KOORAGANG NATURE RESERVE AND HEXHAM SWAMP NATURE RESERVE

PLAN OF MANAGEMENT

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service

August 1998

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This plan of management was prepared by John Martindale,formerly a Senior Ranger in Hunter District of the National Parks and WildlifeService.

The plan of management is extensively based on a thesis on the management ofKooragang Island prepared by John Johnston in 1992.

Valuable comments by Alan Morris, Richard Kingsford and Renee Ferster-Levyhave also been incorporated in this draft plan of management.

The use of reports of the Ironbark Total Catchment Management Committeeprepared in 1995 is also gratefully acknowledged. The use of information heldby, and the involvement of staff of, the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Projectand the Shortland Wetlands Centre is likewise gratefully acknowledged.

The valuable input and assistance provided by Doyne Lanham, Deputy Directorof the Hunter Catchment Management Trust, David Ratcliffe and Michael Elphick,both members of the Hunter District Advisory Committee, is also gratefullyacknowledged in their capacity as members of the project steering committeewhich supervised preparation of the plan of management.

The New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service acknowledges theAustralian National Parks and Wildlife Service (now Environment Australia) for forits assistance in funding the project under the National Wetlands Program.

Crown Copyright 1998: Use permitted with appropriate acknowledgment. Unlessspecifically referenced otherwise, all material, property and intellectual rightscontained in this plan remain copyright vested jointly in the NSW National Parksand Wildlife Service and Environment Australia.

ISBN 0 7310 7691 5

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FOREWORD

Kooragang Nature Reserve and Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve lie to the north and west ofthe Newcastle central business district within the Newcastle urban area. Both naturereserves are surrounded by industrial, urban and semi-urban landuses.

This plan of management acknowledges that the management of the two nature reserves asfar as possible should be consistent with obligations under three international agreementsratified by the Australian Government. These agreements are:

- The Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of Japanfor the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds in Danger of Extinction and theirEnvironment (JAMBA);

- The Agreement between the Peoples Republic of China and the Government ofAustralia for the Protection of Migratory Birds and their Environment (CAMBA); and

- The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar Convention).

The hydrology, topography and vegetation of both Kooragang Nature Reserve and HexhamSwamp Nature Reserve have been substantially modified by past land uses. Some of thesechanges to the ecology of the area are of benefit to waterbirds and migratory waders, butother changes have an unacceptable impact on the habitat values of the two nature reserves.In accordance with the international treaties to which Australia is a party, there is an obligationto restore the habitat for migratory birds and waterfowl in the two nature reserves.

To achieve this aim it is proposed that:

- lands within Kooragang Nature Reserve previously reclaimed for agriculture and floodmitigation be restored to wetland;

- the hydrology created by artificial regulation devices on parts of Kooragang Island andHexham Swamp be modified; and

- degraded vegetation communities in both Kooragang Nature Reserve and HexhamSwamp be restored.

The major aim of the programs proposed on both nature reserves is to manage water andsalinity levels to maximise waterfowl habitats and to manage the natural environment of thearea to the benefit of all species. For rehabilitation and habitat enhancement to be successfulin Kooragang and Hexham Swamp, wetlands and other lands in the catchments not includedwithin the reserve boundaries are proposed to be protected to give effect to a more workableecological boundary.

This plan of management has been prepared in accordance with Section 72 of the NationalParks and Wildlife Act, 1974 and is consistent with management guidelines for wetlandslisted in Resolution C.5.7 and Recommendation C.5.3 as adopted by the Ramsar Convention.

This plan of management establishes the scheme of operations for Kooragang and HexhamSwamp Nature Reserves. In accordance with the provisions of Section 76 of the NationalParks and Wildlife Act, 1974, this plan of management is hereby adopted.

PAM ALLAN

Minister forthe Environment

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CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. MANAGEMENT CONTEXT 2

2.1 Nature Reserves in NSW 2

2.2 International Treaties for the Protection of Migratory 2Species and Waterfowl

2.3 Kooragang Nature Reserve 3

2.3.1 Location 32.3.2 History of Land Use and Dedication 32.3.3 Importance of Kooragang Nature Reserve 5

2.4 Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve 7

2.4.1 Location 72.4.2 History of Land Use and Dedication 72.4.3 Importance of Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve 9

3. OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT 11

4. POLICIES AND FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGEMENT 13

4.1 Kooragang and Hexham Swamp Nature Reserves: Their Natural and Cultural Landscapes 13

4.1.1 Geology and Soils 134.1.2 Hydrology, Water Quality and Catchment

Management 144.1.3 Native Plants 174.1.4 Native Animals 204.1.5 Wetland Rehabilitation 274.1.6 Cultural Heritage 314.1.7 Introduced Plants 324.1.8 Introduced Animals 354.1.9 Fire Management 36

4.2 Use of the Nature Reserves 38

4.2.1 Research Opportunities 384.2.2 Promotion of the Two Nature Reserves 404.2.3 Management Use 43

5. PLAN IMPLEMENTATION 45

6. SELECTED REFERENCES 48

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1. INTRODUCTION

The National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974 requires that a plan of management beprepared for all nature reserves in New South Wales. A plan of management is a legaldocument which outlines how a nature reserve will be managed in the years ahead. Itcan be revised and rewritten if necessary to accommodate changes in managementpractices. The procedure for the preparation and adoption of a plan of management isspecified in the Act:

* The Director-General of National Parks and Wildlife shall cause a plan to beprepared.

* The plan is referred to the National Parks and Wildlife Advisory Council for itsconsideration and advice.

* The Director-General shall then submit the plan of management with anycomments and suggestions of the Council to the Minister who, before adoptingthe plan, will consider the comments and suggestions of Council.

* The Minister may adopt the plan with or without amendment or may refer the planback to the Director-General and the Council for further consideration.

Once a plan has been adopted by the Minister, no operations may be undertaken withinthe nature reserves except in accordance with the plan.

Although not a requirement under the Act, a plan of management for Kooragang andHexham Swamp Nature Reserves was placed on public exhibition for a period of threemonths ending 15th July 1996 for comment on the proposals it contained. The plan ofmanagement attracted sixteen representations covering twenty issues. All commentsreceived were referred, along with the plan, to the National Parks and Wildlife AdvisoryCouncil for its consideration and advice. The comments and suggestions of theAdvisory Council were, in turn, considered by the Minister when adopting this plan.

For additional information on any aspect of the management of the two nature reserves,please contact:

The District ManagerHunter DistrictNational Parks and Wildlife ServicePO Box 270RAYMOND TERRACE NSW 2324

or by phone on (02) 4987 3108 during business hours.

This plan applies to the existing nature reserves and to any lands which may besubsequently added as recommended for acquisition at the time of dedication of thetwo areas as nature reserves or by subsequent investigations by land use authorities.

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2. MANAGEMENT CONTEXT

2.1 NATURE RESERVES IN NSW

Reserving areas to include nature conservation as a general purpose was introduced toAustralia with the establishment of Royal National Park in 1879.

Fauna reserves in New South Wales were first established under the Fauna ProtectionAct of 1948. Under the National Parks and Wildlife Act of 1967 fauna reserves werereclassified as nature reserves. The Fauna Protection Act was replaced by the NationalParks and Wildlife Act, 1974.

Under the 1974 Act, nature reserves are areas of special scientific interest containingwildlife or natural environments or natural phenomena.

The purposes of nature reserves are defined in the Act as:

“(a) the care, propagation, preservation and conservation of wildlife;

(b) the care, preservation and conservation of natural environments andnatural phenomena;

(c) the study of wildlife, natural environments and natural phenomena; and

(d) the promotion of the appreciation and enjoyment of wildlife, naturalenvironments and natural phenomena.”

Nature reserves differ from national parks which include as a major objective theprovision of opportunities for outdoor recreation. The value of nature reserves lies intheir role as refuge areas where natural processes, phenomena and wildlife can bestudied, maintained and conserved.

2.2 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES FOR THE PROTECTION OF MIGRATORYSPECIES AND WATERFOWL

The National Parks and Wildlife Service has obligations relating to the management ofKooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves under three international agreementsratified by the Australian Government. These agreements are:

- The Agreement between the Government of Australia and theGovernment of Japan for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds inDanger of Extinction and their Environment (JAMBA);

- The Agreement between the Peoples Republic of China and theGovernment of Australia for the Protection of Migratory Birds and theirEnvironment (CAMBA); and

- The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the RamsarConvention) which was adopted in 1971 and signed by Australia in 1974.Countries which are parties to this convention undertake to implement policiesthat guarantee the wise and sustainable use of wetlands.

The agreements with Japan and China list some 38 species found in the Hunter estuary.

The Ramsar Convention defines wise use as “utilisation for the benefit of humans in away compatible with the maintenance of natural properties of the ecosystem” whilstsustainable use is that which “yields greatest continuous benefit to present generationswhile maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations”.

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The Convention also outlines the management requirements for an internationallyimportant wetland:

‘that the essential character of (the) wetland be recognised and that measures(notably inclusion of wetland concerns in landuse and water managementplanning, adoption of a whole catchment approach and/or creation of bufferzones) be taken to ensure that the ecological character of Ramsar sites andwetland reserves is not placed at risk’ (part Recommendation C.5.3); and

‘wetlands are dynamic areas open to influence from both natural and humanfactors. In order to maintain their biological diversity and productivity and to allowthe wise use of their resources by human beings, some kind of overall agreementis needed between the various owners, occupiers and interested parties. Themanagement planning process provides this overall agreement.’ (part ResolutionC.5.7)

To date some 4.5 million hectares of wetland in Australia including the KooragangNature Reserve have been listed under the Ramsar Convention.

2.3 KOORAGANG NATURE RESERVE

2.3.1 Location

Kooragang Nature Reserve lies approximately 9 km north of the Newcastle centralbusiness district on the North Arm of the Hunter River and is generally bounded to thesouth by the industrial railway and Stockton Bridge and to the north by Tomago Roadand the levee banks of Fullerton Cove. The nature reserve includes:

- the bed of Fullerton Cove and part of the northern channel of the Hunter River;

- Kooragang Island with the exception of the western end and industrial area;

- an area of mangroves on the south bank of the south arm of the river;

- most fringing mangroves and islands; and

- some former farmlands which had been developed on reclaimed lands north ofthe North Arm of the Hunter River near Tomago.

The nature reserve does not include the bed of the southern channel of the Hunter River(see Map centre pages).

An area between the Hunter River and the Pacific Highway near the mouth of IronbarkCreek was donated to the Service by BHP in 1987 but has not yet been added to thenature reserve. The land is a mangrove woodland community and is an important linkbetween Kooragang Nature Reserve and Hexham Swamp upstream of Ironbark Creek.

2.3.2 History of Land Use and Dedication

Until the early 1900’s the Hunter River estuary where Kooragang Island now liescontained some seven islands separated by narrow intertidal river channels and wasused for fruit growing, timber harvesting and salt extraction. With the exception of thedevelopment of a ship building industry in the 1920’s, no other major industry occurredon the island until after World War II when the Newcastle Chamber of Manufacturersproposed a major industrial area for the island.

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Accordingly the entire area was zoned Industrial B (Heavy) in 1960 under theNorthumberland County District Planning Scheme and its development was provided forunder the Kooragang Island Development Scheme administered by the Department ofPublic Works. Vehicle access to the area was provided by the opening of the TourleStreet bridge in 1965 and the Stockton Bridge in 1971.

Various alterations to the river flow during the development of the Hunter River as a port,such as the Walsh Island training wall in 1898 and massive reclamation worksassociated with the Newcastle Harbour Improvements Act (1953) had already modifiedthe natural regime to the point where the original seven islands were connected andrenamed as one, Kooragang, in 1967. By 1971 some 704 ha of wetlands had beenpartially or fully reclaimed.

In the early 1970’s conversion of Kooragang Island to industry was slowed by publicconcern over the effect on flood regimes in the lower Hunter River and about thepollution threat to adjacent residential areas. At the same time there was an increasingawareness of the environmental importance of the estuary. As a consequence, theKooragang Island Advisory Committee was appointed by the then Department ofEnvironment and Planning and replaced the Department of Public Works as theplanning authority in 1976.

The establishment of a nature reserve on Kooragang Island had been proposed at leastas early as 1972 when the National Trust of Australia listed the area as “classifiedlandscape worthy of preservation” in its Hunter 2000 Report. It was subsequentlynominated and accepted for inclusion on the interim register of National Estate in 1979by the Australian Heritage Commission under the provisions of the Australian HeritageCommission Act (1975). That Act defines the National Estate as “those places, beingcomponents of the natural environment of Australia, or the cultural environment ofAustralia that have aesthetic, historical, scientific or other special values for futuregenerations as well as the present community”.

The Hunter Regional Plan was amended to provide for nature conservation in 1977 andthe Kooragang Island Advisory Committee subsequently commissioned a report in1979 to determine the boundaries of a proposed nature reserve. This report (J Moss;1983) divided the island into five sections (see Map). Areas B and C wererecommended as nature reserve and the concept of a single ecological unit linking bothKooragang Island and Hexham Swamp was seen as the ideal way to maximise theconservation value of the Hunter estuary.

