great Indian ulemas,

that any kind of Govts help will be harmful to the existence of

Madrasas on Indian soil. They opposed the financial assistance

offered by the respective Govts fearing the frequent interference

by the Govt. in the system of Madrasas as well as their curriculum.

Atiyal (public present) : This is the major source of income of

Madrasas, because it is free from the bondage of time & space.

Comparing to other sources· Madrasas depend more on this than

anything else. At the time of financial crunch they collect monthly

contributions fr0m the parents of the students as well as from the

affluent and prosperous persons of the locality.

Fitrah : This is an obligatory physical Islamic tax on each and * every Sahib-e-Nisab on his/her behalf and on behalf of all his /her

family members male of female even or behalf of new-born child.

This tax is paid during the month of holy Ramdhan well before Eid

prayers. This is also an important source of income of Madrasas.

Khairat & Sadqat (Alms and Charities): These are perennial source

* "Sahib-e-Nishab denotes a particular affluent section or individuals among the Mus­lims. According to Sunni-Hanafi school of thought those who have 7.5 to/a gold or 52.5 to/a silver or property equals to either of the two are called Sahih-e-Nisah.

33

of income for Madrasas companng to obligator sources they are

more viable and effective to sustain the economy because obligatory

sources are time bound, where as, the door of voluntary sources

is always open. Sometimes Heba (Gift), waqf (Endowments) are

enough to run the Madrasas for quite a long time. And above all,

Madrasas take resort to these voluntary sources during the time of

financial crunch, and no doubt about it that Madrasas successfully

raise a hug fund through these sources if and when it becomes

necessary.

Ushra (Tithe) : This is also a seasonal source of income. During

the Rabi and Kharif seasons the representatives of Madrasas

roam from one farmer to another to collect specified properties of

the produce. At local levels the farmers themselves carry their

produce to Madrasas.

Zakat : (Religious tax on wealth): Zakat is not incumbent upon

each and every muslim. It is imposed on a particular section

affluent Muslims, who are Sahib-e-Nisab in the eyes of Islamic

law. Generally it is paid during the holy month of Ramdhan.

Expenditure: Generally the annual expenditure of each and

every Madrasa is more than its annual income. The expenditure

of Madrasa includes the salary of teaching and non-teaching staff,

(MCM) Merit-cum-means scholarship for the students, maintenance

of the buildings and furniture. Availability of books in the library

free fooding and lodging and book facility to almost all the students.

34

And there is no ambiguity that each and every person can afford

Madrasa education due to its highly subsidised nature, whereas

modern education is affordable by a handful people of the country

due to its exorbitant nature. That way madrasa system of education

is serving the country by rendering free services to the have nots

and adding a lion's share to the literary of the nation.

Apart from free fooding and lodging, books and other facilities,

many Madrasas provide free medical and sport facilities. To encourage

students, they organised different kinds of annual competitions where

prices are distributed among the successful candidates.

Teacher-taught Relations : The position of teachers in non

religious or modern institution is altogether different from the

position of teachers in the religious institutions or Madrasas. The

teacher in the modern institutions, is not considered more than a

functionary or civil servant who is supposed to discharge some

specific duties assigned to him/her in turn of a message amount

paid to him/her by the Govt or a private body as remuneration,

whereas the teacher (Mudarris) in Madrasa is much more supreme.

His/Her supreme status can't underestimated unlike his/her

counterparts in the so called modern institutes which have

succumbed to the commercialization. The teacher in the

conventional school is not merely an instructor whose relations

with the students are confined to the classrooms rather he/she has

been designated as Father/Mother by Islam who not only teachers

35

but shapes the entire personality and career of the student, who

not only shares his/her students happiness but joins them in the

misery and sadness too. It is the teacher who looks after each and

every activity of his/her students and puts them on the right track

considering his/her duty as spiritual guide. 1

Islam placed the teacher on the ideal position. That is why the

teacher is not only supposed to be a learned man but also a man

of conduct, character, morality, modesty and integrity, so that

the pupils can emulate their teachers. His life should not be

partitioned between public and private unlike his counterparts in

the modern institutions. There must not be any impression on the

minds of the pupils who will ultimately constitute the society on

the values imbibed from their teachers. 2

Unfortunately the conception of teacher has been changing

right from the very inception of modern age. Even today in the

Madras a one can't dream of teachers going on strike or bunking

the classes on flimsy grounds or conducting classes without prior

study. There are instances which show that the teachers in

Madrasas, though many few pay for the expenditure of their poor

students till they complete their studies. The history is witness to it

that the ancient seats of learning in Islam studies cam to be shaped

because of certain charismatic and dynamic personalities who

1. Crisis in Muslim education PP. 104-114

2. Ibid

36

attracted pupils from far off places. Needless to look at the history

of Madrasas in Muslim countries, Darul-ulum Deoband cam to exist

due to the magnetic personality of Allama Oasim of Nanauta. This

Islamic trend of teaching created harmony in the society and ushered

in an era of peace and tranquility which ensured a crime free society.

