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KOKODA INITIATIVE –ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT ON

FIELDWORK IN MADILOGO

16-26TH JUNE 2014

Submitted9/9/2014

ContactDr Matthew Prebble

Research Fellow, Archaeology & Natural History, School of Culture History &

Languages, College of Asia & Pacific, The Australian National University

T+61 2 6125 4342 | M +61 4 370 [email protected]

KOKODA INITIATIVE – ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS: MADILOGO

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DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT AND CONSERVATION

KOKODA INITIATIVE ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT ON

FIELDWORK IN MADILOGO 16-27TH JUNE 2014

Dr Matthew Prebble, Dr Matthew Leavesley & Mr Alois Kuaso 08 September 2014

A report by ANU Enterprise Pty Ltd


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Keytoimagesinpreviousplate:Upperleft:Communityconsultationmeetingat(Mai)Madilogo;Upperright:keyartefactsfromEialogoexcavation;Middleleft:FrankRabiinEiaiafahaexcavation;Middleright:Ebologohamlet.Lowerleft:collectionofokarinuts(Terminaliakaernbachii)belowatreereadyforcrackinginMaiMadilogo;Lowerright:freshlycrackedokarinutsnearEialogo.

TEAM COMPOSITION

DrMatthewLeavesley ResearchFellow,SchoolofArtsandSocialSciences,JamesCookUniversity,CairnsCampus,Australia

AloisKuaso Curator,NationalMuseumandArtGallery,Boroko,PapuaNewGuinea

MalcolmKeako SeniorProgramOfficer,DepartmentofEnvironment&Conservation,,PapuaNewGuinea

DrMatthewPrebble ResearchFellow,Archaeology&NaturalHistory,SchoolofCultureHistoryandLanguages,CollegeofAsia&Pacific,TheAustralianNationalUniversity,Canberra,Australia

08September2014

AreportbyANUEnterprisePtyLtdforDepartmentofEnvironmentandConservation(PapuaNewGuineaGovernment,PortMoresby)andtheDepartmentofSustainability,Environment,Water,

PopulationandCommunities(AustralianGovernment,Canberra)


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Thisreportpresentsaprovisionalsummaryofarchaeologicalexcavationsconductedinthesurroundsof Madilogo (Ma i) as part of a study commissioned by the Department of Environment andConservation as a Kokoda Initiative activity. Excavation site selection was based on previouspredictivemodellingandextrapolatedevidencecollectedfrompreviousfieldworkatKosipe,Kokoda,andMadilogoexcavations.Theaim in thisapproachwas to captureasmanydifferentpotential sitetypesaspossiblewithintheNaoroValleyandtoimproveourpredictivemodellingcapacityforfurtherarchaeologicalresearchwithin theKokodaInterimProtectionZone.Excavationswerecarriedout inthe currently occupied village of Ebologo and three older unoccupied locations including Eiaiafaha(near Tubelogo), Eialogo and Dabonumu. Eiaiafaha is the lowest elevation site at ~650m andDabonumuthehighestat~1150m,aridgelinesiteidentifiedbythepeopleofMadilogoastheoldestancestralvillageinthearea.Overonehundredartefacts,includingstoneaxes,flakesandexoticsourcestone,wereexcavatedhighlightingtherichnessofthisarchaeologicallandscape.Fromourpreliminaryanalyseswehaveidentifiedthefirstlower‐montane(500to1500minelevation),stratifiedandopenarchaeological sites in Papua New Guinea. At least two of these sites reflect village occupationcontemporaneouswith an arboricultural based economydated to around2800 years ago.Wehavealsoidentifiedtheearlieststratifiedevidenceoflong‐distancestonetoolexchangeintheOwenStanleyRangesandthePapuanPeninsula.Evidence for an exchange network with coastal communities and the Naoro River Valley, isdemonstratedbythepresenceofastratifiedobsidianflakesourcedtoWestFergussonIsland(MilneBayProvince).Thisflakeisassociatedwithradiocarbondatedmaterialto2800yearsagofromEialogoat~800minelevation.Wehypothesise,basedonanotherobsidianflakefoundatDabonumu,thatasimilarageforthisexchangenetworkmayextendtoamuchwiderareaoftheOwenStanleyRanges.Interestingly, this exchange connection began soon after Lapita occupation of the South Coast atCaution Bay. It is possible that this connection may have extended from the north into the NaoroValleyfromtheKokodaValleyinOroProvince.Alongwith theobsidian flake finds,we identifiedabundantbasaltic,metamorphic andquartz stoneflakesandasingle flakeof chert,probably fromacoastal source, reinforcingahypothesisof strongexchange networks with coastal communities over the last 2800 years.We suggest that there is afavouredstone toolmaterial, given itsabundanceandpresence inall excavatedsites, indicating theprobablepresenceofastonequarryincloseproximitytoorwithintheNaoroValley.Itisalsopossiblethat the basal deposits of two of the excavated sites may hold pre‐agricultural material given thediversityofbasalticsourcematerialandcontrastingtoolmanufacturingtechniques.Further findsof surface stoneartefacts, to thatdescribed inourearlier report (Prebbleetal2013),provide evidence ofwidespreadoccupationpreceding themodern inhabitants extendingback to atleast2800yearsago.ThepresenceofnumerousnutanvilstonesfoundatthebaseoflivingTerminaliakaernbachii (okari) trees, used for the nut cracking by the people of Madilogo reflect the modernimportanceofthiscrop.OnepossibleanvilstonewaslocatedintheEialogodeposits,associatedwithokari Terminalia type microfossils dated to 2800 years ago, and this may indicate the initialestablishmentofcultivatedgroves.Asetofrecommendationsbasedontheresultsofourarchaeologicalexcavationsisprovided.


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TIMELINE

Date Persons Item15June Prebble&Leavesley ArriveinPortMoresby

16June Prebble,Leavesley,Kuaso&Keako

DepartviahelicoptertoMadilogoat10am;communityconsultationmeetingat2pm;3pmSurveyofEiaiafaha


ExcavationatEiaiafaha






ExcavationatEbologo

21Jun Prebble,Leavesley SDALotuDay:Prebble&Leavesleyconsolidatenotes&washartefacts


ExcavationatEbologo


TeamwalkstothecalderaofMadilogoVolcano,thentoDabonumutosurvey&excavate


ExcavationatEialogo


ExcavationatEialogo


DepartviahelicopterforPortMoresbyat1pm,4hourdelay;Prebble&LeavesleycompilesummaryofnotesformeetingwithDECstaff.KuasowritesNMAGexportpermit

27June Prebble&Leavesley MeetingswithDECstaff(JamesSabi,MarkNizetteandMalcolmKeako)discussingresultsoffieldwork.MeetingwithMrAloisKuasotocompleterequisitepaperworkformalities.

28June Prebble&Leavesley DepartforAustralia


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Malcolm Keako, Elton Kaitokai, James Sabi and Mark Nizette at the Department ofEnvironmentandConservation,(PapuaNewGuineaGovernment,PortMoresby)andJoyceOngugloofANU Enterprise Pty Ltd. We are also indebted to MarkWalker, who conducted the GIS predictiveanalysis and the phytolith analysis of the Eialogo section and Clair Harris, who conducted thetechnologicalanalysisoftheartefactassemblages.


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Contents TEAMCOMPOSITION...............................................................................................................................................................4

EXECUTIVESUMMARY...........................................................................................................................................................5

TIMELINE.....................................................................................................................................................................................6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................................................................................7

FRONTISPIECE...........................................................................................................................................................................9

MADILOGOTRAVELDIARYJUNE15TH‐26TH2014...............................................................................................10

ARCHAEOLOGICALEXCAVATION...................................................................................................................................13

SiteSelection..................................................................................................................................................................................13

1. Eiaiafaha...............................................................................................................................................................................15

2. Ebologo...................................................................................................................................................................................17

3. Dabonumu............................................................................................................................................................................18

4. Eialogo....................................................................................................................................................................................20

SUMMARYOFARTEFACTASSEMBLAGES...................................................................................................................22

OBSIDIANEXCHANGEINTHENAOROVALLEY........................................................................................................24

SURFACEFINDS......................................................................................................................................................................25

Nut‐crackingstoneanvils........................................................................................................................................................25

Otherstonetools..........................................................................................................................................................................25

ENVIRONMENTALARCHAEOLOGY................................................................................................................................26

VolcanismintheNaoroValley..............................................................................................................................................26

Comparativerecordsofenvironmentalchange............................................................................................................27

ImplicationsoftheMDG034Eialogorecord...................................................................................................................29

ThesignificanceoftheOkarinut(TerminaliakaernbachiiWarb.Combretaceae).....................................29

KEYRESEARCHOUTCOMES..............................................................................................................................................35

ONGOINGRESEARCHPRIORITIES..................................................................................................................................35

RECOMMENDATIONSFORFURTHERARCHAEOLOGICALRESEARCH...........................................................36

ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................................................................................................................38

BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................................................................39

APPENDIX1.Technologicalanalysisofartefacts:Table........................................................................................42

APPENDIX2.MicrofossilAnalysisofEialogoSediments.......................................................................................44

APPENDIX3.Sitelocations.................................................................................................................................................56

APPENDIX4.Additionalinformation.............................................................................................................................58


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FRONTISPIECE

AreaofInterest(AOI)andimmediatesurroundsofMaiMadilogoVillage(Purple).TheAOIissituatedwithinWard18oftheKoiariRuralLLG.UpperimageisfromtheAustralianAirforce1956‐57aerialsurveyandthelowerimageisfromGoogleEarth2001andlowerimage.AlsooutlinesareEialogo(red),OldMadilogo(yellow),EiaiafahaandTubelogo(darkred)andDabonumu(green).


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MADILOGO TRAVEL DIARY JUNE 15TH - 26TH 2014

Team:AloisKUASO(NMAG),MalcolmKEAKO(DEC),MattLEAVESLEY(JCU),MatPREBBLE(ANU)

Villagefieldworkers:FrankRabi,RexBamave,ElijahEzekiel,GideonSibi,SobiLadive,RobertSam,TuksyNegoa,Badie(Agulogo),Jo(Ebologo)

16thJune

9am PacifichelicopterfromJackson’sAirportto(Mai)1Madilogoarrivingat9:30.Clearconditions

Metwithalltheresidentsof(Mai)MadilogoandimmediatelybeganformaldiscussionswithFrankRabi(thevillagemagistrate)

WewereaccommodatedinFrankRabi’shouse.

ContinuedwithinformaldiscussionswithRABIaboutourprogram.

1pm Meetingwiththeentire(Mai)MadilogoVillage.KUASOdiscussedtheroleofNMAGandpresentedtheexcavationpermit.KEAKOdiscussedtheroleofDECandtheKokodaInitiativeprojectandtheplansfordevelopmentandtheneedforarchaeologicalwork.LEAVESLEYdiscussedthemeaningofarchaeologyanditsimportancefortheMountainKoiari.PREBBLEdiscussedtheresultsofthe2012archaeologicalsurvey.

3pm TeamvisitsEiaiafaha,ariver‐sidesectionofoldMadilogovillage,astheinitialselectedsiteforarchaeologicalexcavation.TeamalsovisitsasitewhereamokmokstonediscwaslocatedbyRexBamave

17thJune

8am–TeamdepartsforinitialexcavationsatEiaiafahaincludingaworkingpartyofninemenfromMadilogo

3pm Excavationendsfortheday.Fieldworkersreturnforfamilydutiesandlotuheldat5pm

Informalinterviewswithvillageresidentscontinued.LEAVESLEYrecordsanumberofsurfacefindscollectedbyvillageresidents

18thJune

8am‐ ReturntoEiaiafaha

KEAKOandPREBBLEcollectDGPSreadingsforthesite

3pm‐ Excavationsatthissitecompleted.

Informalinterviewswithvillageresidentscontinued.

19thJune

1(Mai)Madilogoreferstothemodernvillage,whereastheOldMadilogovillageliesaround500mtotheNorth.


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8am‐ ReturntoEiaiafaha

KEAKOandPREBBLEcollectDGPSreadingsforthesite

3pm‐ Excavationsatthissitecompleted.


20thJune

8am‐ TeamdepartsforinitialexcavationsatEbologoincludingaworkingpartyofninemenfromMaiMadilogo.JolivesatEbologoandaccommodatedtheteamwithuseofhishauskuk

3pm Excavationendsfortheday.Fieldworkersreturnforfamilydutiesandlotuheldat5pm


21stJune

SDAserviceday,noworkpermitted

FrankRabigaveteampermissiontowashanddryexcavatedmaterials

Teamconsolidatesnotes

22ndJune

8am‐ TeamdepartsforEbologo

4pm SomefieldworkersreturntoMaiMadilogoforlotu,othersstaytoassistwithcompletingtheexcavation.PREBBLEsamplestheexcavationwalls

5pm Excavationsatthissitecompleted.


23rdJune

7am‐ TeamandfieldworkersdepartforthecalderaofMadilogoVolcano

PREBBLEcollectsstoneandsedimentarymaterialforanalysis(sourcingoftephraetc.)

9am‐ TeamandfieldworkerscontinueontotheDabonumuridgelinesite

Historicartefactsfoundonsurface

1x1mexcavationconducted

PREBBLEsamplestheexcavationwalls

4:30pm TeamandfieldworkersreturntoMai


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24thJune

8am‐ TeamdepartsforinitialexcavationsatEialogoincludingaworkingpartyofninemenfromMaiMadilogo.

3pm Excavationendsfortheday.

25thJune

8am‐ TeamdepartsforinitialexcavationsatEialogoincludingaworkingpartyofninemenfromMaiMadilogo.

3pm Excavationsatthissitecompleted.