Major studies by the Department of Public Works (Dames and Moore; 1978), theNewcastle Flora and Fauna Society (Kendall and Van Gessel; 1972, 1974), the NationalParks and Wildlife Service (Briggs; 1978 and Pressey; 1982), the Department ofEnvironment and Planning (Moss; 1983), NSW Fisheries and and the findings of theCommission of Inquiry into Pollution on Kooragang Island (Coffey 1973) led to the NSWGovernment announcing its intention to establish a nature reserve in 1981. Service staffand conservationists provided detailed information to the Commission of Inquiry on theimportance of the estuary to migratory waders.

Kooragang Nature Reserve is also mapped as protected wetlands (No’s 817-823 and843) under the provisions of State Environmental Planning Policy No.14 - CoastalWetlands. The importance of Kooragang for conservation purposes is also reflected ina major rehabilitation project, the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project, beingundertaken in three areas of the Hunter River estuary: Ash Island (500 ha); Tomago (800ha) and the Stockton Sandspit. The project is the responsibility of the Hunter CatchmentManagement Trust and is managed by a steering committee which is made up ofrepresentatives of the Trust, NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation,Newcastle City Council, Port Stephens Council, NSW National Parks and Wildlife

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Service, NSW Fisheries and a community representative. A further elevenorganisations including industries which link to the estuary contribute to the project.

This project has as its objectives rehabilitating, restoring, and creating fishery and otherwildlife habitat in suitable areas of the Hunter estuary and developing complementaryopportunities for research, education, recreation and tourism. Activities undertaken bythe project include restoring tidal flushing to estuarine streams and wetlands;regenerating and revegetating rainforest remnants and establishing a model farm,visitor centre and recreation facilities. As a member of the project steering committeethe NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service helps develop the proposals put forwardby the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project.

The bulk of the nature reserve comprising 2 206 ha was dedicated on the 25th March1983. Further acquisitions include 3.8 ha adjacent to the railway (19th. April 1985);716.6 ha on the North Arm (28th.November 1986) and 54 ha being a small mangrovesection adjacent to the south channel which was donated by Broken Hill Pty. Area C,recommended for addition to the nature reserve is yet to be added.

The reserve now totals 2 926 ha and is the largest single estuarine reserve in NSW.Lands surrounding the reserve are variously zoned Industrial or Rural under the PortStephens and Newcastle Local Environment Plans. The close proximity of industry toKooragang Nature Reserve and the potential for water, atmospheric and noise pollutionand other disturbances mean close cooperation between all land management andplanning agencies is essential for its protection.

2.3.3 Importance of Kooragang Nature Reserve.

Kooragang Nature Reserve is predominantly an estuarine wetland but also includessubstantial areas that have been modified for farmland. Estuarine wetlands are definedas all areas above the low tide level which are subject directly or indirectly to tidalinfluence. They may include freshwater swamps where the height of the water tablevaries with the tide in the adjacent estuarine system.

Estuarine wetlands support a highly productive food chain. The decay of vegetation andthe deposition of river sediments provide the primary ingredients. In healthy wetlands,these are continually replenished at rates that are comparable with those for standingagricultural crops (B Moss 1983).

Estuaries provide essential nursery habitat for a wide variety of marine life. In NSWsome 60% of the commercially caught fish, molluscs and crustacea are dependant uponestuaries at some stage of their life cycle. NSW Fisheries values this industry in theHunter Estuary at around half a million dollars annually.

Less than 1% of the Australian continent is classed as estuarine wetland and over half ofAustralia’s wetlands of all types have been modified and in many instances seriouslydegraded or destroyed in just 200 years since European settlement. In New SouthWales, where the majority of the population lives in coastal areas, estuarine wetlandsare under the greatest pressure. It has been estimated by the Department of Planningthat 60% of NSW coastal wetlands of high value to waterfowl have been eitherdestroyed or greatly reduced (Goodrick 1970). The case for the conservation ofwetlands has therefore, been well established in recognition of their biologicalimportance (see Coastal Council of NSW; 1985 for review). The Hunter estuary inparticular, has long been recognised as worthy for conservation by both governmentauthorities and natural history organisations.

Local natural history groups, notably the Newcastle Flora and Fauna Protection Society,have researched the importance of Kooragang Island for wading birds for many years.The work of, for example, Kendall and Van Gessel (1974) during the 1970’s and more

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recently the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union (Lane and Davis 1987) hasquantified the numbers of these birds and placed the wetland in a national andinternational perspective. Recent (1994-95) shorebird surveys have been undertaken inthe Hunter River estuary for the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project by Dr RichardKingsford and Ms Renee Ferster Levy of the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service(a draft report is available) and Mr David Geering (final report available).

Kooragang Nature Reserve is a particularly significant area for the conservation ofmigratory waders and other waterbirds for the following reasons:

- In November 1994, the estuary held about 6 440 migratory wading birds. InJanuary 1995, 12 000 waterbirds of all classifications were. recorded. Thesenumbers make it one of the three most important areas in NSW and one of thetop ten in Australia.

- During winter, substantial numbers of immature migratory waders remain in theHunter Estuary and do not return to the Northern Hemisphere. These birdsmature to form future breeding stocks and thus are critical to the species’survival.

- Of the thirty species of migratory wader known to occur in the estuary andsurrounds, eleven are present in large numbers: Pacific golden plover, easterncurlew, common greenshank, marsh sandpiper, Terek sandpiper, bar-tailedgodwit, black-tailed godwit, red knot, red-necked stint, sharp-tailed sandpiperand curlew sandpiper. Two species of migratory tern, the white winged tern andcommon tern also occur at Kooragang Island.

- A small number of broad-billed sandpipers summer in the Hunter Estuary; theonly regular site used in NSW.

- More than 5% of the total world population of other migratory waders such as thePacific golden plover and the curlew sandpiper have been recorded from thislocality.

- The estuary supports numerous species scheduled as Threatened Fauna inNSW including black-necked stork, osprey, large sand plover, Mongolian (lesser)sand plover, Terek sandpiper, Australasian bittern, little bittern, little tern, piedoystercatcher, great knot and painted snipe. The little bittern was found nestingon Kooragang Island in 1972. The little terns formerly nested on the islands thatwere combined to form Kooragang Island.

- The mangroves in the vicinity of the Stockton Bridge once supported breedingcolonies of egrets and night-herons. These relocated to the area of what is nowthe Shortland Wetland Centre in the mid 1980’s. The egrets from this breedingcolony forage in both Kooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves.

- The wetlands of the Hunter Estuary generally are an important drought refuge forinland species of waterbirds such as red-necked avocet, pied stilt and grey tealand support large large numbers of black swan and chestnut teal.

- The Hunter Estuary is an important stopover for migratory waders in the spring enroute to Victoria, Tasmania and New Zealand; particularly for red knot, bar-tailedgodwit, Eastern curlew and red-necked stint.

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2.4 HEXHAM SWAMP NATURE RESERVE

2.4.1 Location

Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve was dedicated in January 1990 and covers some 900hectares. It is located about 12 kilometres upstream of Newcastle on the southern sideof the Hunter River and is bounded generally by the Hunter Water Corporation’sChichester pipeline to its north, the abandoned Richmond-Pelaw Colliery Railway to thewest, the Ironbark and Fisheries Creek system to the east and reclaimed agriculturallands to the south (see Map centre pages).

Hexham Swamp is the largest freshwater swamp on the north coast of New SouthWales. The swamp also contains estuarine habitat in its north-eastern corner adjacentto the Hunter River which forms a strong ecological link with the western end ofKooragang Nature Reserve. The freshwater swamps of the nature reserve arecontiguous with important freshwater wetlands on freehold lands to the west near Minmi,the Shortland Wetlands Centre to the east and in the Newcastle Council’s WetlandsReserve below Newcastle University.

2.4.2 History of Land Use and Dedication

Most early European use of the Hexham Swamp revolved around agriculture onperipheral but floodprone and relatively fertile soils. Dairying, cattle grazing, croppingand the raising of horses resulted in the clearing of the native forests surrounding theswamp during the nineteenth century. The swamp itself however, remained relativelyintact in a largely freshwater state dissected by numerous small intertidal watercoursesfringed with mangroves.

From the turn of the twentieth century up until the late 1950’s there were a number ofdevelopments around and within the swamp including the Richmond-Pelaw CollieryRailway, the Great Northern Railway and the Hunter Water Corporation pipeline. TheOak milk processing factory was built at Hexham during 1926-27. Earthworksassociated with these developments have had significant and long-term effects upon theswamp by effectively increasing its freshwater component by cutting off the tidalchannels to the Hunter River to the north and concentrating drainage of the wetlandthrough the Ironbark Creek channel to the east. The Coal and Allied Industries’ coaldump and washing facilities were established near Hexham during the 1970’s.

The Northumberland County District Planning Scheme was introduced in the early1960’s and provided for Newcastle Council to formally zone the swamp ‘non-urban’ and‘industrial’ with a large area set aside as a future regional airport. As a consequence ofthis planning scheme, the Shortland waste dump was established near Sandgate andthe Shortland Minmi sewerage treatment works were built. A private airstrip wasconstructed near Marylands using industrial waste as fill.

The massive reclamation works on Kooragang Island under the Newcastle HarbourImprovements Act during the 1950’s and 1960’s led to alterations in the flow regime ofthe Hunter River such that the tidal range in the South Arm was apparently increased.This resulted in increasing salt penetration of the swamp through Ironbark Creek andexacerbated flood levels upstream, thus compounding the changes in the wetlandbrought about by the earlier developments noted above.

In the early 1970’s, local residents lobbied for floodgates and drainage channels in theHexham floodplain to ameliorate flooding in the Wallsend area, to exclude salt waterpenetration of grazing lands and to mitigate the mosquito problem. Construction of thegates in 1971 across Ironbark Creek by the Department of Public Works resulted in stillfurther changes to the ecology of the swamp by returning it to a more stagnant butfreshwater condition.

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In 1972 the Hunter Valley Conservation Trust expressed the view that further flood andsalt mitigation works in the swamp should be deferred until the Department of PublicWorks had completed an environmental impact statement. This statement concludedthat the swamp had significant environmental value, that the eight miles of proposeddrainage channel could not be economically justified and that a joint committee beformed to coordinate a land use plan. It was not until 1977 that this committee convenedunder the chair of the Planning and Environment Commission but in the meantimeseveral channels had been created privately by landowners.

The committee (Planning and Environment Commission 1978) found that the swampwas of vital importance as a storage area for flood relief and that it was of great regionaland national importance to wildlife especially waterfowl. It recommended that an InterimDevelopment Order be placed over the swamp by Council guaranteeing its preservationuntil the area could be investigated as a possible nature reserve.

The IDO No 144 was adopted in 1980 but it was replaced soon after in 1982 by LocalEnvironment Plan No 28. This LEP created a 7(b)-Wetlands Protection zoning aroundthe swamp to the 1 in 100 year flood level. This level approximates the 5 metre contour.

Whilst these plans aimed to preserve the swamp in the (then) immediate term they hadobvious shortcomings in that neither addressed the protection and management of thecomplete watershed and therefore the concerns of the many neighbours of the swamp.

In recognition of its predominantly freshwater values, the National Parks and WildlifeService in 1981 concluded that the area was worthy of nature reserve status and it wasfinally dedicated as such in 1990 thereby complementing the more estuarine KooragangNature Reserve.

The majority of the swamp including all of the nature reserve is classed as protectedwetland (No. 840) under the SEPP No 14. and the areas immediately surrounding thenature reserve are zoned 7(b) Environmental Protection (Wetlands) under the NewcastleRegional and Local Environment Plans.

Like Kooragang, the Hexham Swamp was classified by the National Trust in the Hunter2000 Report in 1972 as being worthy of preservation and was included in its register in1977.

In 1991 the Hunter Catchment Management Trust convened the Ironbark TotalCatchment Management Committee under the provisions of the CatchmentManagement Act (1990). The Trust acknowledged that a large number of authorities,industries, commercial organisations and local communities are involved in themanagement and future of the catchment. The committee was charged with theresponsibility of preparing management guidelines for the whole catchment therebyaddressing the concerns raised by the public in the 1980’s.

The NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service has maintained close liaison with thiscommittee and this management plan takes into consideration its recommendations(Hunter Catchment Management Trust 1995).

2.4.3 Importance of Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve

The nature reserve is about 900 ha in size and is only part of the entire Hexham Swampwhich has been recognised as the largest freshwater swamp on the north coast. The

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total area of the swamp is about 2 500 ha and comprises about 45% of all the remainingfreshwater wetland habitat in the Hunter Valley.

According to Pressey (1981) large wetlands are important because:

- they support large populations and a greater species diversity of native plantsand animals than do small wetlands;

- they provide essential habitat for specialised species that often depend onextensive areas for survival;

- they are less susceptible to disturbance on the periphery than are smallerwetlands; and

- they are often publicly and politically significant.

The Joint Committee to advise on Land Use in Hexham Swamp (1978) identified theswamp as being:

- of vital importance as a storage area for flood waters;- of regional and national importance for wildlife;- valuable as a nutrient ‘sink’ and nursery ground for fish and other estuarine life;

and- a major open space of regional significance.