On the other hand, teacher in the modern institutions are running

after the world and the worldly gains.

The repercussion of this gap in the relationship between the

teachers and the taught is so evident that any Tom, Dick and

Hary can see it. This is one of the important factors to which we

must relate the failure of many educational experiments. Islamic

educationists unanimously believe that shifting from the old system

of education to the new one points out to a change for worse.

One may agree that quantitative changes in the size of schools,

colleges and Universities do make difficult to maintain the close

relations between the teachers and the taughts, but again it is yet

to be answered that if the increasing numbers of schools, colleges

and universities is of no use then whether we should go for it?

or should we return to the old system of education which was

replete with moral values? These question are to be addressed by

the educationists. To the mind of a researcher like me there must

be a compromise between the two as educating the people by

ignoring ethics and civic code is not good at all for a healthy

society. Similarly, keeping in view the progress as a law of nature

we should not sit confirming ourselves to the old static educational

37

pattern. Then how to adjust the two? This problem has to be

addressed by social scientists and moral analysts. Indeed, the

things have reached their culmination when merely qualification

of a person was being considered for the entitlement of teaching

without taking into account the morality and character of the

candidate. The outcome of this kind of appointment to the highly

respected and dignified position can be visualized. Many institutions

staffed with the people of great, repute, are producing nothing

but the miscreants underworld dons and notorious criminals. that

are· of course, harmful to the nation as well as society. And

obviously it has two kinds of effect: The students either imbibe

wrong habits following the footprints of their immoral and

characterless teachers or start despising their teachers like any

thing. In the first case they develop a sense of guilt in themselves

with the passage of time and reach a point no return. And in the

second case due to early religious indoctrination they resist

immorality m the guise of modernity and fight it back to the

whole life but always putting themselves between theory and

practice of the world as a whole, and finally believe that the word

has fallen prey to the utter by pocracy.

The expression of resentment by the students against immoral

and characterless teachers matters. What matters is the continual

cross examination of the teacher's behaviour in the minds of the

pupils. And the contempt and disdain for the teacher minimise the

teacher's usefulness. Now the question arises what the education

38

is all about? and what it is supposed to do? It it aims at merely

a transmission of a body of information then it is needless to talk

about the morality and character but if its aims at training of men

for life then the question of morality and character is of paramount

importance.

So long as the teacher work as functionary and lacks warmth,

he can't be model to be imitated by his pupils and the impersonal

completion between the teachers and the taught can't be removed.

Today the Govt pays more attention to the external outlook of the

education; availability of tools and equipments than the internal

reform. Until and unless the education system is internally cleansed

and reformed, nothing can come out of it except the garbage of

corruption. And the moment it will be put on the right track

internally, most of the problems facing the country and the human

society will vanish quickly.

To substantiated the characteristics of a teacher Qadi Ibn Jamaa

maintains that the teacher must have fear of God, and Imam Shafi

observes that education is not to mug up information but it needs

dignity, humbleness, and disciplines. The teacher should follow the

Divine laws and possess good morality and character. To avoid the

bad characteristics he/she should be free from malice jealousy,

pride, niggardliness, hypocracy, merry making, self-admiration

boasting lying and looking down upon the people. He should have

respect for knowledge and avoid the places of allegations. He

39

should lead a routine life, study continuously and dedicate himself

to the research work.

Method of Teaching : At the every outset we must confess

that the teachers in Madrasas come to the class-rooms with full

preparation of the subject and sit on the chairs, pulpits or an

elevated place so that each and every student can listen to them

without any ambiguity. They repeat the sentences thrice if the

point under discussion is quite important in the eyes of Islam.

They are very particular about the removal of doubts, while they

were teaching. And sometimes they do respond to the questions

at the end. Quite often the teachers themselves throw the question

to the students to test their abilities. Unlike the modern universities,

the te~chers in Madrasas, are also tested by the incharge of

education (Nazim-i-Taleemat) or by the expert deputed by him to

see that whether the class is upto the mark and the content is

quite satisfactory. Reading the paragraph in the class-rooms 1s

also very important. Generally it is done on the basis of rotation

and sometimes it depends on the sudden choice of the teachers

to check whether the whole class is prepared or the person in

rotation is only a scape goat. 1

Mudhakara/Mubahatha (Group Discussion) : This is an important

feature attributed to the Madrasa education system. Generally after

the sun-set prayers (Maghrib) the students of all classes from their

1. Ibid

40

separate (circles) to discuss the .lessons studied in the day time

before the teachers. For group discussion they go a long way and

master not only the prescribed books in the syllabus but to thorough

the entire recommended books and a few other books related to

the subject too. This salient feature creates self-confidence in the

students, enhances their debating capabilities and makes them

well articulate. This articulation benefit them in the public life and

finally takes them to their desired destination. This is also worth

mentioning that this group discussion is not held in a haphazard

manner but it is held under the supervision of a Mudarris deputed

by Nazim-i-Taleemat. And surprisingly enough that the participation

of the students in the group discussion is obligatory and it counts

a great deal in the over all performance of the students.

41