4pm Teampacksupreadyfordeparture

26thJune

8am‐ TeamreadyforpickupbyPacifichelicopter

11:30am‐ PacifichelicopterfromMaiMadilogotoJackson’sAirport.ClearconditionsexceptforsomecloudaboveNaoro.

12:30am LEAVESLEYandPREBBLEarriveatHolidayInnandbegintopreparepreliminaryreport.KUASOreturnstoNMAGtowriteouttheexportpermitforthearchaeologicalmaterialsforfurtheranalysis.


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ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION

Site Selection

Theselectionofsitesforarchaeologicalexcavationwasbasedonasynthesisoforalhistoriescollectedduringour2012fieldseason,fieldobservations(Prebble,Leavesley,ManduiandKaitokai),andaGIS‐based predictivemodeling approach (Walker and Prebble) using archaeological and environmentalparameters derived from existing archaeological records located within the Owen Stanley Range(namelyatKosipe,intheIvaneValleyandKokoda–LeavesleyandPrebble).InFigure 1aGISmodelof a broad area of the Kokoda IPZ is presented demonstrating the marked influence that riverproximityhasongarden/clearingpreferences,basedonextractedsatellite imagerydata.Combiningthesedatawithasetofenvironmentalparameters(includingaspect,hydrologicalslopeandland‐usevariables)pertainingtoexistingPleistoceneandHolocenearchaeologicalsitesintheIvaneValleywecan demonstrate the overall archaeological potential of Madilogo and vicinity and for Pleistocenearchaeologicalpotential(seeFigure 2).Theaimofthisfieldseasonwastocaptureasmuchvariationofsitetypesaspossible, todemonstrateandbuildabettermodelofarchaeologicalpotential fortheregionthanhasbeenaffordedfromexistingrecords.

Figure 1. GIS analysis demonstrating the marked influence that river proximity has on garden/clearingpreferenceswithgreenareasbeingclosestandredfarthestaway.Madilogoisshownbythecollectionofdata‐pointsinthebottomleftoftheimage.


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Figure 2.GISanalysisof thevariables ‘ASPECT’,'DISTANCE,'HYDROLOGICAL'SLOPE‘and‘LAND'USE'demonstratingtheoverallarchaeologicalpotentialofMadilogo and vicinity (Green) and for Pleistocene archaeological potential(Yellow).ThismodelwillbeimprovedwiththeuseofahighresolutionDEM.

1km


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1. Eiaiafaha SiteDescription(NMAGsitecodeyettobeobtained)Eiaiafaha(E=water,Eiaia=river,faha=hole)isapromontorysituatedat680minelevationandaround30maboveasubterraneansinkoraquifer,orpossiblyalavatubeintheEiaiaCreek(atributaryoftheNaoro River). The sink lies around 50 m to the north of the site. Eiaiafaha is also located on themargins of the unoccupied and forest covered Tubelogo village, around 900 m northwest of Ma iMadilogo. The forest canopy consists ofOkari (Terminaliakaernbachii)with an understory ofFicusspp.,Macarangasp.,Pouteriasp.,andArtocarpussp.,butdominatedbythe invasivesmalltreePiperaduncum.ThesitewaschosenforexcavationduetoitsproximitytotheoldvillagesofTubelogoandOldMadilogo,bothsitesbeinglastoccupiedinthe1950s(seeFrontispiece).TestPitExcavation2x2mTheTestPitsurfaceiscoveredwithOkarinutshellsandpig‘routing’isnoticeableinadjacentareas.The surface sediment consists of eroded scoria and decomposed organicmaterials and plant roots.TheSWquadrantwasexcavatedto20cm,andtheNWquadrantto50cm,whiletheNEandSEquadswere excavated to 1m. The spit depths, calculated for every10 cmweremeticulously coordinatedacross the entire 2 x 2m excavation,with these excavation samplingmethods applied to all otherexcavations presented in this report. The sediments consist of loose decayed scoria with theproportionof clay sediments increasingwithdepth. See the sectiondrawingof theEastwall of theexcavationillustratingthepredominantstratigraphyofthesite(Figure 3).

Figure 3.EastWallProfileoftheEiaiafahaExcavation

= Stone

= Plant Root

= Layer Boundary

0 10 20 cm

EXCAVATION PROFILE: EiaiafahaTest Pit 1 (2014), East Wall

L1 = Dry, friable grey/blackclay silt & roots

L2 = Grey/black to lightgrey/black clay silt &some large roots

L3 = Black humic clay silt

L4 = Black humicsto sterilelight yellow clay silt

L5 = Light yellow consolidatedclay silt, sterile, scoriaboulders

0 100 200

L2

L3

L4

L5

L1

100

1

20

40

60

80

= Microfossil Sample


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ArtefactsFifty‐oneartefactswere collected fromthe top90cmof the site (seeTable 1).Theyconsistofuni‐directionalandbipolarcores,complete,brokenandbipolarflakes.Theartefactswereproducedonarange of raw materials including; quartz, volcanics and chert. In particular, chert is relativelyuncommonbeingpresentintwositestestedinthe2014fieldseason.Thelower10cmofthedepositfrom 90‐100cm in depth held no cultural material. The preliminary analysis presented here wasundertakenbyHarrisandLeavesleyintheTropicalArchaeologyResearchLaboratoryatJCUinCairns.SelectedartefactswilllaterbeanalysedattheDepartmentofArchaeologyandNaturalHistory(ANU)Laboratoryforresidueanduse‐wear‐analysestoprovideinformationontoolfunction.

Depth below surface (cm)

Artefacttypes

Material(s) Brokenorcomplete

# Wt(g)

0‐10 Completeflakes(4) Quartz(4) Complete(4) 4 2.1810‐20 Brokenflakes(2)

Core(1)Completeflakes(4)

Quartz(5)Volcanic(1)Chert(1)

Broken(2)Complete(5)

7 12.16

20‐30 Brokenflake(1)Core(1)Completeflakes(13)

Quartz(13)Volcanic(2)


15 35.35

30‐40 Brokenflake(1)Completeflakes(9)Bipolarcore(3)Bipolarflake(2)



15 28.58

40‐50 Brokenflake(3)Completeflake(1)Bipolarflake(1)



5 36.48

50‐60 Completeflake Volcanic Complete 1 2.9860‐70 Completeflakes Quartz(2)

Volcanic(1)Complete 3 1.49

70‐80 0 080‐90 Bipolarflake Volcanic Complete 1 0.3590‐100 0 0

Table 1.SummaryoftheEiaiafahastoneartefactassemblage.MicrofossilSamplesTwenty‐foursedimentsamplesforpollenandphytolithanalysesweretakenfromtheEastwalloftheSoutheastQuadrant of the2 x2m excavation. Thesewill be analysed in the comingmonths in theDepartmentofArchaeologyandNaturalHistory(ANU)LaboratoryWoodcharcoalsamplesLargepiecesofwoodcharcoal,whereavailable,werecollectedfromthesievedmaterialforeachspit.Some pieces have been submitted to the radiocarbon dating lab, Direct AMS (USA) to develop achronology for the site. These pieces will later be analysed at the Department of Archaeology andNaturalHistory(ANU)Laboratoryandidentifiedtospeciestoprovideinformationonfueluseinthevicinityofthesite.


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2. Ebologo

SiteDescription(NMAGsitecodeyettobeobtained)Ebologoisacontemporarysmallhamletconsistingofawell‐maintainedlargegrass‐coveredclearingwithfive(5)houses(bothnewandunserviceable)situatedon itsperiphery. Thehamlet issituatedaround1.5hrswalkand2kmSE(inadirectline)fromMadilogoVillage,onthesouthernsideoftheNaoroRiver. Thehamlet,atanelevationof815m,iscomposedoffourhouses,butwastheprimaryresidence of only one family in June 2014. Ebologo lies on a North facing and sloped promontoryseparating two creeks to theNWandSE, respectively.The confluenceof these creeks is situatedat~150m belowEbologo to the north before draining into theNaoroRiver. The site has a northernaspect and is the only archaeological site investigated on the south side of the Naoro River. Thesurrounding forest canopy consists of okari (Terminalia kaernbachii) with an understory ofHydriastelesp.,Ficusspp.,Macarangasp.,Pouteriasp.,Artocarpussp.(breadfruit)andsomePandanusconoideus (marita),with surrounding fallowgardensdominatedby extensive standsof the invasivepeppertreePiperaduncum.ThesitewaschosenforexcavationprimarilybasedonourGISmodelingof Pleistocene and Holocene ‘open’ sites (see above), but also the historic 1957 imagery showingcontinuousactivegardeningsincethe1950s(seeFrontispiece).Thisimageryisunclear,butitappearsthatthehamletwascoveredinforestin1957,sohasonlybeenre‐establishedasahamletsincethattime.Theseobservationshaveyettobeconfirmedfromthelocalresidents.TestPitExcavation1x1mTheTestPit is located in themiddleof thegrass‐covered flat.The fourcornersof theTestPitweregeographicallypositionedusingadifferentialGPS(HemisphereS320),providinganaccuracyof<30cmresolution.Thesurfacesoillayerwasaround5cmindepth,withthesedimentthroughouttheentireexcavationdominatedbyyellow‐brownclayeysilt,with theproportionofclaysediments increasingwith depth. Permineralised root nodules and pumice or decayed scoria stone were also morefrequentlyencounteredwithincreasingdepth.Alargeamountofdecayedscoriastone(identifiedbyProf.HughDaviesUPNG)anda largeamorphouspieceofquartzwasencounteredatthebaseoftheexcavation(at85cmindepth).Apostholewithanimbeddedcharredpostwasfirstidentifiedat5‐6cmbelowthegroundsurfaceandwasexcavateddowntoadepthof85cm.Weceasedexcavatingthedepositat105cmbelowthegroundsurface,duetotheabsenceofrecoveryofculturalmaterial.ArtefactsTheEbologostoneassemblage isdominatedbyquartzartefactsandhasarelativelyhighnumberofbipolar cores (see Table 2). It also contains the only identified retouched flake and two artefactsclassified as groundobjects. This site also contains theonly flakeproducedon sedimentary rock.Agroundedgeaxeisproducedbyfirstflakingthegivenstonebydirectpercussiontotherequiredpre‐formshapeandthenpainstakinglygrindingthecuttingedgesmooth.While‘flaking’,moreaccuratelydescribedas‘knapping’ordinarilyproducesfairlyrapidresultswhilegrindingcanbearelativelylong


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and laborious process. Both knapping and grinding are evident in the Ebologo stone artefactassemblage.Asidefromthepost‐holecharcoaldeposit,thelower55cmofthedepositfrom45‐100cmindepthheldnoculturalmaterial.ThepreliminaryanalysispresentedherewasundertakenbyHarrisandLeavesleyintheTropicalArchaeologyResearchLaboratoryatJCUinCairns.SelectedartefactswilllaterbeanalysedattheDepartmentofArchaeologyandNaturalHistory(ANU)Laboratoryforresidueanduse‐wear‐analysestoprovideinformationontoolfunction.


Artefacttypes Material(s) Brokenorcomplete

# Wt(g)

0‐5 Completeflake Quartz Complete 1 0.1910‐15 Brokenflake(1)

Completeflakes(15)Bipolarcore(8)Retouchedflake(1)

Quartz(22)Volcanic(2)Sedimentary(1)


25 70.04

15‐25 Completeflakes Volcanic Complete 2 6.3625‐35 Brokenflake(1)

Completeflakes(6)Bipolarcore(1)Groundobject(2)

Quartz(6)Volcanic(3)Chert(1)


10 49.01

35‐45 Brokenflake Quartz Broken 1 0.53

Table 2.SummaryoftheEbologostoneartefactassemblage.MicrofossilsamplesTwenty sediment samples for pollen and phytolith analyseswere taken from the Southwall of theSoutheastQuadrant of the1 x1m excavation. Thesewill be analysed in the comingmonths in theDepartmentofArchaeologyandNaturalHistory(ANU)LaboratoryWoodcharcoalsamplesLargepiecesofwoodcharcoal,whereavailable,werecollectedfromthesievedmaterialforeachspit.Some pieces have been submitted to the radiocarbon dating lab, Direct AMS (USA) to develop achronology for the site. These remaining fragments will later be analysed at the Department ofArchaeologyandNaturalHistory(ANU)Laboratoryand identified tospecies toprovide informationonfueluseinthevicinityofthesite.