In 1970 the swamp contained eleven of the fourteen coastal wetland types found in NSW(Goodrick; 1970); nine of which were freshwater wetlands. In 1978 Briggs alsorecorded a high community diversity including some 180ha of mangroves and saltmarshes. More recent studies (Conroy and Lake; 1992), however, have recorded adrop in diversity, a reduction in the extent of mangroves to around 20ha and thedisappearance of nine plant species. These changes are understood to a result of thealteration to the hydrology of the swamp.

Prior to the intrusion of saltwater when seasonal and climatic conditions werefavourable, large numbers of birds especially freshwater waterfowl utilised the variety ofhabitat available in the swamp. Numbers of waterfowl were variously estimated at tensof thousands during favourable times but dropped to only a few hundred on the rareoccasions when the swamp dried out (Waterhouse; 1980).

In particular, utilisation of Hexham Swamp by birds increases during inland droughttimes, including use by some inland and northern species considered rare such as thefreckled duck, black-necked stork and magpie goose. The preservation of HexhamSwamp as one of a system of coastal drought refuge areas may be essential to thesurvival of many waterfowl species.

Through the summer months, several migratory species of wading birds are regularlyrecorded on the swamp. Of special note are Lathams snipe which have low populationnumbers world-wide and for which south-east Australian wetlands particularly those inthe lower Hunter are recognised strongholds (Lane; 1987).

The swamp provides valuable feeding and roosting habitat for egrets found breedingnearby at the Shortland Wetlands Centre. Two species of bittern, the little andAustralasian bittern are found in its extensive reedbeds. These birds are cryptic andlittle is known of them but are they are recognised as endangered.

In more recent times the numbers of waterfowl have greatly diminished due to thechanges in hydrology and vegetation previously mentioned. With active and cooperativemanagement of the whole watershed this trend could be reversed. The protection of theswamp as a nature reserve provides an important opportunity to investigate ways andmeans to achieve this in accordance with the principles of total catchment management;the principles thus established could then be applied to other wetlands.

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Hexham Swamp has great potential for research and education as it is close to largepopulation centres and access to certain parts of the swamp is not difficult. The area isa mecca for bird watchers as the success of the adjacent Shortland Wetlands Centretestifies.

Although Hexham Swamp is not specifically listed under the Ramsar Convention, theFederal Government in becoming a signatory has accepted the importance ofprotecting wetland habitat generally. This is recognised in the National ConservationStrategy (Department of Home Affairs and Environment, 1984) which states as some ofits major goals to:

ensure that wetlands are managed in a way that maximises options for theirfuture use;

- conserve ground and water resources;

- restore degraded and eroded lands;

- preserve the genetic diversity of Australia’s plant and animal species; and

- manage the impact of development on wetlands so that their ability to meetconservation and development objectives is not diminished.

Hexham Swamp is important habitat for at least fifteen migratory species of bird that areprotected under the JAMBA and CAMBA agreements. Accordingly, the Service willsupport its inclusion on the National Directory of Important wetlands

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3. OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT

This plan of management has been prepared in accordance with Section 72 of theNational Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974 and is consistent with various internationaltreaties and conventions; in particular with the management guidelines for wetlandslisted in Resolution C.5.7 and Recommendation C.5.3 of the Ramsar Convention.

3.1 Objectives of Management

The following general objectives relate to the management of nature reserves in NewSouth Wales:

* Protection and preservation of the natural features.

* Maintenance of natural processes as far as possible.

* Conservation of wildlife.

* Encouragement of scientific and educational inquiry into environmental featuresand processes.

In addition to these general objectives, the following specific objectives of managementapply to Kooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves:

* To protect, and where necessary improve the ecological condition of, theestuarine wetlands of Kooragang Nature Reserve so as to maintain and promotethe population numbers and species diversity of migratory birds and waterfowl,particularly those recognised as endangered.

* To protect, and where necessary improve the ecological condition of, thefreshwater wetlands and estuarine wetlands of Hexham Swamp Nature Reserveso as to maintain and promote the population numbers and species diversity ofwaterfowl and migratory waders, particularly those recognised as endangered.

* To encourage, both on the two nature reserves and on adjacent lands and inconjunction with local educational, research and community organisations,educational and research programs into the values and the management ofestuarine and freshwater wetlands where these are compatible with the first andsecond specific objectives.

3.2 Overall Strategy

To give effect to achieving these objectives of management, the following strategies willalso apply to the management of Kooragang Nature Reserve and Hexham SwampNature Reserve. The Service will:

* enhance and/or enlarge areas of the two nature reserves used as roost sites,feeding grounds and flyways by migratory birds and waterfowl;

* support the Hunter Catchment Management Trust and the Ironbark TotalCatchment Management Committee and its programs to protect and enhancethe catchment values of Hexham Swamp and the lower Hunter estuary;

* support the Hunter Catchment Management Trust and the Kooragang WetlandRehabilitation Project in its programs to restore and enhance wildlife habitat andprovide educational opportunities that are compatible with the protection ofmigratory shorebird habitat in Kooragang Nature Reserve;

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* promote appropriate land use planning and management practices undertakenby neighbours and other land management authorities which protect the wetlandvalues of the two nature reserves;

* emphasise within the local community, particularly neighbours of the naturereserves, the importance and purpose of management programs relating to theprotection of their natural values and the control of fire, weeds and feral animals;

* investigate ways to achieve an ecologically meaningful and socially acceptableboundary for both the nature reserves; and

* liaise closely with Newcastle Council on management issues related to HexhamSwamp in order to foster a more coordinated and integrated managementapproach to this area

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4. POLICIES AND FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGEMENT

This section contains the policies and framework for the management of Kooragangand Hexham Swamp nature reserves together with relevant background information.Policies are summarised under the following headings:

* Kooragang and Hexham Swamp Nature Reserves: Their Natural and CulturalLandscapes; and

* Use of the Nature Reserves.

The policies outlined in this plan of management provide the framework formanagement consistent with anticipated resources available to the Service andanticipated community trends over the next five to ten years.

The actions identified are those to which priority will be given in the foreseeable future.Other management actions may be developed over the life span of this plan ofmanagement consistent with the National Parks and Wildlife Act and with the objectivesand policies set out in the plan.

4.1 KOORAGANG AND HEXHAM SWAMP NATURE RESERVES: THEIRNATURAL AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

4.1.1 Geology and Soils

The lower Hunter River is a barrier estuary formed by the deposition of sediments inswamps and flats lying between the inner and outer coastal barrier sands. Thesebarriers demonstrate the evolution of the coastline during changes in sea level duringthe Pleistocene and Recent geological periods as a result of world wide glacial cycles,with the latest most significant event occurring some 6000 years ago when the sea levelrose over 100 metres to its present level. Beneath these sands and sediments, atdepths of between 10 and 40 metres, lie older bedrocks composed of fine to mediumgrained massive grey sandstone and siltstone interspersed with shales and coal.Although the bedrock slopes upwards to the north there are no outcrops within thereserves.

The sediments on Kooragang Island and adjacent estuarine areas comprise black siltyand highly saturated soft clays to a depth of about two metres which are underlain by alight grey and silty sand. Depending on their elevation above sea level, drainage patternand their susceptibility to freshwater flooding, these sediments may be more or lesssaline. Salinities may vary from as high as 70% in evaporative salt marsh areas to aslow as 8% behind levees where the soil is generally more fertile and regularly flooded byfresh water.

The extensive intertidal mudflats associated with Fullerton Cove and the banks of theHunter River are being formed by deposition of layers of sediments from upstreamwhich are trapped by mangroves and/or deposited by slow moving water. Thesesediments are laid down in various strata within which specific invertebrate species arefound. Migratory birds feed upon these invertebrates in a highly specialised manner andthus are sensitive to alterations in mudflat strata, such as may occur from dredging,prawning, propeller strikes, bait collection and pollution.

Most soils of Kooragang Island are only slightly acidic although small areas of sandyclays supporting brackish swamps can reach low pH levels and create the potential foracid sulphates to occur should they be permanently dried out or drained.

In contrast, Hexham Swamp, is predominantly brackish in its lower reaches and withdark, heavy and acidic clays, has significant potential for acid sulphate buildup (Hunter

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Catchment Management Trust; 1995). Sulphate soils are typical of low lying coastalplains where pyritic (iron sulphide) sediments are exposed to oxygen by drainageresulting in the formation of sulphuric acid. The acid can then be washed by heavyrainfall into the estuaries where heavy fishkills can result. The longer term effect oninvertebrate fauna and hence the whole food chain is unknown.Drainage and limited tidal inundation are expected to increase the problem.

Policies and Actions

* An undisturbed soil and mudflat horizon will be maintained (except at the site ofthe proposed re-establishment of wader roost sites at Sandy Island and the areato the north of the dykes) to:

- maximise the abundance and availability of invertebrate prey items formigratory birds, waterfowl and fish; and

- minimise or prevent oxidation of potential acid sulphate soils and promotehabitat diversity.

* Activities which are shown to significantly affect the mudflat strata within thereserves will be prohibited.

* The Service will negotiate with relevant authorities an agreement to minimisedredging in the Hunter River to that necessary for safe navigational passage ofshipping.

* Wetland rehabilitation work, such as the refilling of drains, which reduces thepotential for acid sulphation of soils or which enhances habitat diversity includingpond and island construction in Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve will beundertaken in consultation with the relevent authorities.

4.1.2 Hydrology, Water Quality and Catchment Management

The Hunter River is one of the largest rivers in coastal NSW and drains a catchment inexcess of 25 000 sq kms. Kooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves are locatedin the lower reaches of the Hunter River catchment and are both within the direct orindirect influence of tidal waters. A second feature of the lower reaches of the HunterRiver is the wide river flats which total about 29 000 ha in area and are susceptible towidespread flooding. Flooding may be local, such as within the Ironbark Creekcatchment (a tributary of the lower Hunter River which includes Hexham Swamp within itscatchment) or may involve the whole of the Hunter River catchment. Such flooding maycause significant damage to agricultural, industrial and residential areas.

The lower catchment of the Hunter River is a highly industrialised and urbanisedcomplex and the mouth of the river has been developed as one of Australia’s mostimportant ports. There is continuing land development, both in close proximity to the twonature reserves and upstream along the Hunter River and its main tributaries, which maygive rise to accelerated soil erosion, water pollution and the encroachment of feralanimals and weeds affecting the two nature reserves. Land development within thecatchment of Ironbark Creek has the potential to be of particular concern to theprotection of Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve.

The lower catchment of the Hunter River is therefore subject to intensive developmentand management both to control floodwaters and to regulate tidal water movements.These works and programs impact upon the wellbeing of the two nature reserves.

The Catchment Management Act came into effect in 1989. Total catchmentmanagement provides an umbrella framework to aim for, amongst other matters,

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cleaner water, less soil erosion, improved vegetation cover, the maintenance ofecological processes and a balanced and healthier environment. It also provides afocus to balance conservation needs and development pressures and encourages amore aware and involved community. An important means of achieving these aims isthe formation and support of catchment management committees at a local level.

The management of the lower Hunter River in accordance with the principles of totalcatchment management is therefore an important strategy for the protection of the twonature reserves. To this end the Service is actively involved with the Hunter CatchmentManagement Trust and its associated Ironbark Total Catchment ManagementCommittee and other authorities including the Kooragang Wetland RehabilitationProject in seeking cooperative management throughout the watershed.

The Service also has responsibilities under the Environmental Planning andAssessment Act (1979) and the Threatened Species Conservation Act (1995) inrespect of requiring that appropriate environmental controls be put in place over alldevelopments by government authorities, private companies, neighbours and thegeneral community within the watershed.

Kooragang

The hydrological regime of Kooragang has been greatly modified since the originalseven islands in the delta were reclaimed and joined together in the 1950’s. Prior to thistime there was tidal flow between the islands along a multitude of mangrove linedchannels. Moscheto Creek once linked the north and south arms of the river through thenow filled industrial area.

Restrictions in tidal, normal and flood river flows through the delta as a result ofreclamation altered tidal and flood patterns upstream and increased the flows throughthe South Arm of the Hunter River. Moscheto Creek was occluded at its southern end bythe industrial railway to become tidal via the North Arm only.

The concentration of heavy industry and shipping along the South Arm and on thesouthern parts of Kooragang Island has led to a reduction in water quality compared tothat in the North Arm. Fishing was banned in the South Arm at one time due to publichealth concerns.

In an effort to ameliorate flooding in low lying areas of Newcastle, the NSW Departmentof Public Works installed a levee bank around Fullerton Cove in 1970 prior to itsdedication as a nature reserve. Drains were also installed to reclaim the significantwetland areas behind the levees for agriculture. This levee bank is intended to direct themaximum flow of water downstream within the confines of the river thereby providingsome protection to agricultural lands during minor floods. During major flood events,however, the levee is overtopped and floodwaters cover the agricultural lands behind it.Ponding occurs behind the levee area thereby reducing the extent of flooding furtherdownstream in Newcastle.

Now that the majority of agricultural lands behind the levee are either dedicated asnature reserve or form part of the Tomago Aluminium buffer zone designed to hold floodwaters, the rehabilitation of these former wetlands by proposing active manipulation ofthe flood mitigation works outside flood times may be possible as part of the KooragangWetland Rehabilitation Project.

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Hexham Swamp

Ironbark Creek is a tributary of the lower Hunter River which runs alongside the HexhamSwamp Nature Reserve and drains 12 500 ha of low lying residential and agriculturalarea on the western outskirts of Newcastle.