3. Dabonumu

SiteDescription(NMAGsitecodeyettobeobtained)Dabonumu is a hamlet or village last occupied in the 1950s or 60s based on oral histories andhistoricalaerialimageryobtainedfor1957(seeFrontispiece).Dabonumusitsataround1110maslonaridgelinethatiscurrentlycompletelyforested.Althoughflatonthetop,itismostlynarrowerthan50macross.Bothsidesof theridgeareextremelysteep foralmost theentiretyof their240mdescentintothevalleyflooroneitherside.Theonlyreasonableaccessisatrackalongtheridge‐toptotheeastorviaarelativelylesssteepspurtotheMadilogovicinitytothesouthwest.Oralhistoriessuggestthat


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thissitewasthe locationof the foundingancestralvillageof thevalleyandwasoccupiedbefore theadventofSDAmissionarycontactintheregion,intheearly20thCentury.Thesiteiscurrentlycoveredin forest, with the surrounding canopy consisting of Pandanus sp, Cyathea sp.,Hydriastele sp. andMeliaceae sp. with an understory of Cordyline fruticosa, Calamus sp. and abundant ground ferns(Sticherus sp., Blechnum sp. and Asplenium sp.). The site was chosen for excavation due to thesignificant oral history of the site, but also the aerial imagery indicating that the site had beenextensivelyclearedinthepast(seeFrontispiece).Demonstratingthearchaeologicalpotentialofsucharemotelocation,at2.5hourswalkbutonly2kmfromMa‐iMadilogo,wasadrivingfactorbehindourexcavationstrategy.Priortoexcavationaseriesofsurfaceobjectswereidentifiedincludingaformerhousepost andanoldmetalbucket.Our local informants, representedbyFrankRabi, agreed theseobjects reflect the most recent occupation of the site. See Prebble et al. (2013) for a broaderdescriptionoftheethnographyassociatedwiththissite.TestPitExcavation1x1mThetestpitwasplacedonarelativelycentralandflatareaaround10mbelowthehighestpointontheridgelinethatappearedtorepresentasedimentdepositionalcenter.Thefirst0‐5cmoftheexcavationwasremovedduetothepresenceoflargeroots.Thisexcavationcomparedtoothersitesexaminedintherestofthevalleycanbecharacterizedbythelackofdecayedscoria.Thebaseofthedepositatadepthof105cmoverliessomeheavilydegradedstone,butmuchof thedeposit iscomposedof finedarkbrown,brownorreddish‐brownclayeysilt.ArtefactsSixartefactswerecollectedfromthetop75cmofthissite(seeTable 3).Themostremarkableistheobsidianflakefrombetween30‐35cmbelowthegroundsurface.ThenearestobsidiansourcetotheNaoro Valley is onWest Fergusson Island inMilne Bay. Themost parsimonious explanation for itspresence in this site is that it was exchanged ‘down‐the‐line’, hand to hand from community tocommunity before itwasultimately incorporated into theDabonumudeposit.Alsonotablewas thepresence of a flaked grass marble of the type children across New Guinea use for games. Theremaining flakes were produced on quartz which is locally ubiquitous. The assemblage includesevidence of both direct and bipolar percussion. The preliminary analysis presented here wasundertakenbyHarrisandLeavesleyintheTropicalArchaeologyResearchLaboratoryatJCUinCairnsSelectedartefactswilllaterbeanalysedattheDepartmentofArchaeologyandNaturalHistory(ANU)Laboratory forresidueanduse‐wear‐analyses toprovide informationontool function.Theobsidianflake will be examined for its elemental composition by Prof. Glenn Summerhayes (University ofOtago),toconfirmthevisualsimilaritywithWestFergussonsources.

Depth below surface (cm) Artefact Type Material

Broken or Complete

Wt. (g)

5 – 15 Complete Flake from glass marble Glass Complete 0.31

25 – 35 Bipolar Core Quartz Complete 2.05

30 – 35 Complete Flake Obsidian Complete 0.07

35 – 45 Complete Flake Quartz Complete 1.5

45 – 55 Complete Flake Quartz Complete 0.78

65 – 75 Broken Flake Quartz Broken 0.15

Table 3.SummaryoftheDabonumustoneartefactassemblage.


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MicrofossilSamplesTwenty sediment samples for pollen and phytolith analyseswere taken from the Southwall of theSoutheastQuadrant of the1 x1m excavation. Thesewill be analysed in the comingmonths in theDepartmentofArchaeologyandNaturalHistory(ANU)Laboratory.WoodcharcoalsamplesLargepiecesofwoodcharcoal,whereavailable,werecollectedfromthesievedmaterialforeachspit.Some pieces have been submitted to the radiocarbon dating lab, Direct AMS (USA) to develop achronology for the site. These pieces will later be analysed at the Department of Archaeology andNaturalHistory(ANU)Laboratoryandidentifiedtospeciestoprovideinformationonfueluseinthevicinityofthesite.

4. Eialogo

SiteDescription(NMAGsitecodeyettobeobtained)Eialogoisapresentlyunoccupiedvillagelocatedat740masland10mabovetheEiaCreekthatliesaround 100 m to the north. This site is located upstream from Eiaiafaha. The local ethnographysuggests thatuponcontactwith theSDAMissionaries thevillagesatDabonumuandother locationsmoved toEialogo. In2012, teammembers ledbyPrebblecollectedaugeredsedimentsamples fromthis site. The test pitwas situated adjacent to the auger hole. The excavation site is located on themarginsoftheoldvillagecomplex.TheforestcanopyconsistsofOkari(Terminaliakaernbachii)withanunderstoryofFicusspp.,Macaranga,Pouteria,andArtocarpus,butdominatedbytheinvasivesmalltreePiperaduncum.Thesitewaschosenforexcavationduetoitsproximitytotheoldvillage,buttheprimary driver behind this site selection is the results of the microfossil and sedimentary recordindicating 2800 years of forest clearance activity and gardening (seeAppendix 2 for a summary oftheseresults).Thisvillagecomplexalso formspartof theoralhistoryofvillagemobility inthetimebeforemissionary arrival. The village was occupied after the abandonment of Dabonumu, but wasabandonedwhenpeoplemovedtooldMadilogothenfinallyMa‐iMadilogo.

TestPitExcavation2x2mThe test pit surface was coveredwith ferns whichwere cleared before excavation. The top humicsedimentbetween0and25cmconsistedofabundantplantroots.Thefinesedimentsofthisdepositconsist of loose decayed scoria with the proportion of clay sediments increasing with depth. Theamountof‘natural’non‐artefactstonepresentwithineach10cmspitisgreatestbetween75to85cm.Two large blocks were located between 55 and 65 cm, one of which appears to have a concavity(facingupwardsinthedeposit),whichisreminiscentofacupulefromananvilstone.Itmaybenaturalas it lacks the kind of morphological regularity common to crafted anvil stones. However, manycontemporaryanvilstonesfoundinthevicinityofthesite(seePrebbleetal2013andbelow)areoftenirregular in shape. See the section drawing of the South wall of the excavation illustrating the


21

predominantstratigraphyofthesite(Figure 4).AlsoseeAppendix2forfurthersedimentdescriptionsbaseontheaugersedimentscollectedfromEialogoin2012.

Figure 4.SouthWallProfileoftheEialogoExcavation

ArtefactsTheEialogostoneartefactassemblage(seeTable 4)containsacompleteedgegroundstoneaxe(seeFigure 5)andablade fragmentofasecondedgegroundstoneaxe. Italsocontainsoneofonly twoobsidianflakes(seeFigure 6)sofarrecordedinthelowerelevationareasofthelower‐montaneNaoroValley.Bycomparisonwiththeauger(seeAppendix2)theseartefactsdatetobetween2800and2500years ago. Thepreliminary analysis presentedherewasundertakenbyHarris andLeavesley in theTropicalArchaeologyResearchLaboratoryatJCUinCairns.Selectedartefactswilllaterbeanalysedatthe Department of Archaeology and Natural History (ANU) Laboratory for residue and use‐wear‐analysestoprovideinformationontoolfunction.TheobsidianflakewillbeexaminedforitselementalcompositionbyProf.GlennSummerhayes(UniversityofOtago),toconfirmthevisualsimilaritywithWestFergussonsources.

= Stone

= Plant Root

= LayerBoundary

0 10 20 cm

EXCAVATION PROFILE: Eialogo Test Pit 1 (2014), South Wall

L1

L2

L3

L4

L5

L1 = Dry, friable grey/blackclay silt & roots

L2 = Grey/black to lightgrey/black clay silt &roots

L3 = Black humic clay silt

L4 = Black humicsto sterilelight yellow clay silt

L5 = Light yellow consolidatedclay silt, sterile


22


Artefacttypes Material(s) Brokenorcomplete

# Wt(g)

0‐5 0 010‐15 0 015‐25 0 025‐35 Brokenflakes Quartz Broken 2 0.3235‐45 0 045‐55 0 055‐65 Brokenflake Quartz Broken 1 0.8160‐65 Completeflakes(2)

Groundedgeaxefragment(1)

Volcanic(2)Obsidian(1)(Figure4)


3 13.3

65‐70 Groundedgeaxe(Figure3) Volcanic Complete 1 46.8170‐75 0 075‐85 Brokenflake Volcanic Broken 1 1.8985‐95 Brokenflake

CompleteflakeQuartzVolcanic


2 0.2

Table 4.SummaryoftheEialogostoneartefactassemblage.MicrofossilSamplesTwenty‐foursedimentsamplesforpollenandphytolithanalysesweretakenfromtheEastwalloftheSoutheastQuadrant of the1 x1m excavation. Thesewill be analysed in the comingmonths in theDepartmentofArchaeologyandNaturalHistory(ANU)LaboratoryWoodcharcoalsamplesLargepiecesofwoodcharcoal,whereavailable,werecollectedfromthesievedmaterialforeachspit.Some pieces have been submitted to the radiocarbon dating lab, Direct AMS (USA) to develop achronology for the site. These pieces will later be analysed at the Department of Archaeology andNaturalHistory(ANU)Laboratoryandidentifiedtospeciestoprovideinformationonfueluseinthevicinityofthesite.

SUMMARY OF ARTEFACT ASSEMBLAGES

TheassemblagesfromEiaiafaha,Ebologo,DabonumuandEialogoindicatethatthemiddleNaoroRiverbasinregionwithinproximityoftheformervillageofMadilogohasanextensivearchaeologicalrecord(seeAppendix1forcompletetableoftheanalysesconductedbyClairHarrisandMatthewLeavesley).Whileonlyonesitehasyetbeenradio‐metricallydatedweknowthathumansbeganusingtheregionatleastby2900yearsago.Theyutilisedbothdirectpercussionandbipolarpercussiontechniquesandedge groundbladeproduction technology.Theyused the locallyubiquitousquartz andvolcanics aswell as smaller quantities of sedimentary rocks, chert and obsidian. They also participated in anexchange system that extends at least as far as West Fergusson Island. The 106 stone artefactsrecordedfromtheMadilogoexcavationshaveadensityof26.5/m3.ComparableartefactdensitiesforHoloceneopensitesinPapuaNewGuineaarerare.TheKafiavanarocksheltersitehas163/m3(White1972)whichistypicalofrockshelterdeposits,butEpeAmohoshelter inGulfProvincehas lessthanthe Madilogo assemblages at only 20/m3 (McNiven et al 2010). It remains to be seen how theseassemblagescomparewithrecentlyexcavatedassemblagesatCautionBay(Davidetal.2011).


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Figure 5SmallgroundstoneaxefromEialogoTestPit1.(Scale2cm)

Figure 6Obsidianflake,EialogoTestPit1.CharacteristicofWestFergussonmaterial.(Scale1cm)


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OBSIDIAN EXCHANGE IN THE NAORO VALLEY

The location of obsidian flakes, characteristic of theWest Fergusson sources (yet to be quantified),fromtheNaoroValleyexcavationsisoneofthemostsignificantaspectsofourresearchtodate.Asweoutline below, obsidian exchange is a key component of Pleistocene and Holocene economies andexchange systems in Papua New Guinea and these finds dating to 2800 years ago, connecting theNaoroValleywithaparticularlystonesourcethatwasexchangedasfarasVanuaturightthroughtoIndonesia.

Inter‐islandexchangeofobsidianinNewGuineaoccurredinthePleistoceneandwasfocusedonNewBritain sources (Summerhayes 2009). It was not until the arrival of Lapita that this formerly localexchange system rapidly extended across around 3000 km of ocean to encompass Fiji and Borneo(Summerhayes 2009). Thewestward extent of obsidian exchange, from themain quarries ofWestNew Britain (Talasea or Kutau/Bao), is marked by the 3000‐2000 year old deposits in the BukitTengkorakshelterinSabah(Bellwood1989,Chia2003,Reepmeyeretal2011).ThisobsidianhasalsobeenidentifiedfromsurfacefindsfromCebuatLastimosointhePhilippines(Reepmeyeretal2011).Until recently the earliest reported exchange of obsidian along the Papuan Peninsula coast wasthoughttobeconcurrentwiththeappearanceofwhatwasformallyknownasEarlyPapuanPottery(EPP)2500yearsago.ObsidiantradewasassumedtohavebeenrestrictedtothenorthcoastofNewGuinea,butrecentexcavationsfromtheCautionBayLapitasite,nearPortMoresbyhavechangedthisview. Obsidian from the Igaweta and Fagalulu sources on West Fergusson Island in theD'Entrecasteaux groupwas identified (McNivenet al2011), albeitnot from theKutau/Bao sources,butthisstillconfirmstheexistenceofasouthernexchangeroute.WestFergussonobsidianmayhaveformed part of a Lapita exchange system, nevertheless it has been identified as far west as theMoluccas and as far east as the Santa Cruz Group, Solomon Islands (Green and Bird 1989) andTeouma,Vanuatu (Reepmeyer et al 2010). It has also been identified on the Sepik coast at Tumleo(Golitkoetal2012)andnowintheNaoroValley.Ofnoteare the fourWestNewBritainobsidian flakesexcavated from theEasternHighlands siteofKafiavana(White1972:98,109).ThesewereexcavatedfromHorizonsIandIIwhichinouropinionappear tobepartofPhase III (theupper50cmof thedeposit)whichdates topost‐2000yearsago.Summerhayes(2009)interpretedthesepiecestobewithinthePhaseIIdeposits,datedto4500yearsago,butduetothedisturbedupperdepositsofthissitewesuggestamoreconservativechronologicalinterpretation.TheobsidianflakesfrombothKafiavanaandNaoroValleyareallsmall,withminimalcortex and reveal only minor artefact production at the site. This suggests that these flakes wereworked before importation, and may represent a form of non‐economic or symbolic utilization(Sheppard1993).Thismaybeafunctionofthelackofsamplingresolution,whichcouldberesolvedwithmoreexcavation,astheexchangeof largerpiecesofobsidian(e.g.cores)orpre‐workedpieceswouldrepresentmorecomplexeconomicutilization.AninterestingaspectoftheNaoroValleyobsidianflakesisthattheyarelocatedinboththevalleyflatsat Eialogo and on the ridgeline site of Dabonumu at 1100 m. The function of obsidian tools on aridgeline site would perhaps afford less opportunity for any economic utilization, and insteadprobably served as a symbol of connectivity for the ridgelineoccupantswith thenewly establishedcoastalexchangenetwork.Withinourrecommendations(seebelow)wesuggest thatexcavationsof


25

sites, both in the upper reaches of the Naoro Valley (e.g. at Manari) and in the valleys at higherelevations (e.g. Myola), should be conducted to determine the extent of this exchange network.Althoughwethinkunlikely, it isstillpossiblethatthedirectionof theobsidianexchangecouldhavebeenfromthenorthandfurtherexcavationsshouldbeconductedinthenorthernperipheryoftheIPZ.