Reclamation works on Kooragang Island in the 1950’s also resulted in elevated tidaland flood flows in the South Arm of the Hunter River and altered the freshwater/salineratios along Ironbark Creek and thus in the swamp itself.

This compounded changes in the hydrological regime of the swamp caused earlier bythe installation of various embankments associated with the Great Northern Railway, thePacific Highway, the Richmond-Pelaw Colliery Railway and the Hunter WaterCorporation’s Chichester pipeline

The swamp has long been recognised as a flood retention basin during majoroverbanking by the Hunter River and many studies have been conducted into itsbehaviour at such times (see Hunter Catchment Management Trust; 1995 for review).To this end a levee bank was constructed along the river bank from Hexham toSandgate in 1972 and floodgates constructed on Purgatory and Ironbark creeks. Thesestructures were designed to provide similar protection to those described above forFullerton Cove by holding floodwaters in a flood retention basin and allowing controlledrelease at a later time.

Detailed studies by the Ironbark Total Catchment Management Committee (HunterCatchment Management Trust; 1995) indicate that the levee and gates provideprotection from major flooding to approximately the 2 metre contour or 1 in 50 year floodevent. The structures provide no additional protection for floods in excess of this.

At other times, the one way nature of the floodgates serve mainly to limit the intrusion ofsaline waters at high tide whilst limiting the extent of localised minor floods upstream inthe catchment.

The Total Catchment Management Committee is considering a number of optionsincluding the progressive opening of the flood gates during normal “low flow” conditionsin order to permit an orderly tidal regime as far upstream as a low level containmentlevee without affecting the ability of minor local floods to drain from the catchment. Thecontainment levee would prevent salt water intrusion into agricultural lands beyond anagreed point. The option finally decided will need to balance several conflictingcommunity and special interests, including those of rural landholders in the catchment.

Total closure of the gates in the event of major river flooding would continue to protectlands up to the 1 in 50 year level.

It has been estimated by the Total Catchment Management Committee thatapproximately 8 500 tonnes of sediment are flushed into the swamp annually but thatonly about 400 tonnes leave via the confluence with the Hunter River. These figuresindicate that the swamp is an efficient sediment trap. Although these figures seemexcessive they do indicate that the swamp is an efficient sediment trap and must befilling up thus exacerbating future flood problems. The lack of flushing in Ironbark Creekdue to the flood gates further contributes to this.

Whilst it is acknowledged that wetlands require a certain amount of sediment andnutrient in order to function efficiently (B Moss; 1983), increased loadings can also havesignificant adverse effects upon water quality. These include reduced water clarity,deoxygenation of waters, increased heavy metals, toxic chemicals and oils, andincreased bacteria and viruses (S.P.C.C., 1990).

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Studies by the Environment Protection Agency during the period 1973 to 1991 asreported in the Ironbark Total Catchment Management Committee Report (HunterCatchment Management Trust; 1995) indicate the creek has become moderately tohighly eutrophic. It is characterised by high phosphorous levels, excessive variation indissolved oxygen, excessive plant growth and sedimentation. These factors can resultin algal blooms and fish kills. However, this will improve once effluent disposal into thecreek is stopped following augmentation of the Shortland Waste Water Treatment Plant.

Modification of the flood regime and increasing tidal flow into the swamp by providingfor increased flushing would be beneficial in reducing pollution and nutrient levels. Tosupplement these effects of stream regulation downstream, additional control is alsoneeded on sediment runoff at the various sources within the watershed asrecommended by the Total Catchment Management Committee

Policies and Actions

* The Service will continue to participate in and support programs undertaken bythe Hunter Catchment Management Trust, the Ironbark Total CatchmentManagement Committee and the Port Stephens and Newcastle Council EstuaryManagement Committees where they are complementary to the objectives ofmanagement for the two nature reserves.

* The value of the reserves as flood retention basins is recognised and isconsistent with their importance as wetlands for migratory waders and waterfowl.

* All management activities, where relevant, will incorporate soil erosionmanagement principles and practices developed by the Soil ConservationService of New South Wales.

* The Service will seek the placement of environmental controls on developmentwithin the watershed with the aim of protecting the two nature reserves from theadverse impacts of such development.

* The Service will support other authorities in initiating and maintaining regularmonitoring programs and controls on all waters and associated pollution andnutrients entering the reserves.

* The Service will contribute to the preparation of a pollution action plan for thereserves in conjunction with all relevant government authorities and adjacent localindustries.

* The Service will encourage the use and/or relocation of floodgates to minimisethe effects of pollution and nutrient runoff.

4.1.3 Native plants

Kooragang

The vegetation associations of Kooragang Nature Reserve have been extensivelymapped by Briggs (1986), Dames and Moore (1978) and Outhred and Buckney (1983)for the Department of Environment and Planning. Some fifteen vegetation types havebeen mapped on Kooragang Island which can be grouped into the following broadmajor communities or successional stages from saline to terrestial:

- Mangrove forests dominated by the grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) withsome river mangrove (Aegiceras corniculatum). Mangroves are an essentialpart of the estuarine system because they trap, accumulate and recyclesediments and organic matter caught amongst their roots in the intertidal area.

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This builds up nutrient levels and provides the energy that sustains high levels ofphytoplankton and invertebrates which in turn become food for fish and wadingbirds. Mangroves are well recognised as nursery grounds for a host ofrecreational and commercial fish species and are protected under a variety oflegislation (see Johnston, 1992 for review).

- Saltmarsh is dominated by samphire (Sarcocornia sp.) and saltwater couch(Sporobolus virginicus). The community of saltmarsh in the area to the west ofFullerton Cove was once the largest in the region (J Moss, 1983). However thepresent levee bank and drains have led to it being replaced with drier pasturegrasses such as buffalo, kikuyu and couch (Cynodon sp.).

- Saline and freshwater pastures are dominated by couch and other agriculturalgrasses, sedges and introduced weeds.

The estuarine herb (Zannechellia palustris) has been recorded immediatelyadjacent to the western end of the reserve and is known only from theNewcastle/Lake Macquarie area and along Ironbark Creek.

- Swamp forests consisting of swamp oak (Casuarina glauca) and paperbarks(Melaleuca spp.), are now limited.

- Rainforest communities exist in remnants on Kooragang Island. Isolatedindividual trees, for example, figs (Ficus spp.) and cabbage tree palms(Livistona australis) still occur. The threatened rainforest vine Cynanchumelegans also occurs adjacent to the western boundary of the reserve and is onlyknown from about 40 sites elsewhere in NSW.

Minor vegetation types of conservation interest include:

- A small area of seagrass (Ruppia spiralis) in a large tide pool adjacent to therailway line south of the reserve (Johnston, 1992). This forms part of theproposed Area C additions and is the only seagrass known from within theestuary.

- Brackish swamps and standing open water containing sedges (Scirpus spp.)and other aquatic species.

An important program in the rehabilitation of the western end of Kooragang Island by theKooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project is the revegetation of former rainforest areasby rainforest species. The Service will establish a rainforest revegetation program onKooragang Nature Reserve to complement that of the Wetland Rehabilitation Project.

Hexham Swamp

The vegetation patterns of Hexham Swamp prior to European settlement are unknown.Changes to the hydrology of the swamp, have been both complex and pronounced and itis assumed that the original vegetation communities have disappeared.

From the turn of the twentieth century up until the 1950’s it is understood that HexhamSwamp was covered by predominantly freshwater vegetation with saline communitiesrestricted to the margins of creeks. The vegetation supported extensive grazing bydomestic stock (pers. com. G Winning: Shortland Wetland Centre).

During the 1950’s, the reclamation and amalgamation of the various islands in theHunter River delta to form Kooragang Island apparently resulted in an elevated tidalinfluence along the southern arm of the river. This in turn encouraged an expansion of

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saline communities within the reserve to the extent that saltmarshes impinged uponprevious freshwater grazing country. (Jack McMaster: local resident, pers. com).

The subsequent installation of the gates on Ironbark Creek in the 1970’s restricted thesaline intrusion and resulted in a partial return to freshwater conditions.

Studies by Briggs (1978) divided the swamp into four different vegetation types.

The south-east zone was described as predominantly saltmarsh andmangroves: dominated by grey mangrove, red samphire (Sarcocorniaquinqueflora), saltwater couch, and paspalum. On higher ground there occurredisolated stands of paperbarks (Melaleuca quinquenerva) and swamp casuarina(Casuarina glauca).

The central portion of the swamp was described as a reed communitydominated by Fimbristylis ferruginea with minor areas of the common reed(Phragmites australis).

The upper reaches of the swamp to the south-west were described asfreshwater meadows and seasonal freshwater swamps. This area was themost diverse and contained several community types dominated by cumbungi(Typha australis) and many other freshwater species, for example, waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes).

To the north-west freshwater grassy swamps described as consisting ofsubmerged aquatic plants, reeds, paspalum, Eleocharis spp. and otheragricultural fodder plants.

In all, some eleven of the fourteen coastal wetland types in NSW (Goodrick, 1970) wererepresented and nine of these were freshwater communities.

More recent studies by McGregor (1980), Conroy and Lake (1992) and the ShortlandWetlands Centre indicate that the swamp is now dominated by a single community, thereed Phragmites, and there has been a large reduction in the extent of the Fibristylis,couch, samphire and mangrove communities. Healthy mangroves now occupy onlyabout 20 ha as compared to 180 ha in 1966 (Hunter Catchment Management Trust;1995).

It is an important aim of management of Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve to maintainthe habitat diversity within Hexham Swamp because the number of species found withinit is a function of the number of different habitats and there is a greater chance that allthe requirements of a particular species will be met in a complex pattern of plantcommunities (Pressey; 1981).

Policies and Actions

* The growth of native vegetation and maintenance of community diversity will beencouraged except where it may conflict with any habitat enhancement programsfor migratory birds and waterfowl.

* Littoral rainforest species indigenous to the lower Hunter floodplain will bereplanted in areas of Kooragang Nature Reserve known to have supportedrainforest to complement the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project. Onlyplant material collected from the lower Hunter River area will be used forrevegetation.

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* Mangroves will continue to be protected and replanted except where their limitedremoval is justified to enhance roost and feeding sites in Kooragang NatureReserve.

* The Service will negotiate the acquisition of Area C (see map) on KooragangIsland to assist in the protection of the plant communities, especially that ofseagrass.

* A survey of threatened plant species of the two nature reserves will beundertaken and where required species recovery plans will be prepared andimplemented.

4.1.4 Native Animals

Birds

Kooragang

Over 160 species of bird have been recorded on Kooragang. Migratory wading birdsform a major component. The ecology of these species has been well studied both inAustralia and overseas (see Prater, 1981 and Lane, 1987 for reviews, Kingsford andLevy in prep., Geering 1995).

These studies allow a number of generalisations to be made that are of direct relevanceto the management of Kooragang Nature Reserve:

- Many species form large flocks at specific sites called roosts at high tide whentheir feeding areas are inundated.

- These roosts can be defined by specific physical criteria, for example, amount ofvegetation, type of substrate and proximity to feeding areas. Their suitability canvary with the size of tide and the time of the year. Different species have differentrequirements.

- Disturbance to roosts displaces birds to other locations and has two majorundesirable consequences. It means that individuals must travel further to reachtheir feeding area thereby reducing feeding times and increasing mortality. Itincreases competition between species for available roost sites thereby forcingthe use of less preferred areas leading to increased mortality.

- With careful planning, roosts can be enhanced and/or created artificially.

- As wading birds cannot sit out high tide on the water and are highly site specific,conservation of roost areas is important to their survival.

- Most wading birds are dependent on mudflats for their food supply. As these areoften intertidal, available feeding time is limited to a receding and low tide.

- Wading birds are adapted to specific food items thus some species may befound in different areas of mudflat whilst others may feed at different depths

- Waders tend to take the most profitable food available, ie., that which is the mostenergy efficient. In some estuaries this can result in a significant proportion of theavailable food resource being consumed in a season.

- If an area becomes less energy efficient birds will endeavour to move elsewhereresulting in increased competition with other groups and hence mortality.

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- Most wading species migrate to and breed in the northern hemisphere during theAustralian winter. Fat reserves to allow this are built up prior to departure inAustralian estuaries. Immature birds or less healthy ones may remain behind.Thus the available mudflats are required year round and are essential toconserving future breeding stocks.

- Reduction in the amount and quality of mudflats through reclamation, pollution andhuman recreation jeopardise survival rates. Unlike roosts, the biologicalcomplexity of feeding areas on the mudflats means they cannot be artificiallycreated over the short term. Their protection for waders is critical.

Studies by the Shortland Wetlands Centre for the Kooragang Wetland RehabilitationProject (David Geering; pers. comm.), the Hunter Bird Observers Club (Kendall and vanGessel 1972), the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union (Lane; 1987) and othershave indicated that the number of roost sites in the Hunter has been steadily reducing tothe point where the majority of migratory birds are now found at only two locations athigh tide during the day and at one other during the night.

The location of these three sites, identified as the bridge, the dykes and the saltmarsh isindicated on the map (centre pages) and their protection is also essential. Theenhancement of two other previously used sites on Sandy Island and the north end of thedykes is proposed as a matter of high priority whilst the creation of a new roost on thewestern point of Fullerton Cove is considered highly desirable.