SURFACE FINDS

Nut-cracking stone anvils

Okari and other nuts are an important protein source throughout theMountain Koiari region (seebelow).Pastandpresentinhabitantsoftheregionuseeitheranaxeorhammerstoneincombinationwithananvilstonetobreaktheouternutshellinordertogainaccesstothenutitself.Nutcrackinganvilswere identified at tendifferent locations inour2012 study (Prebble et al 2013).ManymorewereidentifiedintheJune2014season,butwerenotrecordedgiventheirapparentabundanceandare suggested as a priority for future field research. Our observations of anvil stones supports thehypothesis that they may have been associated with either former village sites or the nut treesthemselves.Other stone tools

Prior to the introduction of steel, stonewas themainmaterial sourced for the production of tools.Theyprovidearchaeologistswithimportantcluesintopasthumanactivitiesrelatedtotheir implicittechnologyandfunction.Surfaceartefactfindsinformarchaeologistsaboutnotionsoflandscapeuse.Sixstoneobjectswere identifiedby theteamduringthe2012survey(MDG00A,MDG00B,MDG00C,MDG00D,MDG00EandMDG00F).These include fourstoneaxeblades, eitherofLatePleistoceneorHoloceneage,andamokmok(MDG00F),anEastNewBritaintermforastonediscwithaperforation2.

2Thesewereapparentlyusedasstonecurrencyorfordecoration,tiedonabeltofachief,butotherfunctionalusesofthesetypesofstonemayalsoincludefibreproductionasanearlyformofspindlewhorlforprocessingvine fibres. Similardiscshavebeen located inLatePleistocene sites in SouthernChina (JudithCameronpers.comm.).Anotheralternativeisthattheseservedasastoneweightonearlydiggingsticksasfoundinmanystonetool assemblages in different parts of Africa (e.g. Davies, 1967). In the 2014 season another three stone axeblades(MDG00H,MDG00IandMDG00J)wererecordedaswellasanothermokmok(MDG00K).


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ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY

In2012,weaugeredaseries~1mdeepsedimentdepositsinthevicinityofthecontemporaryandoldvillages on what we call the ‘Madilogo Flat’. One auger site (MDG034) at the ancestral village ofEialogo, was originally interpreted to potentially hold the original Pleistocene‐aged ‘Kosipe Type’blacksoilorHoloceneblacksoils(Prebbleetal2013).Ourexcavationsatthissitenowshowthatthisis an important cultural deposit andmicrofossil and radiocarbon analyses (Appendix 2) now showthatthisislessthan3000yearsold,confirmingourlaterHoloceneblacksoilinterpretation.Thisisanimportant result, considering the presence of obsidian and chert and the ramifications for thepresence of these exotic tools as evidence of exchange with coastal communities. Other sedimentdepositsaugeredin2012ontheMadilogoFlatrevealedhighlyweatheredsedimentspreservinglittleorganicmaterial (Prebbleetal2013).Basedon thearchaeological findings in the June2014seasoncombined with the microfossil analyses (see Appendix 2), we now suggest that the other augereddepositsexamined in the2012season (MDG031,MDG032,MDG033,MDG035andMDG036)donotrepresentlargevillagecomplexes,butmayhaveservedsomeotherfunctioninthelandscapeincludingasgardens,aswasthecasewithKabi’sGarden(MDG035andMDG036).

Theaugerprofile(MDG034)fromEialogohasbeenexaminedforfossilpollen,phytolithsandcharcoalparticlesandotherenvironmentalproxiesincludingradiocarbondating,inordertoestablishtheageandbackgroundvegetationchangeandculturalsequence(seeAppendix2).OurprovisionalsynthesisofthesedatacombinedwithourexcavationdatafromEialogosuggeststhatataround2800yearsago,there was a rapid expansion of village settlements, forest clearance and the influx of Terminaliamicrofossilsindicativeofokariaboriculture.

Volcanism in the Naoro Valley

Lying at an elevation of around 850m, and around 250m above and 1 hour walk from thecontemporaryMa‐iMadilogovillage, liesthestrombolianMadilogovolcano(Blake1976).Duetotheextensiveforestcoveroftheregionandthegeneralinaccessibilityofthecalderaitwasnotrecogniseduntil1969andconsequentlyhasbeenpoorlydescribed (Blake,1976).Thevolcanoproduceda lavaflowthatextends1kmtothewestofMa‐iMadilogoandprobablydissectedtheNaoroRivertoformtheKaiavuwaterfall.Althoughaneruptionrecorddoesnotexistforthesite,itseemscertainthatthevolcanoisresponsibleforash/tephrafalleventsoverthevillagesiteofatleastsometimeinthepastandmorelikelyonmultipleoccasions.AttemptsbyBlake(1976)tolooselyreconstructtheageofthemain lava flows, basedupon re‐vegetation rates, place it at less than1000 years old or even a fewhundred years old.Our excavations conflictwith this interpretation, as the basal deposits from theMadilogoFlatsites(EialogoandEiaiafaha),whichwehaveradiocarbondatedtoaround2800years,overlyadensebaseofdecomposedscoriaindicativeofalavaflow.

TheEbologoarchaeologicaldeposit,situated2kmsouthfromtheMadilogoVolcanoecaldera,onthesouthern side of the Naoro River, overlies isolated boulders of highly degraded scoria which wesuggestmayhavebeendepositedasfragmentalejecta.TheEbologoscoria,fromaprovisionalanalysisis less dense than the material excavated fromMadilogo Flat.We assume that this deposit is of asimilar age to theMadilogo Flat deposits, but the forthcoming radiocarbon dates on archaeologicalcharcoalwillprovideaminimumchronologyforscoriadeposition.ThebaseoftheDabonumudeposit


27

ontheridgelineaboveMadilogoFlatandthecalderaconsistsofwhatweassumetobeolderbasalticstone, but not decayed scoria from the eruption that affected the other sites, again attesting to thelocalizedlavaflowsandejecta.

It is still conceivable that the analysis ofBlake (1976)waspartly correct as tephramayhave beendeposited in small eruptive phases over the last 1000 years. Such eventsmay have beenminor astephra sourced to this volcanohas yet to be located in lake or swampdeposits in proximity to thecaldera. The impact of Mt Lamington, 70km to the NE of Madilogo Flat, is better established withdepositsrecordedfromaseverallocationsbacktoapproximately70,000yrsBPandmostrecentlyin1952(Ruxton1988;Coulter2009).

TheimplicationsofthevolcanoforthearchaeologyoftheNaoroValleyaretwofold.Firstly,thereisaminimumtimebeforeoccupationof thevalleywaspossibleasthe lava flowsandejectawouldhavetemporarilydecimatedthevalley.Itispossiblethatthemainlavaflowoccurrednotlongbeforeinitialoccupation3000yearsago.Secondly,thereissomedatafromothervolcaniczonesthattephraladensubstratesofintermediateage(hundredsofyears)aremorefertilethanveryyoung(<100years)orvery old substrates (thousands of years; Hartshorn et al. 2006). Ash‐rich soils also have a greatersurfaceareaandwaterholdingcapacity(Chadwicketal.2003).Themicrofossildata,particularlyofspikes in Cyperaceae sedge pollen, from the MDG034 auger show that there were periods whenEialogowas not free draining. From our analysis of tephra sherds fromwithin these sedimentswesuggest that the frequent eruptions either from Madilogo Volcano or other eruption sources, wasfollowed by periods ofwater logging and the formation of smallwetlands. Themain tephra spikesoccur before 1300 BC, between 800 BC and AD 900, and at~AD 1500 and~AD 1700. After theseperiodswe canhypothesise that Eialogobecamemore suitable for the establishment of agricultureandforvillageexpansion.

ThesignificantbodyofresearchconductedinEastNewBritain(e.g.Torrenceetal2012)providesausefulmodelforfurtherresearchwithintheIPZinhighlightingtheimportanceofactivevolcanicareasto human populations. The archaeological and environmental data obtained from the WillaumezPeninsulaexcavationsshowthatpeoplemayhavetakenadvantageoftheeffectsofvolcanicactivitytoestablish relatively permanent gardens and therefore avoid the costs associated with shiftingcultivation. To establish whether the Willaumez Peninsula model applies to the Naoro Valley,particularly those areas inproximity toMadilogoVolcanoneeds tobe tested. It is possible that theNaoro Valley is unusual and because of the fertile soils associated with the intermediate‐agedMadilogoVolcanolavaflowsmayhavedrawnpopulationsofpeopletothisvalley,moresothanlessfertileadjacentvalleys.

Comparative records of environmental change

Wehave previously provided a summary of comparative studies indicating environmental changesacross the Papuan Peninsula (Prebble et al 2013). Themost useful study for comparisonwith theEialogosequence,comes fromTouku,20kmto theeastofKokodaStation,OroProvince(HopeandPrebble in prep). Fossil pollen and charcoal particle data suggests that some degree of humaninfluence has been present for at least 6000 years in the Yodda valley. This sequence partiallyresembles the Highland valleys of the Western Ranges of Papua New Guinea and which weresubstantially disturbedby around this time (Hope andHaberle 2005). Transformation of the lower


28

slopesof thesurroundingmountains isnowobvious,andtheNaoroValleyandMadilogoValleyFlathasbeenintensivelymanagedforarboriculturalandagriculturalproductionlongbeforetheEuropeanera introductionofnewcrops, animals, andplantation techniques.The record fromToukusuggeststhat largescalevillagesettlementsextendbacktoaround3000yearsagowithearlier less intensiveoccupation indicated by at least 5500 years ago. This evidence for a later expansion of villagesettlementsrunsindirectparallelwiththeEialogosequence.

TheeffectsoflargetephrafallsonsettlementpatternshavebeenstudiedinNewBritainatYombonatca500maltitudewhereTorrenceetal(2012)haveidentifiedonalongsequenceofabandonmentandresettlementafter large tephraevents.They foundevidence forarboricultureandhorticulture fromtheearlyHoloceneandalsousedtheoccurrenceofcharcoalparticlestoinferanthropogenicburningfrom late Pleistocene times. They also indicate a parallel between their records and theHighlands.Regularfallsofvolcanicashmayhaveburiedlivingforestfloors,asoccurredinthePleistoceneintheIvaneValley(Summerhayesetal2010).ItseemsunlikelythattephrafallsintheYoddaValleyinthepastwould have had lethal effects on vegetation or people as they probably representedweeks ormonths of ash fall. Though probably socially disruptive, the record from Touku provides tentativeevidencethatafterlargeeruptionsthetephra(oftenwasheddownslope)mayhavechangedlocalsoilhydrologyandnutrients.Thesenewsoilsmayhavealsobeenauseful resource fordevelopingnewgardens and arboricultural systems (Hope and Prebble in prep). The Touku record suggests thatlowlandandinlandvalleysmayhavepresentedattractivesitesforagricultureandcropdevelopmentoverthelong‐term.

Withinthelast5000yearstwokeyvolcanicashfalleventshavebeenrecordedatToukuincluding:

1.4,000yearsago,possiblyamajorMtLamingtonashfallevent;

2.500yearsago,alikelyMtLamingtonevent;

3.300yearsago,possiblytheTibito(LongIsland)eruptionevent,recordedthroughoutmanypartsoftheHighlandsandotherpartsofPapuaNewGuinea(Coulteretal2009).

Another comparative environmental archive of relevance for the Eialogo record comes from LakeWaigani,within the Laloki catchment (Osborne et al 1993; Finn et al., in prep). Fossil diatoms andcharcoalparticledata fromlakesedimentsradiocarbondatedto3500yearsagorevealanumberofpeak sedimentation events. These events may be indicative of higher precipitation, vegetationclearance, or possibly volcanic ash deposition although, no distinct bands of tephra have beenidentifiedwithin theMDG034 record. These data suggest humans had some influence on the sitewithin the last 3000 years, but the environmental impacts were minimal. The earliest peaks incharcoalparticlesfoundinLakeWaiganiaresynchronouswiththeevidenceforLapitaarrival inthePortMoresby/CautionBayarea(McNivenetal2011).

Themaineventsarerecordedasfollows:

1.2800to2500yearsagoimpactsofincreasedhumaninhabitation

2.2500to1600yearsago,reducedhumanactivity

3.1600to1200yearsagoincreasedhumanactivity


29

4.1000yearsagotothepresentreducedprecipitationbutwithsustainedforestburning.

Further characterization of the environmental events represented at Touku and LakeWaigani andothersitesisrequired,butsimilarchangesarerepresentedwithintheEiologosequence(seeAppendix2).

Implications of the MDG034 Eialogo record

BasedonthemicrofossilexaminationoftheEialogosequence(Appendix2)weconcludethefollowing:

1.Priorto3000yearsago(1700to1000BC)littleorganicaccumulationandmicrofossilpreservationis recorded at the site and the vegetation consisted of tall rainforest tree species includingElaeocarpus.Lowcharcoalconcentrationsmayindicatelessforestmodification

2. From 3000 to 2800 years ago (1000 to 800 BC) there is a transition from arboreal to grassdominance towards indicating amoreopen, non‐forest environment. Cyperaceae sedges arefound in their greatest abundance in this period and may indicate waterlogged soils fromreduced drainage from volcanic ash deposition. The presence of abundant Pseudoschizaearesting spores indicative of seasonally exposed soils. The increase inmagnitude of burningevents suggests forest clearance, potentially for the expansion of village and garden sites.Terminaliapollenandpossiblephytoliths(probablyofOkari)aremoststronglyrepresentedinthispartoftherecordandindicatepossiblearboricultureatthistime.

3.From2800to1200yearsago(800BCtoAD800),thereisahiatusintherecord,possibleduetositeabandonment,changingclimaticconditionsorvolcanictephradeposition.

4.From1200to600yearsago(AD800to1400),GrassesareabundantbutdecreasetowardsthetopaspalmsandUrticaceae/Moraceaeincrease.Treesandshrubsremainconsistentthroughoutthisperiodbuthaveacomparativelylowpresence.Pseudoschizaearestingsporesindicateanopenenvironmentthatisseasonallydry.

5.From600yearsagotothepresent(AD1400tothepresent),amixedmosaicofvegetationtypesarepresentedinthisperiod.Grassesarecommon,andofthetreespresent,palmsdominate.Itispossiblethattheregionwidevolcanicash‐falleventsincludingfromMtLamingtonataround500 years ago and Tibito at around 300 years ago are represented in this record, but theresponsesofvegetationareunclear.

The significance of the Okari nut (Terminalia kaernbachii Warb. Combretaceae)

August 1st 1879 'I stayedwith a party of nativeswhowere getting a kind of largealmondwitha thick fleshy rind, thenut insideveryhard,which theybrokeopenwithstones, filling theirkitswithkernels.They call thenutokari.They fedmewith sugar‐cane,taro,andokari,andthengotleavesformetoreston.'RevJamesChalmers(inChalmers1886:111)earliestreferencetookarinuts,confirmingitspre‐EuropeancontactstatuswithinthecentralGoldieRivercatchmentat720minelevation


30

Figure 7. Chalmers 1886: 101 showing a hamlet at 720 m inelevation in the upper catchment of the Goldie River in 1879.Illustrated isa treehousewithinwhatappearstobeanokari tree(Terminaliakaernbachii)withacoconut(Cocosnucifera)alongside.The presence of coconut indicates a strong coastal connection, asthese trees, like the okari, must have been translocated into thelowermontanezone.


31

Rich in fat andprotein,manynutkernels, suchas thoseof theokari, provide significantnutritionalvalue. Inaddition to theirhighproportionofplant fats,nuts supply largequantitiesof theessentialfatty acids, linoleic acid and linolenic acid, which the human body cannot produce on its own(Mathewsetal2000).TheimportanceofnutstomontanePapuaNewGuineansocietieshasprobablybeen down‐playedwhen compared to the importance of animal hunting. Part of this is due to thepreservationandsiteselectionbiasofarchaeologicalrecords inthesemontaneregions.Muchof theresearch,todate,hasbeenbasedonrockshelterdeposits,holdinguniquedeposits,oftenrichinanimalboneandlackingplantremains.Bycontrastopensiteexcavations,likethoseconductedintheNaoroValley, have been the most archaeologically informative for understanding the timing of humanoccupationofNewGuineaandPleistocenenut‐based(karukaPandanusjuilianetii/brosimoscomplex)subsistence(Summerhayesetal2010);andunderstandingthetimingandindependentdevelopmentofcomplexplantproductionsystemsintheearlytomid‐Holocene(Denhametal2003,DenhamandBarton2006).Wecontend,asotherauthorshavedonethatplantproducts,particularlynuts,probablyformedamorepivotalpartoftheadaptivesubsistencestrategiesinmontanePapuaNewGuineathanhunting.

Madilogo lies within the lower montane forest zone between c. 700 to 1500 m, characterized bydominanttallevergreenforesttreesincludingCastanopsisandElaeocarpusspp.(Mabbuttetal1965,Paijmans, 1976). The sub‐canopy is often composedofPometia,Artocarpus,Sterculia andPandanusspp.growinginacidredorbrownclaysoilsandacidbrownlithisols(Mabbuttetal1965,Paijmans,1976).Lowermontaneforestsmayhavenaturallyprovidedavarietyofedibleseedandnutproducingplants for immediate consumption (e.g. Castanopsis spp., Pandanus conoideus, Gnetum gnemon,Pometia pinnata) and storage (e.g. Pangium edule) forming a central part of the diet of ‘hunter‐gatherer’ societies (Mountain 1991, Yen 1991). However, the origin of more intensive modes ofproduction,includingarboricultureandagriculturethatmayhavearisenwithpopulationexpansionintheHolocene,remainscontentious.The long‐termcentralityofokari(Terminaliakaernbachii) in theproductionsystemsoftheMountainKoiariwholiveinthelowermontaneforestzone(Prebbleetal2013) is emphasized by the early description of Rev. James Chalmers (see above). Herewe brieflyexploreaspectsofokaridomesticationandarboriculturebasedonitsbiologicaltraits(seePrebbleetal2013)andmicrofossilrepresentationwithintheEialogoarchaeologicalsequence.

Yen (1982) first suggested thatplantdomestication inPapuaNewGuineacouldhave started in thelowermontaneforestandlowlandforestzonesasmanyofthemostoftheimportant ‘domesticated’plants have their origins in these vegetation zones. Yen (1991) later presented the ‘extension ofadaptation’hypothesisoflowlandandcoastalspeciesaswellhashighlandandhighlandfringespecies.HecitesTerminaliacopelandii,probablysynonymouswithT.kaernbachii, asoneof the few treesofprobable lowland/coastalorigin thathasbeenspecificallyadapted forproduction in lowermontaneandlowlandforests.The‘wild’distributionofokariisunknown(seeFigure 8foramapofherbariumspecimensofokariknownfromPapuaNewGuinea),butduetoitssemi‐deciduoushabit,losingsomeof its leavesduring thedry season, it is likely that this treewasoriginally found inhighly seasonaldeciduous forest belts found lowland/coastal areas of southern New Guinea. A belt of slightlydeciduousforest(seeFigure 9)ispresentinlandfromthesouth‐centralcoastindicatingatransitionbetweensavannah(annualrainfall<1.25m)andevergreenrainforest(annualrainfall>2.5m).Theseslightlydeciduousforestbeltsprobablyformedduetoacombinationofseasonaldroughtstressandshallow soils. Deciduous trees frequently found within these forests include Garuga floribunda,Brachychitoncarruthersii,Intsiabijuga,ProtiummacgregoriiandSterculiaspp.NumerousTerminaliaspp.andotherCombretaceae(e.g.Combretum)arealsofoundwithinthisslightlydeciduousforestbelt,


32

many of which have complex cytologies, indicative of potential selective pressure by humans. AstronglydeciduousforestpocketisfoundonthecoastallimestonehillsnearPortMoresbywheretheannualrainfall is lessthan1m(Figure 9).Otherspecies, inadditiontothoseabove,areGyrocarpusamericanus,Bombaxceiba,Albiziaspp.,Maniltoaspp.,AdenantherapavoninaandErythrinaspp.Thisforesthasalowandopencanopyandinplacesgradesintowoodlands.LessTerminaliaspp.arefoundinthisforesttype.

Figure 8.GoogleEarthimagewiththelocationsofrecordedherbariumspecimensofokari(Terminaliakaernbachii). Note the main collections are known from lowland rainforest zones of the PapuanPeninsula. Most records are derived from the PNG Plants database(http://www.pngplants.org/PNGdatabase).


33

Figure 9.GoogleEarthimageoftheKokodaIPZandsoutherncoastnearPortMoresby.SuperimposedontheimagearethedeciduousforestareascharacterizedbyMabbuttetal1965.Thefinepurplelinesindicate the key rainfall bands of 1.25m (at the southern boundary of the IPZ) and 2.5m (to theNorthwest of Edebu). Also shown are the Kokoda Track and the track from Edebu to Madilogo(orange). Also indicated is the location of the Holotype for Terminalia kaernbachii (the herbariumspecimenfromwhichthespeciesisdefined).

IfwefollowYen’s‘extensionofadaptation’hypothesis,wecouldexpectthelowland/coastaldeciduousforests to have held the primary ancestral population of okari, fromwhich people expanded theirrange, translocating plants to the lower montane forest zone, and then tended trees and selecteddesirable traits, particularly nut size.With this hypothesis inmind, what evidence dowe have fortranslocation,tendingandharvestingprocesses?Firstly,okariseedsaretoolargefornaturaldispersalinto the lower montane forests. Natural dispersers capable of transporting their large fruits arecurrentlyabsent fromPapuaNewGuinea.Naturaldispersersmayhave includedDiprotodon spp.orothermegafaunaspecieswhichoccupiedtheregionuntilthelatePleistocene.

Secondly, thegenusTerminalia has relatively large amounts ofnuclearDNAandoftenhasdifferinglevels of polyploidy (Ohri 1996). Some triploid species, for example,maybe apomictic, reproducingclones throughunfertilizedseeds.Clonal reproductioncanoften inducesomaticmutations inplantswhichallowforrapidselectionofdesirabletraitsbyhumans. Inaddition, thewoodof thepolyploid


34

species ofTerminalia is lighter and growsmore vigorously (Ohri 1996). The level of polyploidy isgenerally unknown across the Terminalia species of New Guinea, but it is thought to be higher inspeciesgrowinginhighlyseasonalareas(e.g.thedeciduousforestbeltsoflowlandCentralProvince).Polyploidy can also indicate high levels of selection and rapid rates of species diversification,characteristicofdomesticatedspecies.ThisistosomedegreeevidentfromtheprovisionalpopulationgeneticstudiesonTerminaliacattapa (talis) fromVanuatu,acloserelativeof theokari.Populationsfrom specific valleys showed more variation within populations than between populations fromneighbouringvalleys,indicatinghigherlocalselectionpressures(V.Lebot,pers.commJuly,2014).

Thirdly, evidence for a large increase in the abundance of fossil Terminalia pollen and possiblephytoliths fromtheMDG034assemblageatEialogo(seeAppendix2)between2800and2500yearsago,suggestthatasthisvillagewasexpanded,sotoodidTerminaliapopulations.Evidenceforforestmanagement and perhaps Terminalia arboriculture is also found within the microfossil data.Secondary forest taxa, mainly sub‐canopy species that colonize disturbed forest patches, includespecieswithinthegeneraAcalypha,Dodonaea,MacarangaandTremaarestronglyrepresentedintheMDG034recordinassociationwithTerminalia.GrassdominantvegetationisalsorecordedwithinourproposedperiodofTerminalia arboriculture (2800 to2500years ago) and is thought tohavebeenusually influenced by human activities, primarily agriculture, although once established they aremaintainedbyperiodicburning.Our fossildataalsoshowthatother tall forest treeswereexcludedfrom the area providing robust evidence for the probable tending of Terminalia trees. Finally, ourevidence for okari nut harvesting, based on the excavation of a possible anvil (nut‐cracking stone)fromtheEialogoTestPit,furtherstrengthenourcaseforokariarboricultureintheNaoroValley.

Inaddition,okariarboriculturemayhavebeenintensifiedbecauselargemammals,suchasthewaveofnew pig introductions thatmay have arrivedwith Lapita colonization, that are capable of crackingokari nuts, may have competed with humans for this protein rich food. Such competition wouldprobablyhaveforcedthepeopletokeeptrackofeachgrovesripeningseason,sothattheycouldpickthefruitbeforeitfellorcollectitfromthegroundimmediatelyafterward—beforenutpredationbypigs,otheranimals,orotherpeople.

Severalcaveatsexistwithinourhypothesis,whichwillrequireanextensivepopulationgeneticsstudyaswellasfurtherarchaeologicalexcavationdatatobeadequatelyaddressed.Nevertheless,wehaveastrongcasedemonstratingtheexpansionofokariarboricultureafter2800yearsago.Atpresent,itisnot possible to determine from archaeological evidence if the okari found in the Naoro Valley aredomesticated varieties, but several aspects of this tree species suggest probable domesticationfollowing human selection (e.g. for large fruits and polyploidy). We contend that with furtherarchaeologicalresearch,severalaspectsofbothokaridomesticationandarboriculturecanberevealedprovidingafoundationforunderstandinglong‐termhumansubsistenceinthelowermontanezone.


35

KEY RESEARCH OUTCOMES

Earliest evidence of exchange with coastal communities (possibly Lapita-related) of obsidian (2800 years ago) into the montane valleys of Papua New Guinea.

Evidence for the expansion of settlements as a proxy for agricultural (primarily indicated from microfossil evidence), but certainly arboricultural production in the Kokoda IPZ by 2800 years ago.

Evidence for the expansion of okari nut arboriculture and possible evidence for processing 2800 years ago.

Possible evidence for a shift in stone tool technologies and manufacture associated with interaction and exchange with coastal communities in the late Holocene.

ONGOING RESEARCH PRIORITIES

Human landscape-use in the Pleistocene and Holocene

Theadditionoffourmid‐lateHolocenearchaeologicalsitesintheNaoroValleywillimmediatelyallowustoimproveourpredictiveGISmodel,initiallyusedtoselectthesitesforexcavationintheJune2014season. This will be critical to the proposed hydro power development at Madilogo involvingsubstantialearthworks(i.e.forthepotentialdamproject).Ourpredictivemodelcouldfurtherimproveourabilitytolocatearchaeologicalsiteswithintheplannedfloodzone.Asmentionedbelow,westillrecommendfieldexcavationsofpre‐floodingincertainlocationsinordertoensuretheintegrityofanypotentialarchaeologicalsitesfoundwithintheplannedfloodzone.WehopetohavethispreparedandsenttoDECforconsiderationbyOctober2014.