These works will require the deposition of sand/shell grit, possibly obtained from thedredging of shipping channels and the removal of vegetation including spiky sedges,grasses, weeds and some mangrove seedlings.

The reflooding of the Tomago buffer lands to the north-west of Fullerton Cove willreintroduce saltmarsh and provide another night time alternative roost.

Full protection of all these sites, particularly during high tides from predators anddisturbance by humans will also be needed.

The Shortland Wetland Centre and the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project havecompleted the first stage of a plan to enhance the roost adjacent to the Stockton Bridgeand to provide interpretation facilities and limited public access.

In contrast to the roost sites, the extent and quality of the inter-tidal feeding grounds arerelatively good. Most feeding occurs in the Fullerton Cove area where some 950 ha ofmudflat become exposed. Feeding times are also extended by the delays in fillingand/or emptying of the flats behind the dykes caused by the restricted drainage pointsalong the wall. The dyke wall also assists in the channelling of river flow thus contributingto the depth of the main shipping channel.

The major threat to the health of the feeding grounds is pollution and regularenvironmental monitoring of water quality and mudflat invertebrate strata is proposed.The extensive and shallow nature of Fullerton Cove means that human interference isminimised since boats cannot access the area at low tide.

A potential but as yet unquantified threat is that of noise pollution from aircraft using thenearby Williamtown airbase. This may increase if plans to expand the airport proceedand its impact on the behaviour of migratory birds and waterfowl will also needassessment and monitoring.

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Hexham Swamp

In comparison with Kooragang, Hexham Swamp holds relatively few estuarine migratorywading birds; however, over 200 other bird species have been recorded in the HexhamSwamp catchment

At certain times large numbers of freshwater waterfowl may be found which includeLathams snipe, an endangered migratory species, the comb-crested jacana, at itssouthern limits and the painted snipe, a rarely seen nomadic which has been recordedbreeding in the swamp. In drought times the swamp becomes a valuable refugesupporting more inland waterfowl, for example, the rare and endangered freckled duck

In addition to the above unusual species other more common species including egrets,ibises, herons, spoonbills, ducks and a variety of raptors and grassland passerinespecies are to be found in the nature reserve and environs. In particular, the easternportion of the swamp provides essential feeding and roosting habitat for colonies ofwaterfowl, especially egrets, found breeding adjacent at the Shortland Wetlands Centre.The greatest numbers of waterfowl in Hexham Swamp are found in the areas of opensaline water, saltmarsh, semi-permanent freshwater, seasonal fresh swamp and floodedfresh meadows.

In excess of 10 000 waterfowl were recorded on Hexham Swamp during the 1970s;however the numbers have declined since then possibly due to flood mitigation worksand the spread of the common reed Phragmites sp. Plant communities dominated bythe common reed support the fewest number of waterbirds (Keane; 1983) yet thisspecies is becoming dominant in Hexham Swamp which in 1981 already held some90% of the population of Phragmites sp. in the lower Hunter (Pressey; 1981).

Little and Australasian bitterns inhabit the swamp and are dependent on cover providedby the extensive reed beds. Little is known about these cryptic and endangeredspecies. Priority will be given to encouraging or undertaking research into thereconciling the conservation of the bitterns in Hexham Swamp with Phragmites sp.control. In particular the impact of grazing as a means of controlling Phragmites sp. onthe bitterns will be determined.

Policies and Actions

* The Service will conserve and enhance migratory bird and waterfowl populationsand their habitat. In particular:

- subject to the proposal not having an unacceptable impact upon thefeeding areas of Fullerton Cove, restoration of the high tide artificial roostfor migratory shorebirds will be undertaken on the western point of theentrance to Fullerton Cove;

- Sandy Island and the area to the north of the dykes, once important roostsites, will be restored by the limited removal of mangroves and weedsfollowed by the deposition of shell grit or dredge spoil;

- The roosting area adjacent to the Stockton Bridge will continue to beenhanced in accordance with the plan prepared by the ShortlandWetlands Centre for the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project;

- The training dykes will be retained to provide roost sites and extendedfeeding times on the mudflats behind; and

- Public access to roost sites will be restricted.

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* The impact of boating, public access and aircraft noise on the bird populationswill be assessed. To the extent possible under existing laws and administrativeresponsibilities, restrictions will be placed on these activities if bird populationsare shown to be adversely affected.

* Regular programs that monitor the ecological health of the mudflats shall beintroduced in conjunction with other authorities and conservation organisations.

* Subject to the protection of the little bittern and Australasian bittern populations inthe nature reserve, habitat diversity in Hexham Swamp will be increased byaltering the tidal and freshwater regime and by limiting the extent of the commonreed.

* Egret habitat adjacent to Shortland Wetland Centre will be protected.

Aquatic and Invertebrate Fauna

The Hunter estuary contains about 15 species of commercially important fish, crustaceaand molluscs. The industry has been estimated at around a half a million dollarsannually with major components being mullet, jewfish, prawn and oyster fisheries whichtogether provide about 8% of the NSW annual catch. Amateur fishing is also a popularpursuit in the estuary.

The majority of aquatic species taken by fishermen are dependent on the estuary atsome stage of their life cycle to provide food, protection from predators and nurseryenvironments.

Various studies in Ironbark Creek (summarised in Hunter Catchment ManagementTrust; 1995) indicate that the creek provides habitat for both marine and freshwater fishspecies. The presence of some juvenile commercially important fish such as yellowfinbream, demonstrates the value of the creek as a nursery ground.

Commercially important marine species such as, luderick, flathead, mulloway and tailor,are inhibited in movement along the creek by the floodgates whilst a prawn industryonce based in the creek is now closed.

Apart from a study of the invertebrates of Fullerton Cove by the Australian Museum andLittoral Society between 1975 and 1977 (Hutchings 1983) only limited studies of theinvertebrate fauna of the Hunter estuary have been undertaken. Aquatic invertebratessuch as worms, gastropods, molluscs and crustaceans are extremely abundant inFullerton Cove. This is reflected by the importance of the area for migratory birds thatdepend upon invertebrates for food and in the value of the area as fish breedinggrounds.

Overseas studies (Prater, 1981) indicate that the species composition and relativeabundance of these invertebrates are influenced greatly by pollution, alteration to tidalregimes, dredging, and feeding densities of birds.

The Service by virtue of the National Parks and Wildlife Act (1974) has responsibility forthe protection and management of certain invertebrates in the two nature reserves butnot fish, molluscs or crustaceans which are the responsibility of NSW Fisheries. Themanagement of ships and boats on the waters of Port Hunter, which are bounded in thenorth by Stockton Bridge, are controlled by the Hunter Port Authority. The managementof recreational boating on other waters surrounding Kooragang and Hexham Swampnature reserves is the responsibility of the NSW Waterways Authority.

The estuary therefore needs to be managed cooperatively by these authorities to protectboth the migratory bird habitat and the aquatic and invertebrate stocks. A combination

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of the two nature reserves which currently protect the mudflats and an aquatic reserve toprotect the waters of Fullerton Cove and Ironbark Creek is highly desirable.

Some thirteen species of mosquito are found breeding in the non-draining saltpans andmarshes of Hexham swamp. Only two of these, the saltmarsh mosquito (Aedes vigilax)and the common banded mosquito (Culex annulirostris) are particularly common butare known to be vectors of human diseases, such as Ross River fever and Australianencephalitis.

The Newcastle City Council has been researching means of controlling mosquitonumbers in Hexham Swamp for many years in response to sustained concern for publichealth. The Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project is currently undertaking similarstudies on Kooragang Island. Consequently much effort has been directed towards theircontrol which includes swamp drainage, the use of chemical larvicides and theintroduction of the mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis), as a biological control agent.However the Service does not advocate the use of Gambusia due to the possibleeffects on other native species such as amphibia. The Service will investigate other,more environmentally benign methods of mosquito control.

The studies indicate that mosquitoes tend to be at their worst during the summer monthswhen hatching of adults may be predicted by tidal charts and the presence of semi-permanent waters.

This implies that management of mosquito numbers could be influenced by an activeapproach to the modification of tidal regimes and drainage patterns. This is supportedby anecdotal evidence from local people which suggests that the mosquito numbershave declined as a result of the drainage and floodgating of Hexham Swamp and thereis no doubt that numbers drop during droughts.

However the Hunter Catchment Management Trust (1995) suggests that the diminishedflow within Ironbark Creek and the increased nutrification that have occurred as a resultof the floodgating may have offset any advantage since new or altered breeding habitathas been created along the creek and its tributaries.

The decreased salinity may also be favouring populations of the common bandedmosquito over the saltmarsh mosquito in other more freshwater areas.

The ubiquitous Hexham grey mosquito (Aedes alternans) also inhabits the swamp andis distinguished by its enormous size. This species enjoys a certain notoriety amongstthe local community and although in lesser numbers than the above two species its larvalstage feeds almost exclusively on those of the saltmarsh mosquito.

The ability of mosquitoes to travel or be blown large distances makes it difficult toimplement local control methods or to measure their success. However by increasingthe flow rates and fish populations of the swamp it is conceivable that mosquito numbersmay alter.

More research is needed particularly into the benefits of flooding the swamp during thecooler months when mosquitos are dormant or of draining it prior to breeding insummer.

Policies and Actions

* Invertebrates, which include mosquitos, are at the base of the food chain onwhich both migratory birds and fish are dependent and will therefore beconserved.

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* Research into the occurrence, abundance and distribution of migratory birdinvertebrate food items will be encouraged.

* The Service will continue to participate on catchment management committeesand estuary management committees for the purpose of improving andenhancing habitat management of both Kooragang Island, Fullerton Cove andHexham Swamp.

* The Service will seek the co-operation of NSW Fisheries to declare an aquaticreserve over the waters of Fullerton Cove and Ironbark Creek.

* The Service will introduce appropriate control measures for mosquitoes in thereserves if and when the need arises. At present however more research needsto be undertaken into the mosquito problem in these areas.

Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibia

There are few records of native mammals in the two nature reserves. Only threespecies of native mammal have been recorded from estuarine areas on KooragangIsland; the water rat (Hydromys chrysogaster), the red fruit bat (Pteropus scapulatus)and the grey-headed fruit bat (Pteropus poliocephalus). All are known to inhabit andforage in mangroves where current research in northern Australia indicates many otherbat species may occur also.

Fruit bats forage widely over the lower Hunter where they occasionally cause damage tostone fruit orchards. In contrast, their diurnal and breeding colonies are restricted to onlyfive known locations one of which occurs in mangroves adjacent to Fullerton Cove.

Before the rainforest was cleared and introduced mammals became common,Kooragang would probably have held many mammal species including native rats andmice, bandicoots, possums, microchiropteran bats and macropods. Some of thesespecies may still be found in the remnant forests to the north of Fullerton Cove but therehave been no fauna surveys conducted in this area.

The estuarine areas of Kooragang and Hexham are devoid of snakes, lizards and frogsdue probably to the presence of salt and its effects upon their permeable skins.

In contrast, a survey of the freshwater meadows along the western edge of HexhamSwamp revealed eleven frog species and a tortoise. The most common species werethe striped marsh frog (Limnodynastes peronii), the spotted grass frog (Limnodynastestasmaniensis) and the common froglet (Crinia signifera) (Markwell, 1984).

The green and golden bell frog (Litoria aurea) which is listed as “endangered” under theThreatened Species Conservation Act (1995) has been recorded in freshwater sedgemeadows at both Kooragang Island, including Kooragang Nature Reserve and HexhamSwamp. In addition to the green and golden bell frog, the following frog species havealso been recorded in area C; the green tree frog (Litorea caerulea), spotted grass frog(Limnodynastes tasmaniensis) and striped marsh frog (Limnodynastes peronii).

There is little information on reptiles to be found within both nature reserves. However,from studies of adjacent areas, the most common reptiles are likely to be the red-belliedblack snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus), swamp snake (Hemiaspis signata), casuarinaskink (Sphenomorphus tenuis), grass skink (Leiolopisma guichenoti), striped skink(Ctenotus robustus) and the fence skink (Cryptoblepharus boutonii). There is a needfor more research on the reptiles and amphibia of the Kooragang and Hexham area.

Mammal records for Hexham Swamp are even more limited and there is no informationavailable about native mammals from within the reserve. The Ironbark Total Catchment

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Management Committee (Hunter Catchment Management Trust; 1995) suggests thataround 45 native species may be expected from within the entire watershed; however,only a few of these could be expected within the swamp itself. Most common wouldprobably be the swamp rat (Rattus lutreolus), the water rat and a range ofmicrochiropteran bats that may forage on insects over the swamp at night having leftdaytime roosts in adjacent foothill forests.

There is also a need for more research into the native mammals of the area and of theirpossible displacement by introduced species that may have benefited from landclearing and swamp drainage.

Under the Threatened Species Conservation Act a recovery plan must be prepared forendangered and vulnerable fauna. The purpose of a recovery plan is to promote therecovery of a threatened species, population or ecological community with the aim ofreturning the species, population or ecological community to a position of viability innature. A threat abatement plan outlines the management of key threatening processeswith a view to their abatement, amelioration or elimination.