Trade and exchange

TheNaoro Valley obsidian flakes, currently determined fromobservational descriptions to be fromWestFergusonIslandwillbequantitativelyexaminedbyProf.GlennSummerhayesoftheUniversityofOtago.AnalysistobecompletedbyOctober2014.

Extend and refine chronology of human occupation in the IPZ

Further radiocarbondateswillbeobtained from identifiedwoodornut‐endocarpcharcoal samplesidentifiedinthefield(possibleokarinutfragments)byDrMatthewPrebble(ANU).TheseradiocarbondatesarecurrentlyfundedthroughaRSAPresearchgrantawardedtoDrMatthewPrebbleaspartofextending the research component of the Kokoda Initiative project. Basal archaeological charcoalsampleshavebeensubmittedtotheDirectAMSlab,Seattle,USA.ResultsfromtheseanalyseswillbeexpectedbyOctober2014.

Archaeological charcoal analysis

Woodandendocarpcharcoal are currentlybeinganalysed inorder toprovidedataon fueluse (fordomesticfires)andpotentiallythedomestication,cultivationandharvestofokarinut.Morematerial


36

will be required from additional excavations in order to improve the interpretative value of theseanalyses.

Stone tool residue and use-wear analyses

TheNaoro Valley stone tool assemblage has been described using a technological analysis by ClairHarris(UniversityofQueensland)andDrMatthewLeavesley(JCU).ThesetoolswillbesenttotheANUfor epi‐illuminatingmicroscope and scanning electronmicroscope analyses byDrMatthewPrebble(ANU) to determine potential plant residues on each artifact.More artefactswill be required fromadditionalexcavationsinordertoimprovetheinterpretativevalueofsuchanalyses.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Proposed dam flood zone archaeological impact mitigation

OurpredictiveGISmodelwillbeabletoprovideadetailedoutlineofareaswithintheplannedfloodzone thatmight hold archaeological value.Our current predictivemodel is based on a 30mdigitalelevationmodel (DEM). Upon receiving the high resolutionmodel housed by DEC (M. Keako pers.comm.),wehopetobeabletoprovideamoreprecisepredictivemodelthatwillprovideDECwiththenecessarydatatomakeaninformeddecisionaboutsettingpotentialimpactmitigationpriorities.

Trade and exchange

OurdatasuggestthatobsidianisprobablyabundantwithintheNaoroValleyfortheperioddatingtobetween2800and2500yearsago. Identifyingtheextentof theobsidianexchangenetworkthatwecontendexistedbetweencoastalLapita‐relatedcommunitiesandmontanePapuansocietiesisofvitalsignificance. This will require further excavation in other parts of the IPZ. It is also possible thatPleistocenehunter‐gatherersalsoexchangedobsidianashasbeendocumented inEastNewBritain,butthishasyettobeestablishedonmainlandNewGuinea.

Upper and Lower Naoro Valley Excavation (EAST- WEST excavations)

Within theNaoroValley, furtherarchaeological research shouldbe concentratedbothupanddownthecatchment(EASTtoWEST),focusingonbothlowervalleyflatsandridgelines.Thelocationoftheancestral village of Lo’o Tana, a village occupied before relocation to the ridgeline village ofDabonumu,prior to thearrival of theSDAMissionaries (M.Leavesley,MadilogoFieldNotes, 2014),should be ascertained, given its importance to the present day people. Coastal and east wardconnectionsshouldalsobeassessedbyexaminingsitesclosertoEdebu.

The interplay between okari and karuka arboriculture in the montane zones (SOUTH to NORTH excavations)

WestronglyrecommendthatDECencouragefurtherresearchintothedomesticationhistoryofokari,the totem tree of many Mountain Koiari communities. We believe that this tree not only has adomesticationhistoryuniquetotheIPZ,butwithourevidenceofprobablearboriculturalproductionandexchangeextendingbackto2800yearsago,mayrepresentadefiningpointinthedevelopmentofsocieties in the lowermontane zone. In conjunctionwith further archaeological excavation of sitesassociatedwithokarinutproduction,wesuggestthattheextentthesearboriculturalsystemsshouldbemappedandapopulationgeneticstudyconducted.


37

Inaddition,theextensiveworkconductedinthemid‐montaneIvaneValleyatKosipe,focusedontheanalysisofkaruka‐nutPandanusproductioninboththePleistoceneandHoloceneshouldbereplicatedwithin the Kokoda IPZ. The Ivane Valley research has yet to provide archaeological data on theinteraction betweenmid and lowermontane societies, whichwe believe can bemore immediatelyexamined within the Kokoda IPZ. The IPZ provides an ideal location for developing hypothesesregardingtheimportanceofnutproductioninPleistoceneandHoloceneeconomiesofmontanePapuaNew Guinea. If demonstrated, as we believe is immediately achievable with further archaeologicalresearch,thearchaeologyoftheKokodaIPZwillprovideauniqueandgloballysignificantmodelforthe interaction and exchange between the hunter‐gatherer/arboricultural (Papuan) societies withagriculturalsocieties(Austronesians/Lapita).


38

ABBREVIATIONS

AMS AcceleratorMassSpectrometry(Direct‐AMS=radiocarbondatinglabemployed)

ANU AustralianNationalUniversity

DEC DepartmentofEnvironmentandConservation(PapuaNewGuinea)

DEM DigitalElevationModel

IPZ InterimProtectionZone

NMAG NationalMuseumandArtGallery,PapuaNewGuinea

SDA SeventhDayAdventist

UPNG UniversityofPapuaNewGuinea


39

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APPENDIX 1. TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ARTEFACTS: TABLE

ByClairHarrisandMatthewLeavesley

Site Depth(cmbelowsurface) ArtefactType Material BrokenorComplete Weight(g)

Dabunumu

5‐15 CompleteFlakefromMarble Glass Complete 0.3125‐35 BipolarCore Quartz Complete 2.0530‐35 CompleteFlake Obsidian Complete 0.0735‐45 CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 1.545‐55 CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.7865‐75 BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.15

Eialogo

25‐35BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.17BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.15

55‐65 BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.81

60‐65CompleteFlake Obsidian Complete 1.73GroundEdgeAxeFragment Volcanic(Basalt) Broken 9.94Flake Volcanic Complete 1.63

65‐70 GroundEdgeAxe Volcanic(Basalt) Complete 46.8175‐85 BrokenFlake Volcanic Broken 1.89

85‐95BrokenFlake Volcanic Broken 0.7CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.13

Ebologo

0‐5 CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.19

5‐15

BipolarCore Quartz Complete 4.6BipolarCore Quartz Complete 3.96BipolarCore Quartz Complete 0.72BipolarFlake Quartz Complete 0.5CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.37CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.2CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.02CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.01BrokenFlake Sedimentary Broken 15.83RetouchedFlake Volcanic Complete 13.4CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 0.85CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.07BipolarCore Quartz Complete 19.14BipolarCore Quartz Complete 4.42BipolarCore Quartz Complete 1.04BipolarCore Quartz Complete 1.09Flake Quartz Complete 1.09Flake Quartz Complete 0.57Flake Quartz Complete 0.44Flake Quartz Complete 0.49Flake Quartz Complete 0.31Flake Quartz Complete 0.55Flake Quartz Complete 0.13Flake Quartz Complete 0.15Flake Quartz Complete 0.09

15‐25Flake Volcanic Complete 1.82Flake Volcanic Complete 4.54

25‐35

GroundObject Volcanic Complete 17.95BrokenFlake Chert Broken 0.42BipolarCore Quartz Complete 1.34Flake Quartz Complete 2.78Flake Quartz Complete 0.79Flake Quartz Complete 0.42Flake Quartz Complete 0.48Flake Quartz Complete 0.29GroundObject Volcanic Complete 8.01Flake Volcanic Complete 16.53

35‐45 BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.53


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Site Depth(cmbelowsurface) ArtefactType Material BrokenorComplete Weight(g)

Eiaiafaha

0‐10

CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.43CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 1.18CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.34CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.23

10‐20

BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.34Core Quartz Complete 8.39CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 1.22CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.17CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.24CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 1.23BrokenFlake Chert Broken 0.57

20‐30

Core Quartz Complete 21.27CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 4.94CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 1.06CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 1.06CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.7BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.63CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 0.53CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 0.81CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.34CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.39CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.99CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 1.18CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.52CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.49CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.44

30‐40

BipolarCore Quartz Complete 2.44CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 1.48CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 1.72CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.58CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.31CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.13BipolarFlake Quartz Complete 0.66CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.34CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.24BrokenFlake Volcanic Broken 2.55CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 9.99BipolarCore Quartz Complete 2.64BipolarCore Quartz Complete 2.74CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.86CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 1.9

40‐50

BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.12BrokenFlake Quartz Broken 0.02CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 0.03BipolarCore Quartz Complete 10.48BrokenFlake Quartz Complete 25.83

50‐60 CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 2.98

60‐70CompleteFlake Volcanic Complete 0.7CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.41CompleteFlake Quartz Complete 0.38

80‐90 BipolarFlake Volcanic Complete 0.35


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APPENDIX 2. MICROFOSSIL ANALYSIS OF EIALOGO SEDIMENTS

ByMarkWalkerandMatthewPrebble

TheMountain Koiari people ofMadilogo have a tradition of village abandonment and relocation intimesofpolitical,socialanddomesticpressure(Prebbleetal2013).TheseabandonedvillagesincludeDabonumu,Eialogo,TubelogoandOldMadilogo,thelatteranamedeterminedfromearly20thcenturysurveymaps and from local informants formpart of this village relocation sequence. The ancestralvillage apparently began at Dabonumu and tracked down the Eia Creek, reaching themodernMa iMadilogo.InDecember2012aseriesofsitesadjacentorwithinEialogo,TubelogoandOldMadilogovillageswereaugeredfororganicsediments.Stratifiedplantmicrofossilremainswereexaminedfromthesesedimentstodeterminetheinfluenceofhuman‐ledvegetationchangeovertime,asapotentialindicator of occupation abandonment time. Themost organic sediment retrievedwas froma singleauguredcore(MDG004),takendirectlyfromthesiteidentifiedasEialogo.Inthisappendixweoutlinethemethodsandresultsoftheseanalyses,butdiscusstheimplicationsofthisrecordinthemaintext.ThisresearchformedpartofaMastersofArchaeologicalScience(ANU)researchprojectconductedbyMarkWalkerunderthesupervisionofDrMatthewPrebble.

SampleCollectionandPreparation

SamplesforthisanalysiswereobtainedfromtheMDG004siteusinganextendablehandaugur.Thesesamplesweretakentothemaximumdepthpossible(beforehittingrock)andwerecollatedseparatelyintoindividuallylabelledsamplebags.Eachsample‐filledbagweighedapproximately200g.Sedimentdescriptionswererecordedincludingtexture,colourandpH,withmicroscopicexaminationoforganicinclusionsconductedinthelab(Appendix 2, Table 1.)

Sub‐samplesof1cm3werepreparedinthelab.Eachrepresentingaparticularsampledepth(1‐15:0‐92cm).Forthepurposesofanalysis,separatesampleswereprocessedforphytoliths,palynomorphs(pollenandspore),charcoalparticles,volcanicinclusionsandmagneticsusceptibilityanalyses.

PollenAnalysis

PollenpreparationthroughoutthisstudywascarriedoutaccordingtomethodsoutlinedbyTraverse(2007). Samplesof3cm3wereprocessedwithKOH (10%),Na4P2O7 (5%),HCL (10%)andanaceticacid mixture – a 1:9 ratio of Sulphuric Acid [H2SO4] to Acetic Anhydride [(CH3CO)2O]. HF (50%)treatmentwas utilised to remove silicates. Throughout, sampleswerewashed in de‐ionisedwater


45

betweeneachstep.Lycopodiumclavatum(tabletsof20,048spores)sporeswereaddedtoeachsampleasanexoticmarkerforthepurposesofconcentrationanalysisandsamplesizeestimation.

Postprocessing,palynomorphsamplesweremountedevenlyonglassslidesandsubjecttoindividualtaxa identificationunder a 400xmicroscope. For the purposes of identification, referencematerialswere obtained from sources including the reference collection present at the Australian NationalUniversity,theIndo‐PacificPollenDatabase(http://palaeoworks.anu.edu.au/databases.html)andtheAustralasianPollenandSporeAtlas(http://apsa.anu.edu.au/).ThesedataarepresentedinAppendix 2 Figure 2 and 3,withtheresultssummarisedinAppendix 2, Table 3.


46

Zone # Depth(CM)

14CDate(BP)

PH Munsell

Texture Inclusions(Organic)

1 1 0‐14 6 2.5YR3/4 Finesilt Algae,rootlets(common)

2 14‐22 5.5 2.5YR3/4 Finesilt Algae,rootlets(common)

3 22‐30 5 2.5YR3/4 Mediumtofinesilt

Algae,rootlets(common)

4 30‐37 5.5 2.5YR3/2 Mediumtofinesilt


2 5 37‐44 5 N3/0 Veryfinesilt Algae,rootlets(common)

6 44‐51 870+/‐23

5 N3/0 Mediumtofinesilt


7 51‐60 2759+/‐26

5.5 N3/0 Mediumtofinesilt

Algae,rootlets(uncommon)

3 8 60‐66 6 5YR2/2 Mediumsilt Algae,rootlets(uncommon)

9 66‐73 5 5YR2/2 Mediumsilt Algae,rootlets(uncommon)

10 73‐79 5 5YR2/2 Mediumsilt Algae,rootlets(uncommon)

11 79‐83 5 7.5YR4/2 Mediumsilt Rootlets(uncommon)

12 83‐92 6 7.5YR6/2 Mediumtofinesilt

Rootlets(rare)

13 92‐98 2789+/‐41

6.5 7.5YR8/2 clay Nonevisible

4 14 98‐105 5 7.5YR8/2 clay Nonevisible

15 105‐111 5.5 7.5YR8/2 clay Nonevisible

Appendix 2 Table 1.Augerlogandsedimentdescriptionsincludingtheradiocarbonagesobtainedfrombulkorganicsedimentsamples.

PhytolithPreparation

FollowingtechniquesoutlinedbyPiperno(2006),samplesforphytolithidentificationweresubjecttoabathofhydrogenperoxideinordertoremoveanyorganiccontent.Anultrasonicbathwasthenusedtoseparateanyclaysfromthephytoliths.Inordertoremovecoarsermaterial,thesolutionwasthen


47

wet‐sievedthrougha250µmmesh.Manualdeflocculation(settlinganddecantationindistilledwater)wasusedtoremoveparticles<5µm.Asolutionof2.3kgl‐3specific‐gravitySodium‐Polytungstatewasutilisedasagravityseparatingagentforphytolithextraction.

Sampleswere thenmountedon glass slides and subject tomorphotype identificationunder a400xmicroscope. Throughout, individual morphotypes were collated into a matrix that eventuallycomprisedsome117differently identifiable shapes–demonstratingvariant formssuchasdifferingbulliform types, point types and other morphotypes. Attempts were made, where permissible, toidentifyphytolithsthatcouldberepresentativeofindividualtaxa.Inanefforttomaintainconsistencythroughout,theidentificationandcollationstage,morphotypeswereidentifiedschematicallyfromtheICPN working groups International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature (Madella et al., 2005) andnomenclature derived from Bowdery (1998), Barboni (2007) and Twiss (1969). These data arepresentedinAppendix 2 Figure 2 and 3,withtheresultssummarisedinAppendix 2, Table 3.SomeimagesofthemainphytolithtypespresentedinAppendix 2, Figure 3.


48

Charcoal&GlassAnalysis

Bleach (Sodium Hypochlorite – NaOH) was added as an agent to remove colour from organiccompounds(Alietal2009).Eachvialwasfilledtonearcapacityandmanuallyagitated.Sampleswereallowedtorestfor1week.Thesewerefurtheragitatedintermittentlythroughouttheweek.Oncethesedimentdecreasedinopacityitwaspreparedformanualcountingunderamicroscope.Thisprocessinvolved transferring the particles to two petri dishes. These dishes of samples were prepared bysievingthesamplethroughalternate125μmand250μmsieves.

The prepared dishes were then placed upon a square grid and examined through a binocularmicroscope (approximately x10 – 15 magnification). Angular back opaque non‐reflective particleswerecountedbyeyeusingahandcounterasanaid.Thefinalresultisexpressedasanabsolutecount.

Subsequenttocharcoalcounts,eachsamplewasexaminedforthepresenceofnon‐biogenicsilicatesby pipetting themixture onto a series of slides. These chiefly took the form of black/blue semi‐opaqueglassesthatfracturedtorevealmostly‐transparentshardsunderpressure.Asingletransectofeachwasconductedandrepresentedasaproportionof~10,000individuals(thetotalcount forthecombined slides). These data are presented in Appendix 2 Figure 2 and 3 with the resultssummarisedinAppendix 2, Table 3.


49

Non‐biogenicsilicatesarepresentthroughouttheassemblage.Thesepredominatelytaketheformofdarksemi‐opaquetoopaquecrypto‐crystallineshardswithtranslucentedges.Withamaximumlimitof~200µmtheshardsvariedconsiderablyinsizeandwerealsosubjecttofracturingandsplinteringunderpressure.Uponexaminationunderamicroscope,conchoidalfractureswereevidentthroughouttherecord.Appendix 2 Figure 1providesarepresentationofproportionsthroughouttheassemblage.

Appendix 2, Figure 1. Glass counts from the MDG004 assemblage – expressed inproportionalconcentrationsfromatotalof~10,000countsidentifiedfromthroughouttheaugerrecord.

MagneticSusceptibility

Sub‐samples(fromtheoriginalsamplecollection)werecollatedintovolumetricsamplesof1cm3andplacedintowater‐tightcappedvialsandlabelledaccordingtosampledepth.Thesesampleswereleftinarawunprocessedormodifiedstateandweredeemedtoberepresentativeofa~7.5cmportionofthetotalaugurdepthrespectively.

Each sample was then read by a magnetic susceptibility meter (Bartington Instruments MultisusSensor–MS2C).Backgroundreadingsweretakenatthebeginningandendofthesessiontoaccountfor variations in external magnetic influence. Data entries were recorded by the MS2C software,runningonaWindowsXPlaptop,automatically.Thissoftwarewasresponsiblechieflyforcalibratingandcollatingthedata.Driftwarninglevelwassetat10andthroughouttheprocedurenoinstancesofdriftwarningwereencounteredduring readings.Thesedata arepresented inAppendix 2 Figure 2 and 3withtheresultssummarisedinAppendix 2, Table 3.


50

Radiocarbondating

Threedateswereobtainedfrombulksamplesat(6)43‐51cm,(7)51‐60cmand(13)92‐98cm.ThesedateswerecalibratedusingIntCal13ontheOxCal4.2program(BronkRamsey2001;seeAppendix 2 Table 2.)andplacedintoaBayesiandepositionmodel,presentedinAppendix 2 Figure 2 and 3.

Lab no. Sample C13 % Modern

% Modern

error

C14

age

age

error

D-AMS006729 KMDG 6 (51)

‐

26.60 89.73/0.26 0.26 870 23

D-AMS003767

KMDG‐7

(60) ‐5.20 70.93/0.23 0.23 2759 26

D-AMS003768

KMDG‐13

(98)

‐

25.00 70.67/0.36 0.36 2789 41

Appendix 2, Table 2.RadiocarbondatesfortheEialogoMDG004augerrecord.


51

Appendix 2, Figure 2

A. Stratigraphicdiagramofpollenandsporesfrom111to55cmoftheEialogoAuger(MDG004)representing the period from1700 to 800BC. Presented are themost abundant pollen andsporetypes,Pseudoschizaearestingsporesandcharcoalparticles.Threezonesareindicated:Secondary Forest zone from 1700 to 1300 BC, characterised by poor pollen and sporepreservation;theRiparian,from1300to1050BC,andGrassDominantzonefrom1050to800BC. Taxa highlighted in green are trees and shrubs; in light green are ferns and fern allies.Terminaliapollen (probably fromOkari) ishighlighted in red,marking theexpansionof thisimportanttreecropfrom~1800BConwards.

B. Stratigraphic diagram of phytoliths from 111 to 55 cm of the Eialogo Auger (MDG004)representing the period from 1700 to 800 BC. Presented are the main phytolith typesrepresented and the same charcoal particle data obtained from the pollen and sporepreparations.Thesamezonesarepresentedasidentifiedfromthepollenandsporerecord.

-1700

-1600

-1500

-1400

-1300

-1200

-1100

-1000

-900

-800

Grass Dominant

Riparian

Barren of Pollen

Depth

cm

6066

737983

9298

105

111

35 55 75

Mag

netic

susc

eptib

ility (k

)

0 20 40

Bullifo

rm

0 20

Chlorid

oidea

e

0

Panico

ideae

0 20 40

Other

Poace

aeTyp

es

0 20 40

Trees

&Shr

ubs

0 20

Areca

ceae

0 20 40

Misc

.(inc

Fabac

eae/

Astera

ceae

)

0 20

Uniden

tified

/Non

-Diag

nost

ic

0 25000 50000 75000 0 2000 4000 6000

Pollen

-bas

edzo

natio

n

Charc

oal p

artic

les<8

0µm

/cm

3

Charc

oal p

artic

les

>80µm

/cm

3

-1700

-1600

-1500

-1400

-1300

-1200

-1100

-1000

-900

-800

Barren

Primary/Secondary Forest

Riparian

Grass Dominant

Depth

cm

6066

737983

9298

105

111

35 55 75

Mag

netic

Susce

ptibi

lity(k

)

0 20

Elaeoc

arpa

ceae

0

Neona

uclea

0

Homala

nthu

s

0

Areca

ceae

Type

1

0

Eupho

rbia

ceae

0

Rutac

eae

0

Tiliace

aecf

Tricho

sper

mum

0

Areca

ceae

cfHyd

riaste

le

0

Ulmac

eae

0

Term

inali

a

0

Syzyg

ium

0

Mac

aran

ga

0

Areca

ceae

undif

fere

ntia

ted

0

Panda

nus

0 20

Urtica

ceae

/Mor

acea

e

0 20 40

Cyper

acea

e

0

Poace

ae>4

0µm

0 20 40 60

Poace

ae<4

0µm

0

Blechn

acea

e

0

Trilete

Psilat

e

0

Pteris

com

ans

0 20 40 60

Mon

olet

ePsil

ate

0 20

Cyath

eaps

ilate

0

Mar

attia

ceae

0 10 20

Pseud

osch

izaea

0 10000 20000 0 30000 60000 90000 0 5000

Trees & Shrubs Ferns

Charc

oal p

artic

les<8

0µm

/cm

3

Charc

oal p

artic

les

>80µm

/cm3

Zonat

ion

Pollen

&sp

ore

conc

entra

tion/

cm3

A. Pollen and spores

B. Phytoliths

KMDG 72759 +/-26

KMDG 132789 +/-41

KMDG 72759 +/-26

KMDG 132789 +/-41

Bayes

ian

age

cal.

yrBC

Bayes

ian

age

cal. y

r BC

Primary/Secondary Forest

1

2

1

2


52

Appendix 2, Figure 3

A. Stratigraphicdiagramofpollenandsporesfromthetop55cmoftheEialogoAugerrecord(MDG004)representingtheperiodfrom800ADtothepresent.Presentedarethemostabundantpollenandsporetypes,Pseudoschizaearestingsporesandcharcoalparticles.Twozonesareindicated:GrassDominantzonefrom800to1400ADandaSecondaryForestzonefrom1400tothepresent.Alsoindicatedaretheregionaltimingforkeyvolcanicash‐fallevents

B. Stratigraphicdiagramofphytolithsfromtop55cmofEialogoAuger(MDG004)representingtheperiodfrom800ADtothepresent.Presentedarethemainphytolithtypesrepresentedandthesamecharcoalparticledataobtainedfromthepollenandsporepreparations.Thesamezonesarepresentedasidentifiedfromthepollenandsporerecord.

900

1100

1300

1500

1700

1900

TibitoLamington 1

Olgiboli

14

22

3037

4451

25 45

Mag

netic

Susce

ptibi

lity(k

)

0 20 40 60

Urtica

ceae

/Mor

acea

e

0 20 40

Cyper

acea

e

0 20 40 60

Poace

ae<4

0µm

0

Blechn

acea

e

0 20 40 60

Mon

olet

ePsil

ate

0 20 40

Cyath

eaps

ilate

0

Mar

attia

ceae

0

Dicran

opte

ris

0

Thelyp

terid

acea

e

0

Cerat

opte

ris

0 20 40

Huper

zia

0

Selagin

ella

sp. 1

0 102030

Pseud

osch

izaea

0 50000

Pollen

&sp

ore

conc

entra

tion/

cm3

0 20000 40000 60000

Charc

oal p

artic

les

<80

µm/c

m3

0 2000

Charc

oal p

artic

les

>80µm

/cm

3

900

1100

1300

1500

1700

1900

Tibito

Olgiboli

Depth

cm

14

22

3037

4451

25 45 65

Mag

netic

susc

eptib

ility (k

)

0 20 40

Bullifo

rm

0 20

Chlorid

oidea

e

0

Panico

ideae

0

Other

Poace

aeTyp

es

0 20 40

Trees

and

Shrub

s

0 20

Areca

ceae

0 20 40

Misc

. (inc

Fabac

eae/

Astera

ceae

)

0 20

Uniden

tified

/Non

-Diag

nost

ic

0 25000 50000 75000 0 2000 4000 6000

Depth

cm

Charc

oal p

artic

les

<80

µm/c

m3

Charc

oal p

artic

les

>80µm

/cm

3

Lamington 1Secondary

Forest

GrassDominant

Polle

n-ba

sed

zona

tion

SecondaryForest

GrassDominant

A. Pollen & spores

B. Phytoliths

Possib

lere

gion

alte

phra

depo

sitio

n

KMDG 6870 +/-23

Bayes

ian

age

cal.

yrAD

Bayes

ian

age

cal.

yrAD

KMDG 6870 +/-23

Zonat

ion

3

3

4

4

Possib

lere

gion

alte

phra

depo

sitio

n


53

Appendix 2, Figure 4. ExamplesofphytolithsfromtheMDG004assemblage(withdepthindicated).1) Globular Echinate (Aracaceae) [22‐30cm] 2) Bilobate with encapsulated carbon (Poaceae) [30‐37cm] 3) Irregular type (Arboreal) [79‐83cm] 4) Saddle (Poaceae) [44‐51cm] 5) Multi‐lobate(Poaceae) [14‐22cm] 6) Fan Bulliform (Poaceae) with carbon inclusions [44‐51cm] 7) Ovate withencapsulatedcarbon(Trees/Shrubs)[79‐83cm]8)Scutiformwithencapsulatedcarbon(Poaceae)[73‐79cm]9)Irregulartype(Arboreal)[79‐83cm]10)Phytolithdiversityatdepthsof79‐83cm.