The Act provides that a recovery plan for an animal listed on Schedule 1 must beprepared within five years from December 1995.

The Act also provides that a recovery plan for an animal listed on Schedule 2 must beprepared within ten years from December 1995.

Policies and Actions

* Existing native animal populations, including reptiles and amphibians will beconserved.

* The colony of fruit bats in mangroves adjacent to Fullerton Cove will remainprotected and any damage to mangroves will be monitored.

* Surveys of native mammals, particularly of microchiropteran bats, shall beundertaken in the forests to the north of Fullerton Cove, in mangroves and inand/or over the Hexham Swamp.

* Research into reptiles, amphibians and waterfowl populations will beencouraged.

* The results of this research will be incorporated into future managementprograms aimed at increasing freshwater habitat for reptiles, amphibia andwaterfowl.

4.1.5 Wetland Rehabilitation

The hydrology, topography and vegetation of both Kooragang Nature Reserve andHexham Swamp Nature Reserve have been substantially modified by past land uses.As noted above in sub-section 2.2 in accordance with the international treaties to whichAustralia is a party, there is an obligation to restore and/or enhance the habitat formigratory birds and waterfowl in the two nature reserves.

To achieve these aims it is proposed that:

- lands within Kooragang Nature Reserve previously reclaimed for agriculture andflood mitigation are to be rehabilitated to wetland;

- the hydrology created by artificial regulation devices on parts of KooragangIsland and Hexham Swamp are to be modified; and

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- degraded vegetation communities in both Kooragang Nature Reserve andHexham Swamp are to be rehabilitated.

The major aim of the programs proposed on both nature reserves is to manage waterand salinity levels to maximise waterfowl habitats and to manage the naturalenvironment of the area to the benefit of all species. For rehabilitation and habitatenhancement to be successful in Kooragang and Hexham Swamp, wetlands and otherlands in the catchments not included within the reserve boundaries are proposed to beprotected to give effect to a more workable ecological boundary. This will require thatsome existing land-use practices will be modified by:

- the construction or relocation of levee banks and flood gates to protect privatelands;

- the possible inclusion by acquisition of additional wetlands; and/or

- the introduction of conservation zonings or covenants;

Because of the complex nature of land tenure and land rights with respect to both waterand land in wetland areas, the restoration and management of wetlands for wildlifepurposes requires the co-operation of all landholders and land use authorities with aninterest in the catchment areas of the two nature reserves. Cooperative management ofwetlands has proved to be essential in several famous wetland management agenciesoverseas, for example, the Slimbridge Wildfowl Trust in the United Kingdom.

Four significant wetland rehabilitation programs are proposed within and adjacent to thetwo nature reserves which will benefit migratory birds and waterfowl:

- Flooding of the ex BHP and Tomago buffer lands to the west of FullertonCove: Prior to the construction of the levee bank around Fullerton Cove for floodmitigation, the extensive salt marsh found in this area formed a major high tideroost site for migratory wading birds.

To successfully return the area to its original state the opening of floodgates ordecommissioning of the levee bank will require the agreement of TomagoAluminium, the owners of the buffer lands adjacent to the nature reserve. To thisend the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project is preparing a memorandumof understanding with Tomago Aluminium and the Service which will outline thefuture management of the former tidal areas behind the Tomago levee.

The actual location and extent of usage of potential roost sites by migratory birds,however, will not be known until after the area has been rehabilitated. At presentthis area is one of the least disturbed by public access.

An essential requirement of this proposal will be to provide continued protectionof private lands from flooding around the head of Fullerton Cove and along thelowlands towards Salt Ash Cove following opening of the existing levee. Thismay be achieved by the construction of a levee bank along the north eastboundary of the reserve but will require a hydrological study to determine itslocation and other specifications.

The feasibility of these proposals will be subject to the preparation and publicexhibition of an environmental impact assessment.

- Rehabilitation of the western end of Kooragang Island: This area liesoutside the boundary of the nature reserve and is managed by the KooragangWetland Rehabilitation Project which is a joint state, federal, local government

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and community project that is administered through the Hunter CatchmentManagement Trust.

The wetland rehabilitation project involves:

. the rehabilitation, restoration and creation of wetlands to enhance prawnand crab nursery habitat and wildlife values, particularly for migratoryshorebirds;

. the regeneration and revegetation of the original rainforest and woodlandvegetation;

. the construction of an environmentally sustainable model farm; and

. the provision of appropriate educational and recreational facilities.

It is a long term aim of the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project to connectMoscheto Creek inside the nature reserve with another tidal creek therebycreating an intertidal waterway across the island. Moscheto Creek is adjacent toa major bird roost which could be adversely affected by increased public use andaltered tidal regimes. The feasibility of this proposal, particularly to determine itseffects on the ecology and hydrology of the area, will also be subject to thepreparation and public exhibition of an environmental impact assessment.

The Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project lands are owned by the NSWDepartment of Public Works and Services which currently leases it for grazing. Itis anticipated that the management of these lands will be transferred to theHunter Catchment Management Trust.

The NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service is represented on the steeringcommittee for this project. The Service supports those project programs whichare consistent with the management objectives and policies of KooragangNature Reserve and has made a major contribution by undertaking shorebirdsurveys during 1994-95 for the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project.

- The enhancement of the Ironbark Creek and Hexham Swamp catchmentby re-establishment of saltwater wetlands in lower Ironbark Creek andfreshwater wetlands upstream: The relative proportion of tidal and non-tidalinfluences can be managed and adjusted by manipulation of the floodgates.Hexham Swamp lies within the catchment of Ironbark Creek and the co-ordination of management for the whole catchment is the responsibility of theIronbark Total Catchment Management Committee formed by the HunterCatchment Management Trust. The Service is represented on this committeeand will strongly encourage the committee to undertake programs anywhere inthe catchment that will protect the wetlands at Hexham Swamp for the benefit ofwaterfowl within the nature reserve.

It is not, however, possible to return the swamp to a condition of maximum benefitto waterfowl without adversely affecting floodprone private lands along thesouthern and eastern boundaries of the nature reserve. The total catchmentmanagement committee has therefore recommended that the Service, as theagency responsible for the management of the nature reserve, review the optionsfor acquiring or protecting additional lands to provide a more ecologicallyacceptible boundary. These options include one or more of the following (HunterCatchment Management Trust; 1995):

- construction of a levee bank, floodgate and pumps along the southernboundary to protect floodprone properties;

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- land acquisition;

- land exchange; and/or

- protection of wetlands by covenants on land title.

One proposal for an extended Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve has been toadopt the boundary of the 7(b) zoning. According to the Department of PublicWorks and Services this would reflect the 1 in 100 year flood level orapproximately the 3.6 metre contour at the western end of Hexham Swamp nearthe Richmond-Pelaw Colliery railway line (refer Map). However, since theexisting floodgate gates and associated levees will overtop at about the 2 metreor 1 in 50 year level this latter contour represent the maximum area of wetland tobe achieved. For most of the time, however, substantial areas within theboundary represented by the 2 metre contour would be dry and of little value towaterfowl.

The embankments along the railway and pipelines may further limit the potentialarea of restored wetland to about the 1 metre contour. This contour might reflecta more socially and ecologically meaningful water level in the swamp and allowreasonable areas of land to be included in the nature reserve by negotiation withland owners.

Limited opening of the floodgates has been proposed pending resolution of theabove. This will allow salt water back into the lower area of the swamp which isnow fresh and thus help re-establish mangroves and saltmarsh but protectimportant freshwater habitats further upstream and protect grazing pastureland.As noted above, however, the relative proportion of tidal and non-tidal influencescan be managed and adjusted by manipulation of the floodgates to achieveseasonal or medium term conservation goals.

The feasibility of these proposals will also be subject to the preparation andpublic exhibition of an environmental impact assessment.

- Control of the common reed in Hexham Swamp: Surveys since the early1970’s have demonstrated that the common reed has increased in dominanceover much of Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve to the extent that a number ofwetland plant communities and species of importance for migratory birds andwaterfowl have been reduced in area or completely displaced. The reedcommunity has little value as wildlife habitat except for specialist wildlife includinglittle and Australasian bitterns.

It has no value for migratory birds and has limited value for waterbirds. It is,therefore, important to limit the dominance of this reed and thereby to increasevegetation diversity and thus waterfowl numbers. Any such program,however, willneed to be balanced against the specialised needs of the bitterns mentionedabove.

It has been postulated that the reed has increased since the removal of grazingfrom the area. Wetlands adjacent to the nature reserve and which are still grazedare not dominated by the common reed and retain high values for waterfowl inparticular. Increased knowledge about the possible use of effects of fire, grazingand flooding of the Hexham Swamp is urgently required if the present dominanceof the common reed (Phragmites sp.) is to be reduced to enhance the area forwaterfowl.

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Policies and Actions

General

* Programs to restore and enhance habitat within the two nature reserves formigratory and other waterbirds will be undertaken in accordance with the generalprovisions of international treaties to which Australia is a signatory.

* Habitat enhancement will only be undertaken in those sites where it can beshown that the ecological character of the wetland will not be impacted on, or inthose instances where the survival of an endangered species is dependant onthe undertaking of such a program.

* All significant works proposed for the restoration of wetlands in Kooragang andHexham Swamp nature reserves will be subject to preparation of anenvironmental impact assessment which will be placed on exhibition for publiccomment

Kooragang Island

* Subject to an environmental, engineering and economic assessment, saltmarshareas to the west of Fullerton Cove will be managed by modification of the leveebanks and reintroduction of a tidal regime.

* The co-operation and involvement of Tomago Aluminium will be sought in thereintroduction of a tidal regime on buffer lands owned by the company.

* The Service will continue to support the Kooragang Wetland RehabilitationProject proposals which are complementary to the management objectives andpolicies for the nature reserve outlined in this plan of management.

* The proposal for the excavation of a channel between Cobbans Creek andMoscheto Creek or any alternative proposal affecting Moscheto Creek, will besubject to an environmental impact assessment to be undertaken by theKooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project. The Service will oppose the proposalif it is likely to result in any adverse effects upon the ecology and hydrology of thearea, particularly on roosting sites on Moscheto Creek within Kooragang NatureReserve.

Hexham Swamp

* A review of Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve will be undertaken to determine anecologically and socially acceptable boundary to be achieved by land acquisition,conservation agreements and/or other appropriate covenants on title.

* Subject to an environmental, engineering and economic assessment, plantcommunity diversity will be increased by altering the tidal regime at the lower endof Hexham Swamp and by regulating the flow and level of fresh water elsewhereby manipulation of flood gates and providing drainage under railways and roads.

* Subject to an environmental, engineering and economic assessment, theconstruction and/or relocation of floodgates, levee banks and ponding pumpsaround some sections of the boundaries of Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve toabout the 1 metre contour level will be undertaken.

* The Service will continue the to support Ironbark Total Catchment ManagementCommittee as a primary vehicle for the co-ordination of the interests of all

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landholders and land use authorities with an interest in the catchment areas ofKooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves.

* The common reed (Phragmites) in Hexham Swamp will be controlled to reduceits encroachment and dominance of other wetland communities.

* Programs to control the common reed in Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve willincorporate an ecological assessment of the use of flooding, fire and/or grazingas management options.

* The control of the common reed in Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve willincorporate an assessment of the impact of such control on the habitatrequirements of little and Australasian bitterns. Adequate habitat for theseendangered species will protected from disturbance.

4.1.6 Cultural Heritage

The Worimi and Awabakal Aboriginal tribes were the earliest inhabitants of the lowerHunter Estuary. There are numerous middens and campsites scattered throughout thelower Hunter but they occur particularly along the river banks and within the dunes alongStockton Bight. The substantial changes to the estuary in the way of river bank works,land reclamation, industrialisation and urbanisation has resulted in nearly all traces ofAboriginal occupation being destroyed.

Middens used to stretch all the way along the river from Port Waratah to Sandgate butaccording to the Service’s Aboriginal sites register there is now only one extant (amidden north of the training dykes) within Kooragang Nature Reserve.

The nearest Aboriginal sites outside the reserve come from the dunes and coastalforests between Fullerton Cove and Stockton Bight where many and varied sites areknown to occur.

There are no records of Aboriginal occupation from within the Hexham Swamp NatureReserve although limited sites are to be found on the adjacent foothills in the catchment.An Aboriginal chert quarry was uncovered at the Shortland Wetlands Centre near thenature reserve during the construction of ponds.

There are few European historic sites within Kooragang Nature Reserve recorded onthe Service’s Historic site register. These include concrete footings of an old dairy onSandy Island, a timber bridge, a mature Moreton Bay Fig associated with early farmingand a half submerged timber drogher. The most significant structure on the island is theschool teachers residence; however this lies outside the reserve.

There are no recorded European sites within Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve althoughthe Richmond-Pelaw Colliery Railway runs immediately along its western boundary.This railway was established at least as early as 1854 and at the time of its closure inthe early 1980’s was the oldest and last commercial steam operated railway inAustralia. There is considerable public support to reopen the railway which remains inthe ownership of the Coal and Allied Company and the Service has supported inprinciple a proposal for restoration of the railway as a tourist attraction as proposed bythe Minmi Historical and Walking Society.

All Aboriginal sites found on lands reserved or dedicated under the National Parks andWildlife Act are protected. The Heritage Act (1979) establishes a framework for thepreservation of significant items of non-Aboriginal heritage.

The NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service also subscribes to the principles,processes and practices outlined in The Australia ICOMOS Charter for the

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Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (the Burra Charter; 1979). This charterprovides guidelines for the conservation and management of any item of culturalsignificance and is based on an international charter developed in 1966 by theInternational Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) which is linked to UNESCO.

Policies and Actions

* The provisions of the Burra Charter (ICOMOS, 1965) for the conservation ofplaces of cultural significance will guide management decisions regarding theAboriginal and non-Aboriginal cultural heritage of the two nature reserves.

* All Aboriginal sites and other cultural features will be recorded as they arelocated.

* All Aboriginal sites and other cultural features within Kooragang Nature Reserveand Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve will be protected and all development workwill be preceded by an archaeological survey. Any development having animpact on an Aboriginal or other cultural site or their setting will be relocated,abandoned or modified to protect that site.

4.1.7 Introduced Plants

Introduced weeds compete directly with native vegetation for light and nutrients. Theyhave the potential to seriously alter the natural vegetation community thereby reducingthe value of an area for wildlife.

The Noxious Weeds Act 1993 took effect from 1st July 1993. The Act places anobligation upon public authorities to control noxious weeds on land that it occupies to theextent necessary to prevent such weeds spreading to adjoining lands.

Four major weeds are established on Kooragang Island;

- Bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera) is not declared a noxious weedby either Port Stephens Council or Newcastle City Council but is considered bythe Service to be a major environmental weed species. It is understood to havefirst appeared in Australia mixed in with ballast discharged from ships. It wasused in coastal NSW to help stabilise sand mined areas during the late 1940’sand subsequently spread rapidly.

There are significant infestations of bitou bush along the railway line, on sandyareas adjacent to the dykes and under the Stockton Bridge. The latter area isadjacent to one of the most important roosts for migratory birds.

Bitou Bush can be controlled by hand pulling of seedlings and by the selectiveuse of non-residual glyphosphate sprays.

- Alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) was introduced to theNewcastle area from South America in ship ballasts around 1940. It has theability to form dense mats that choke out both native vegetation and agriculturalgrasses. There is significant potential for the weed to spread throughout thewaterways of Australia and the worst infestations are to be found along theeastern side of Fullerton Cove.

Control of the weed is difficult by chemical means. Biological control using theflea beetle (Agosiscles hygrophilla) has had limited success on floating mats buthas not proved effective on drier pastures. The weed is adversely affected bysaline conditions so the controlled release of tidal waters by the floodgates maybe a viable alternative in some areas.

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The Service has finalised a management strategy for the control of alligator weedin the two nature reserves.

- Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is a freshwater floating plant capable ofrapid growth during the summer months. It can choke out light totally fromwaterways resulting in eutrophic conditions unsuitable for wildlife but beneficial tomosquito breeding. The plant is established in several freshwater wetlandswithin Kooragang nature reserve where it can be controlled by either handremoval, spraying with Reglone (TM) or by increasing salinity levels.

- Pampas grass (Cortaderia selloana) has become established in the southernsections of Kooragang Island over the last few years. Seedlings prefer disturbedground so that mechanical methods of removal may exacerbate the problem.Selective use of herbicide has proved the most practical method of control todate but intensive followup will be required in all regenerating areas.

The introduced Juncus acutus or sharp rush as it is commonly known, had previouslyobtained a stronghold adjacent to the major roost site adjacent to the Stockton Bridge.This community has now been removed as part of the stage 1 works to restore the roostsite for migratory birds since it provided cover for predators of migratory birds such ascats and foxes. This plant also occurs in other sections of Kooragang Nature Reserve.

Other noxious weeds within Kooragang Nature Reserve include blackberry (Rubusfruticosus), prickly pear (Opuntia stricta), castor oil plant (Ricinus communis), Scotchthistle (Onopordum acanthium ssp acanthium), Canadian fleabane (Conyzacanadensis) and plantain (Plantago spp.).

Alligator weed, pampas grass and water hyacinth are also the major weeds withinHexham Swamp. With these exceptions the nature reserve itself is relatively weed freealthough there are outbreaks of bitou bush, blackberry and castor oil plant along itsfringes associated with nutrients from road and rail fill.

Alligator weed was first noticed in the Shortland Wastewater Treatment Worksin 1979 but there have been several outbreaks since throughout the swampenvirons.

Pampas grass occurs along Ironbark Creek and around the Shortland rubbishdump immediately adjacent to the reserve.

Water hyacinth is well established to the south-west in freshwater wetlandsupstream towards Minmi and to the east in the Newcastle Council andWarabrook wetlands.

These are all potential sources of continued colonisation within the reserve throughwaterborne seed and vegetative buds and by transport in cattle hooves.

The use of herbicides within the wetlands will need to be carefully considered andmonitored to ensure that detrimental effects on non-target plants and animals,particularly waterbirds, are minimised. The aquatic invertebrates and plants so essentialto the wellbeing of migratory birds and waterfowl are known to be sensitive to herbicidechemicals. In accordance with Service policy, use of chemical herbicides will be subjectto a review of environmental factors.

The Ironbark Total Catchment Management Committee recommends involving thepublic via Landcare groups in community weed control programs.

Policies and Actions

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* Introduced plants will be controlled and if practicable, eradicated from the twonature reserves.

* Preference will be given to the use of physical or biological control methods.

* An Introduced Plants Control Program will be developed which will map thedistribution of introduced plants and prioritise their control in accordance with theNoxious Weeds Act and their impact on the reserves.

* The Service will encourage the formation of a Landcare or similar communitygroup to assist with weed removal.

* Removal of weeds on or adjacent to high tide roosts shall be accomplished usingphysical methods where possible and only at low tide whilst birds are absent.

* The use of chemical sprays will be avoided as far as possible on or adjacent tointertidal mudflats.

* Weed control will be undertaken in accordance with a weed control program forboth nature reserves and which will be reviewed annually.

* Co-operative weed management programs will be developed with neighbours,the Department of Agriculture, local councils and Rural Lands Protection Board.

* Preference will be given to the control of alligator weed and water hyacinth by theuse of saline tidal regimes.

4.1.8 Introduced Animals.

Pigs (Sus scrofa) and foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are resident in the Hexham swamp areawhere they are implicated in predation of waterfowl and their eggs. Pigs also causeconsiderable damage to soils and vegetation whilst digging up the roots and bulbs ofaquatic plants for food. Both these species can cover large distances and arewidespread in the lower Hunter valley. The Ironbark Total Catchment ManagementCommittee recommends the Service monitor the pig population in Hexham Swamp andintroduce a control program.

The impact of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis cattus) is difficult toquantify but both are known to adversely affect bird populations through directdisturbance and predation. Increasing industrialisation and urbanisation in the vicinity ofthe reserves can be expected to compound this problem.

Populations of the black rat (Rattus rattus), brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) and housemouse (Mus musculus) are well established throughout both Kooragang and HexhamSwamp nature reserves where they undoubtedly compete with any remaining nativespecies. Rats are known to take both waterfowl eggs and their hatchlings as food.

Limited numbers of rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and hares (Lepus carpensis) occurin both nature reserves but they are restricted in distribution by the lack of suitableburrow sites in the swampy surrounds.

The cane toad (Bufo marina) has been recorded in several areas of Newcastle but isyet to be found in either Hexham Swamp or Kooragang. Its introduction to thefreshwater meadows may have significant effects upon other amphibia throughpredation of tadpoles and they are known to be poisonous to birds of prey and reptiles.It is possible that the latitude of Newcastle may be too cold to allow successful breedingof the cane toad.

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Cattle grazing has occurred on Kooragang and Hexham Swamp since at least the turnof the century. While it is obvious that cattle have detrimentally affected the more salineareas of Kooragang, they have also been instrumental in maintaining the morefreshwater habitat in Hexham Swamp thereby contributing to waterfowl numbers.

There is evidence from overseas (see Urfi; 1995 for review) that cattle can have abeneficial effect in wetlands and recent work by Blanch and Brock (1994) on LlangothlinLagoon in northern NSW concludes that low intensity grazing enhances vegetationdiversity. Cattle grazing has been shown to limit the dominance of any single species ofplant thereby maintaining or increasing vegetation diversity. This provides optimalhabitat for waterfowl as described earlier.

On the other hand, it is well demonstrated that excessive grazing can have a negativeimpact by eating and trampling native species thereby reducing revegetation diversity.Cattle are implicated in the spread of weeds whilst land owners sometimes increasenatural fire frequencies to provide extra fodder. Trampling also results in erosion ofbanks, compaction of soil and hoof prints provide breeding sites for mosquitoes. Soiland plant nutrients can be recycled and concentrated in cattle dung which leads tolocalised enrichment of soils and waterways.

Many wetland vegetation communities and bird species found in Hexham Swamp andon Kooragang Island are also found overseas. These include the Phragmites, Typha,Scirpus and Fimbristylis plant communities and birds such as the egrets, moorhens,ibis, coots and migratory waders. Introduced animals generally inhibit the revegetationof native plants and compete with native animals but the overseas research noted abovein Urfi (see above), and other research in Australia has demonstrated that these plantand bird species benefit from cattle grazing. Many successful wetland managementagencies overseas make active use of cattle under strict conditions for conservationmanagement purposes.

In particular, cattle are known to limit the dominance of Phragmites reed beds therebyenhancing waterfowl habitat. This is particularly true around the fringes of swampswhere cattle contribute to the maintenance of habitat suitable for the endangeredLathams snipe (Shortland Wetland Centre; Dave Geering pers. comm.).

Hexham Swamp has been dedicated specifically to promote the conservation ofwaterfowl and migratory waders and this is the primary objective of management for thenature reserve. It is argued that given the special circumstances of Hexham SwampNature Reserve, the use of cattle subject to strict conditions, to control the common reedPhragmites, is an appropriate management tool to maintain and promote the populationnumbers and species diversity of migratory birds and waterfowl.

To this end, trials of cattle grazing within the nature reserve will be undertaken on alimited basis initially, to determine its ecological benefits for waterfowl and migratorywaders. If found to be of ecological benefit this plan of management will be amended toprovide for such grazing and to specify the conditions under which it will take place.

Policies and Actions

* Introduced animals with the exception of cattle used for the control of Phragmiteswill be excluded from the nature reserves.

* Preference will be given to the use of physical or biological control methods.

* Feral animal control programs will be carried out in conjunction with adjoininglandholders and relevant authorities where possible.

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* Control programs will be designed and implemented in such a manner as tominimise the impact on non-target species.

* The ecological benefits and impacts of limited grazing to control the commonreed and enhance wetland values in Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve will bereviewed and a trial of grazing on a limited basis undertaken on the naturereserve.

* If found to be ecologically sustainable for the purposes of maintaining andpromoting the population numbers and species diversity of migratory birds andwaterfowl by enhancing wetlands, this plan of management will be amended topermit grazing under strict conditions to protect the nature reserve.

4.1.9 Fire Management

The native woodlands, heaths and coastal vegetation communities of eastern NewSouth Wales are particularly adapted to wildfire with research indicating a natural periodbetween fires of around 15 to 20 years. Most coastal vegetation today is burnt morefrequently as a result of both accidental and deliberate burning by humans.

Changes to fire regimes has the potential to radically alter the vegetation patterns in anarea. Associated with these changes in vegetation composition and patterns arechanges in animal populations where colonisers such as native and introduced rodentspredominate. Specialist and/or climax forest species tend to be lost if repeated burningtakes place.

Prior to the advent of agriculture, fire would have been infrequent on Kooragang due tothe existence of rainforest, estuarine marshes and mangroves. These plantcommunities are known to be particularly sensitive to fire

In contrast, fire on Hexham Swamp may have been more frequent due to extensive reedbeds. Such fires would probably have been caused by lightning strikes and would havebeen more severe during droughts when water levels were low. This occurrence of firecan have a beneficial effect in maintaining or enhancing swamp habitat for waterfowl bycontrolling the spread and/or dominance of Phragmites reedbeds. On the other hand,during drought times when water levels are low and ground is exposed, fires occurring inpeat are common and are difficult to extinguish.

The fire history of the areas now dedicated as nature reserves is not well documented.Fire frequency since European settlement of the Hunter Valley has probably increasedin frequency due to burning of agricultural and grazing lands to encourage regrowth ofstock fodder. Such fires have been implicated in the death of mangroves on the westernside of Fullerton Cove.

The use of steam locomotives on the Richmond-Pelaw Colliery railway up until the mid1970’s may also have contributed an additional ignition source at Hexham whilsturbanisation has probably resulted in an increase in arson.

The Service like other land owners and managers in NSW, is bound by the Rural FiresAct, 1997. Under this act the Service is responsible for controlling fires on the twonature reserves and to ensure they do not cause damage to other land or property. Thisresponsibility includes the preparation and implementation of co-operative fuelmanagement programs. The Service may also assist with the control and suppressionof fires adjacent to the reserves. Both Kooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserveslie within the Newcastle Fire District.