54

Zone/Depth(cm)/14Cage

Phytoliths

PollenandSpores

SummaryInterpretation

Zone1:(98‐111)

Primary/SecondaryForest

Veryminorphytolithpresence,ofwhichscutiforms(poaceae)dominate.Allphytolithsarepoorlypreserved.Magneticsusceptibilityreadingsareattheirhighestpointduringthiszoneindicatinghighmineralconcentrations,especiallyofironoxides.Charcoalisrecordedinrelativelylowconcentrationsinthiszone

Poaceaepollenisminimalthroughoutthiszone,althoughtheupperpartofthezoneisbarrenofpollenTaxaaregenerallymorerepresentativeofUlmaceae(TremaandCeltis),Macaranga,ElaeocarpaceaeandMoraceae.Fernstypesarepresentbutinsmallpercentages.Terminaliapollenisabsentinthiszone.

Microfossilpreservationislimited,butthepreservationofhighproportionsofElaeocarpaceae(indicativeofprimaryforest)andlowcharcoalconcentrationsmayindicatelessforestmodification

Zone2:60‐98

Riparian(83–98)

GrassDominant(60‐83)

.

Poaceaereachesthehighestabundanceoftherecord(61%)asaresultofanincreaseinscutiformtypeswhicharelesscommonintheupperzones.BulliformtypesdeclineinabundanceasScutiformtypesincrease.Arecaceaeareunder‐representedthroughoutthezone.Treeandshrubtaxadecreasefromthebaseofthezonefromapeakof32%.Miscellaneousformsareattheirhighestrepresentationinthiszone.BothPanicoideaeandChloridoideaefluctuatethroughoutthisperiod.Charcoalparticlesarehighcomparativetopreviouszones.WithintheRiparianpartofthezone,thereisamarkeddeclineinphytolithpresenceasthesedimentchangesincolourandtexture.

PoaceaepollenandMonoletePsilatesporesfirstappearinhighproportionsinthiszone.Uriticaceae/Moraceae,Euphorbiaceae,Arecaceae,NeonaucleaandTerminaliaarecommoninthebasal‘riparian’partofthiszone.HighproportionsofCyperaceaepollenbetween83‐92cmindicatelocalriparianconditionsatthistime.Theupper‘grassdominance’partofthiszoneischaracterisedbyhighproportionsofgrasspollen,Pseudoschizaearestingsporesandthehighestconcentrationsofcharcoalparticlesfoundthroughouttherecord.

Transitionfromarborealtograssdominancetowardsthetopofthiszoneindicatingamoreopen,non‐forestenvironment.ThisobservationissupportedbythepresenceofabundantPseudoschizaearestingspores.Theincreaseinmagnitudeofburningeventssuggestsforestclearance,potentiallyfortheexpansionofvillageandgardensites.ThePoaceaephytolithrecordchangescompositionfromscutiformdominatedtowardsbulliformprevalence.Manytreeandshrubtaxaareonlyrecordedinthepollenrecordofthiszone.Terminaliapollen(probablyofOkari)ismoststronglyrepresentedinthiszone.

Zone3:(37‐60)

GrassDominant

Highproportionsoffractured,pittedandscarringonphytoliths.Arecaceaetypesareabundantthroughoutthezone.Charcoalconcentrationsarehighinthiszone,peakingatitscentrebeforelevellingoffagaintowardstheend.Thisincreaseissharperforvalues<80µmwithamoregentleincreasebeingapplicableforlargerparticles.

IncreasedabundanceofPoaceaeforms.Dicranopterisarepresentthroughoutbutlowerininstancethaninzone1.Blechnaceaeferntypesareanotableintroductiontothiszone.Manyofthemainforesttaxrepresentedinthepreviouszonesareeitherabsentorrareinthiszonee.g.Elaeocarpaceae,PandanusandFicus.Pseudoschizaeaisfoundinhighproportionsinthiszone.TerminaliaandArecaceae,arepresentinthiszonebutinlowproportions.

PoaceaetypephyolithsandpollenareabundantinthiszonebutdecreasetowardsthetopaspalmphytolithsandUrticaceae/Moraceaepollenincrease.Treesandshrubsremainconsistentthroughoutthiszonebuthaveacomparativelylowpresence.Pseudoschizaeaindicatesanopenenvironmentthatisseasonallydry.

Zone4:(0‐37)SecondaryForest/900‐

Highproportionsofcharred,pittedandfracturedbulliformsandbilobates;Poaceaetypespeakat14‐22cm,comprising61%oftheassemblage.Bilobatesarerepresentedthroughout

Fernandfernalliesdominatethiszone–includingCyathea,DicranopterisandHuperzia.Theupperpartofthezoneisnotableforcontaining

Amixedmosaicofvegetationtypesarepresentedinthiszone.Poaceaearecommon,particularlyasfan‐shapedbulliforms,Panicoideae


55

Zone/Depth(cm)/14Cage

Phytoliths

PollenandSpores

SummaryInterpretation

1200

thezoneinrelativelysmallquantities(peakingat9%ofthePoaceaeassemblage).Saddleforms(Poaceae–predominatelyChloridoideae)arealsopresent.Theydominatethelatterpartofthezone.Trees,shrubsandpalmsaregenerallyabundantapart.Arecaceae,Fabaceae,Asteraceaeandsomeothermiscellaneoustypesarerecordedintheirhighestproportionsinthetopofthezone.Charcoalparticlesarefoundincomparativelylowconcentrations.

abundantCeratopterispollen.Poaceaearerecordedinlowproportionsthroughoutthiszoneasaretreeandshrubs.

Chloridoideae.Ofthearborealassemblage,Arecaceaedominatemostofthezone,althoughnumbersofotherarborealtaxastillremain.

Appendix 2, Table 3 Summaryofphytolith, pollenand spore recordof theMDG004augersedimentsfromEialogo.Theimplicationsforthesedataarediscussedinthemainreport.

References

Ali,A.A.,Higuera,P.E.,Bergeron,Y.,Carcaillet,C.,2009.Comparingfire‐history interpretationsbasedon area, number and estimated volume of macroscopic charcoal in lake sediments. QuaternaryResearch72,462–468.Barboni, D., Bremond, L., Bonnefille, R., 2007. Comparative study ofmodern phytolith assemblagesfrominter‐tropicalAfrica.Palaeogeogr.Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol.246,454–470.Bowdery, D., 1998. Phytolith Analysis Applied to Pleistocene‐Holocene Archaeological Sites in theAustralianAridZone.BronkRamseyC(2001)DevelopmentoftheRadiocarbonProgramOxCal.Radiocarbon43:355–363.BronkRamseyC(2008)Depositionmodelsforchronologicalrecords.QuaternaryScienceReviews27:42–60.Madella,M.,Alexandre,A.,Ball,T.,2005.InternationalCodeforPhytolithNomenclature1.0.Ann.Bot.96,253–260.Piperno, D.R., 2006. Phytoliths: a comprehensive guide for archaeologists and paleoecologists.AltaMiraPress,Lanham,MD.Traverse, A., 2007. Paleopalynology. Springer, Dordrecht.Traverse, A., 2007. Paleopalynology.Springer,Dordrecht.Twiss,P.C.,Suess,E.,Smith,R.M.,1969.MorphologicalClassificationofGrassPhytoliths.SoilSci.Soc.Am.Proc.33.


56

APPENDIX 3. SITE LOCATIONS

MDG Site no. Site name Latitude Longitude

1 Ma‐i Madilogo ‐ Vogira's hamlet 9°12'6.27"S 147°33'20.04"E

2 Ma‐i Madilogo ‐ Vogira's hamlet 9°11'57.44"S 147°32'58.81"E

3 Kaiavu Water Fall 9°11'53.98"S 147°32'56.25"E

4 Lower Old Madilogo 9°11'49.18"S 147°33'5.51"E

5 Central Old Madilogo 9°11'48.70"S 147°33'8.62"E

6 Central Old Madilogo 9°11'47.80"S 147°33'9.55"E

7 Tubelogo 9°11'45.66"S 147°33'7.92"E

8 Tubelogo 9°11'45.61"S 147°33'8.76"E

9 Tubelogo 9°11'45.78"S 147°33'9.24"E

10 Tubelogo 9°11'46.91"S 147°33'15.26"E

11 Eialogo 9°11'41.58"S 147°33'25.08"E

12 Eialogo 9°11'41.87"S 147°33'26.10"E

13 Eialogo 9°11'40.95"S 147°33'26.97"E

14 Eialogo 9°11'40.66"S 147°33'27.08"E

15 Eialogo 9°11'39.86"S 147°33'27.98"E

16 Old Madilogo 9°11'48.06"S 147°33'18.75"E

17 East of (Ma‐i) Madilogo 9°12'4.93"S 147°33'24.16"E

18 Eialogo 9°12'15.23"S 147°33'40.40"E

19

Proximate to World Bank Dam Wall 9°12'24.53"S 147°33'43.37"E

20 World Bank Dam Wall 9°12'27.71"S 147°33'49.12"E

21 Kabi MOIA's garden 9°12'3.28"S 147°33'36.05"E

22 Vavuvi 9°12'8.45"S 147°33'52.38"E

23 Vokanolo 9°11'57.28"S 147°33'25.48"E

24 Hamutenumu 9°11'51.87"S 147°33'27.60"E

25 n/a Near Tubelogo 9°11'55.79"S 147°33'23.45"E

26 n/a 9°11'55.77"S 147°33'22.89"E

27 n/a 9°11'53.57"S 147°33'22.46"E

28 n/a 9°11'48.67"S 147°33'18.00"E

29 n/a 9°11'51.93"S 147°33'16.19"E

30 (Ma‐i) Madilogo ‐ Vogira's hamlet 9°12'6.11"S 147°33'15.62"E

31 (Ma‐i) Madilogo ‐ Vogira's hamlet 9°12'6.35"S 147°33'21.03"E

32 Old Madilogo 9°12'3.51"S 147°33'20.67"E

33 Tubelogo 9°11'55.72"S 147°33'22.83"E

34 Eialogo 9°11'39.72"S 147°33'27.79"E




57

MDG Site no. Site name Latitude Longitude

37/2014 Eiaiafaha TP1 9°11'38.73"S 147°32'59.29"E

38/2014 Ebologo TP1 9°12'59.78"S 147°34'3.06"E

39/2014 Madilogo Caldera 9°11'46.82"S 147°33'50.40"E

40/2014 Dabonumu TP1 9°11'20.66"S 147°34'13.78"E

41/2014 Eialogo TP1 9°11'39.72"S 147°33'27.79"E


58

APPENDIX 4. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

OWENSTANLEYRANGEARCHAEOLOGICALSUMMARY

45Ka KosipeSequence:InitialPleistocenecolonisationoftheOwenStanleyRangeatKosipe,IvaneValley,CentralProvince(Summerhayesetal.,2010).

25‐14Ka Kosipe Sequence: Occupation hiatus inmid to uppermontane areas associatedwithextremeclimateconditionsoftheLastGlacialMaximum(Hope,2009)

10Ka‐ Touku Sequence: Occupational sequence poorly described; significant movement ofpeople and adaptation to lower montane areas in the Holocene; probably theintroductionofrootcropsafter3000yearsBP;(HopeandPrebble,inprep).

2800yearsBP CautionBaySequenceAustronesian/LapitaoccupationatCautionBayandsurrounds(Davidetal.,2011).

2800yearsBP Madilogo Sequence: Expanded village life, okari nut arboriculture andstonetoolexchange(obsidianandchert)withAustronesian/LapitacommunitiesatCautionBayandsurrounds(Thisreport).

MADILOGOENVIRONMENTALEVENTS

~4200yearsBP Ash2fromtheToukusequence(HopeandPrebbleinprep).

1500AD Ash1 fromtheToukusequence(HopeandPrebble inprep),Possiblyrepresented inEialogodeposit.

1690AD Tibito ash, marked across Papua New Guinea in many lake and swamp sequences.PossiblyrepresentedinEialogodeposit.

1951AD Mt Lamington erupts depositing ash as far as Port Moresby. Possibly found at thesurfaceofallvillagesintheMadilogoFlats.


59

KOIARIPOST‐EUROPEANCONTACTTIMELINETOWWII

1879 RevJamesChalmersexpeditionwithAndrewGoldieintoMountainKoiariterritory.August2nddescribes the consumption of okari nuts (late in the season) at 720m in elevation and theplacementof treeburials. Illustrateswhat appears tobeanokari tree‐house.Alsodescribesthereticenceofhisguidesinenteringintocertainvalleys.Describesthemovementofvillageswiththepassingofachief.

1887 HenryForbesexpeditiondowntheNaoroRiverandpossiblyup theEiaCreek toDabonumuandthentoMtGinianumu(Trotter,1890).Densepopulationnoted.

1908‐10AnnualReportssay‘severedysentery’inthe‘mainrange’:deathrateunknown.

1913 Missionaries Septimus Carr, Lawson and Benny Tavodi visit inland villages establishingSeventhDayAdventistchurchesamongtheMountainKoiari

1942 NaoroValleyusedforairdropsduringthealliedcampaigninWWII

ARCHAEOLOGICALRESEARCHTIMELINE

2012 M.Leavesley,H.Mandui,E.KaitokaiandM.PrebblearchaeologicalsurveyofMadilogo.ThisisthefirstarchaeologicalsurveyoftheMountainKoiariRegionofCentralProvince.

2014 M. Leavesley, A. Kuaso, M. Keako and M. Prebble archaeological excavations conducted atEiaiafaha,Eialogo,EbologoandDabonumu.ThesearethefirstarchaeologicalexcavationsconductedintheMountainKoiariRegionofCentralProvince.

kokoda initiative – archaeological report on ... - anue...kokoda initiative – archaeological...

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