The Service, in the management of fire on the two nature reserves, must also take intoaccount its statutory responsibilities under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, the

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Threatened Species Conservation Act, the Environmental Planning and AssessmentAct and the Service’s fire policy. The primary aims of the Service in relation to firemanagement are:

- to reduce the risk of bushfire damage to life and property both within andimmediately adjacent to areas where the Service has a statutory responsibility;

- to effectively manage bushfires for the protection and conservation of the natural,cultural, scenic and recreational features of Service areas; and

- to co-operate and work with other organisations in fire management planning andimplementation within the region.

In accordance with the Service wide program on fire management planning, a firemanagement plan for Kooragang and Hexham Swamp Nature Reserves will bedeveloped by December 1998 which will identify the bushfire threat, requirements for theconservation of native plants and animals and provide the basis for managementstrategies and prescriptions. The plan will establish community protection measures inareas where it is identified that fire is a threat to both property and biodiversity.

Policies and Actions

* In accordance with Service policy a fire management plan will be prepared forKooragang and Hexham Swamp Nature Reserves by December 1998. The firemanagement plan will be placed on exhibition for public comment before itsadoption by the Service.

* Pending finalisation of the fire management plan for the two nature reserves, theService will manage fire within the two areas in accordance with its firemanagement policy, its Fire Management Manual and its obligations under theRural Fires Act, the National Parks and Wildlife Act and with other relevantlegislation

* The Service will cooperate with other fire authorities in the preparation ofcooperative fire plans and in active fire suppression where adjacent lands arethreatened.

* The Service will establish fire breaks and conduct hazard reduction along naturereserve boundaries wherever necessary to protect the nature reserves from fireoriginating on adjacent lands and to minimise the risk of fires escaping from thereserves.

* Fire frequency within and immediately adjoining rainforest, estuarine marshesand mangroves will be minimised as far as is possible.

* A range of fire regimes with regard to both frequency and intensity is regarded asan integral part of a swamp’s ecology and may be used to maximise vegetationdiversity in Hexham Swamp.

* Infrequent hot fires may be used to assist in revegetation.

4.2 USE OF THE NATURE RESERVES

Kooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves will be managed to ensure that theiruse, whether by the general public, special interest groups, the Service or otherauthorities is consistent with the Act and the objectives of this plan of management.

Uses that may be consistent with the management of nature reserves include:

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- education and promotion of the area, the Service and the conservation of thenatural and cultural heritage;

- research; and

- management operations by the Service and other authorities.

The extent to which these uses are appropriate to Kooragang and Hexham Swampnature reserves is indicated in the following sections.

4.2.1 Research Oportunities

The purpose of scientific study in the two nature reserves is to improve theunderstanding of their natural features and the processes which affect them. Researchwill also establish the requirements for the management of particular species. Data andfindings from research studies and surveys will be utilised in park management.

As outlined above, the Service has undertaken a survey of wader numbers inKooragang Nature Reserve as part of a joint project with the Kooragang WetlandRehabilitation Project. In addition, there are a number of other research and surveyorganisations in the Newcastle district whch are in immediate proximity to Kooragangand Hexham Swamp, including:

- the University of Newcastle;

- the Hunter Bird Observers Club;

- the Shortland Wetland Centre;

- the Hunter Catchment Management Trust;

- Ironbark Total Catchment Management Committee;

- the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project;

- the Hunter Water Corporation; and

- various environmental consultancy companies.

which have undertaken valuable work in the area.

The government is obliged under various treaties to provide monitoring and researchprograms of migratory birds within the reserves. These programs may provideindicators of the well being of overseas habitats whilst their recommendations willprovide the justification for ongoing management in Australia.

At Kooragang, the emphasis of research programs will be on the ecology of themudflats and their relationship to migratory birds and fish populations. Base lineinformation is also needed to assess the success of proposed wetland rehabilitationprograms adjacent to the reserve and their impacts within the reserve.

Whilst information about numbers and habits of migratory birds and waterfowl onKooragang is readily available over a period of years there is little such informationabout Hexham Swamp. Baseline research is therefore urgently needed at Hexham toallow future monitoring of changes in bird populations and vegetation communities inresponse to the proposed manipulation of the hydrological regime.

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Other projects of particular significance include:

- an assessment of the decline in egret breeding success and numbersdocumented by the Shortland Wetlands Centre since the 1980’s and changes inegret migratory patterns;

- the effects of fire, grazing and flooding of the Hexham Swamp particularly for thecontrol of the common reed (Phragmites sp.);

- the extent of dependence of the bitterns on the reed community;

- regular monitoring of water quality and pollution; and

- the ecology and health risks of mosquito populations in the non-draining saltpansand marshes of Hexham Swamp.

Policies and Actions

* Priority will be given to research and monitoring programs into:

- migratory bird or waterfowl ecology;

- wetland rehabilitation and ecology, particularly relating to the use ofgrazing, fire and hydrological regimes to benefit migratory bird andwaterfowl habitat;

- the ecology and control of Phragmites;

- bittern and egret ecology; and

- the ecology of saltmarsh and mudflats.

* The Service will continue to monitor bird populations to provide baselineinformation on the success of management.

* In view of their nuisance value and public health risk, the Service will encourageresearch into the common banded and salt marsh mosquito

* All research will be subject to Service policy and procedures for the granting ofpermits, conduct of research and the production of results.

* Research applications will only be granted where;

- the research has the potential to facilitate the better management of thetwo nature reserves; and

- the research does not conflict with the objectives of park management.

* A prospectus will be prepared as a guide to preferred research projects in thepark.

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4.2.2 Promotion of the Two Nature Reserves.

Both Kooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves offer significant opportunities forenvironmental education since they are readily accessible to large numbers of peoplefrom Newcastle and the lower Hunter Valley. This is demonstrated by local supportreceived by the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project and the Shortland WetlandsCentre at Sandgate adjacent to Hexham Swamp both of which include education(particularly of school children) as a major aim.

It is an objective of this plan of management to encourage educational programs into thevalues and the management of estuarine and freshwater wetlands, in conjunction withlocal educational, research and community organisations such as the the KooragangWetland Rehabilitation Project and the Shortland Wetlands Centre.

The Shortland Wetlands Centre already provides substantial interpretation of the areaadjacent to Hexham Swamp at its Shortland facility and canoe tours of Hexham Swampcan be undertaken from that facility.

The Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project proposes the provision of interpretationfacilities and a model environmentally sustainable farm immediately adjacent to thewestern boundary of Kooragang Nature Reserve. The project also proposeseducational facilities under the Stockton Bridge which will complement the proposedroost enhancement works and in the Tomago area if this is compatible with the use ofthe site by birds.

Some limited low impact recreational uses also take place, particularly on KooragangNature Reserve. These include fishing, boating and bird watching. Very little recreationtakes place in Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve other than canoe tours of the IronbarkCreek system conducted by the Shortland Wetlands Centre and the occasional visit bybirdwatchers.

The main fishing areas accessible by land are the breakwalls under the east side ofStockton Bridge, the dykes on the west bank of the river and the banks of the north andsouth arm of the Hunter River. A portion of the land under the bridge and the dykes,however, also form important high tide roosting places for migratory birds.

To date recreational fishing boats have been launched from the training wall within thenature reserve which also conflicts with the nature conservation objectives of thesandspit. An alternative boat launching ramp has recently been constructed at the southend of the dykes and alternative sites are feasible under the bridge on the south side.

Boating occurs throughout the Hunter River and within Fullerton Cove. Engine noise andbow wash from high speed boats are known to disturb migratory birds when roosting athigh tide and to a lesser extent when feeding at low tide. At low tide the shallow watersof Fullerton Cove reduce boat access to some mudflat areas thereby offering someprotection to the feeding grounds.

Boating activity within Fullerton Cove and part of the North Arm of the Hunter River iscontrolled by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service because the land beneaththe waters is dedicated as nature reserve. Certain kinds of boats, particularly jet skisand water ski boats, although they do not regularly use Fulleton Cove at present,potentially have a significant and unacceptible impact on the waters and mudflats of theCove.

The Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project will provide on its Ash Island siteadjacent to Kooragang Nature Reserve opportunities for walking, cycling, a model farm,interpretation sites and a crossing of the Hunter River at the water pipeline on the

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western end of Kooragang Island. On its Tomago site a bicycle access way andassociated interpretation facilities are proposed along the Fullerton Cove levee thatwould connect with historic places of interest outside the nature reserve such asTomago House and the old church near Tomago House. Tidal creeks, includingMoscheto Creek could be used as a canoe trail if this is compatible with wildlifeconservation objectives and programs.

Additional works proposed by the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project andsupported by the Service, on the Stockton Sandspit involve the construction of amangrove boardwalk interpretation signs and a bird hide.

An interpretation facility comprising a foreshore boardwalk along the boundary of thenature reserve at Fern Bay is proposed by Port Stephens Shire Council.

The Ironbark Creek Catchment Management Committee has raised concerns about thepossible future use of Ironbark Creek above the floodgates by power boats. Theseconcerns relate to water pollution, creek bank erosion and loss of amenity in the areabecause of noise and disturbance of wildlife.

Developments proposed to be undertaken by any organisation within the two naturereserves which are provided for in this plan of management are also are subject to thedetermination of a Review of Environmental Factors by the Service.

Policies and Actions

* The Service will jointly, with the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project andthe Shortland Wetlands Centre, undertake programs of environmental educationand promotion of the nature conservation values of Kooragang and HexhamSwamp.

* Subject to environmental and economic assessment of any proposals, theService will support the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project and theShortland Wetlands Centre in providing and maintaining educational facilities atthe western end of Kooragang Island, under the Stockton Bridge, in the Tomagoarea and at the Shortlands Wetlands Centre adjacent to Hexham Swamp.

* The Service will not provide additional public use facilities within eitherKooragang Nature Reserve or Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve.

* Subject to the availability of staff and other resources, the Service will providerelevant materials to the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project and theShortland Wetlands Centre for educational and promotional programs.

* Consistent with the protection of the habitat requirements of migratory wadersand waterfowl within the two nature reserves, limited opportunities for low impactrecreational fishing, boating and bird watching will be permitted.

* There will be no public vehicle access within either Kooragang or HexhamSwamp nature reserve.

* The Service will not approve the provision of interpretation facilities or bicycletracks along the Fullerton Cove levee bank until the impact of such proposals onmigratory birds and waterfowl has been assessed.

* Pedestrian and bicycle access and interpretation facilities will be permitted alongthe powerline maintenance track within the western end of Kooragang NatureReserve in conjunction with the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project.

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* Access to the northern part of the training dykes, the sand spit immediately northof Stockton bridge, the roost sites located on saltmarsh to the west and northwest of the Kooragang Nature Reserve and any new or enhanced roost sites willbe by permit only.

* The Service will encourage the development and use of alternative boat lauchingramps outside Kooragang Nature Reserve at the southern end of the dykes andunder Stockton Bridge on the southern side.

* A four knot speed limit will be imposed by the Service on all powered craft usingFullerton Cove generally north of a line between the southern tips of Sandy Islandand Dunns Island extended to the closest eastern shoreline of the Hunter Riveradjacent to Sandy Island.

* Subject to an assessment of the proposal’s impact on migratory wader habitatand communities, pedestrian and bicycle access may be permitted in theTomago section of Kooragang Natures Reserve along the levee.

* Pedestrian access and fishing will be permitted along the bank of the HunterRiver north of Stockton Bridge.

* The construction by the Port Stephens Council of an elevated boardwalk throughthe mangroves adjacent to the Fern Bay village will be permitted.

* Public access to all other areas of Kooragang Nature Reserve shall be by boatsonly and may be specifically prohibited in certain areas or times of year.

* The Service will seek to have a boat speed restriction of 4 knots imposedthroughout the waterways of Kooragang Nature Reserve.

* The Service will support any proposals to have powered vessels prohibited fromIronbark Creek and its tributaries above the floodgates.

* Canoe and row boat access to Hexham Swamp will be permitted from alongIronbark Creek and from the Shortland Wetlands Centre.

* Groups greater than 20 in number will require prior approval before visiting eithernature reserve.

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4.2.3 Management Use

Prior to dedication of both nature reserves the areas were subject to a variety ofoccupancies. These include:

- commercial fishing, prawning and oyster farming operations in waters containedwithin the Kooragang Nature Reserve;

- navigational facilities on Kooragang Island associated with commercial and othershipping in the North Arm of the Hunter River;

- a variety of powerlines and pipelines occur in both nature reserves; and

- easements and rights of way held by neighbours and utility operators that providefor access across reserve boundaries.

The continued rights of such occupancies, particularly those under the Fisheries Act areguaranteed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act. However, cooperativemanagement of the whole estuary is important to ensure that these activities aresustainable and do not adversely affect the migratory bird population and/or waterfowl.

There are a variety of powerlines and pipelines occurring in both reserves for whichlicensing arrangements under the National parks and Wildlife Act have not beenformalised. Vehicle access within the two nature reserves is by management tracksmaintained by other authorities for the maintenance of facilities and structures such asthe water pipeline and powerlines.

Both Kooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves are used for illegal cattle grazing.At the western end of Kooragang neighbours claim the problem is due to unauthorisedvisitors leaving the gates open or vandalising fences in order gain access to fishingsites. Adjacent to the Tomago buffer lands and Hexham Swamp the reason is mainlydue to inadequate fencing.

There is an unacceptably high rate of rubbish and car body dumping, track formation,and vandalism in Kooragang Nature Reserve as a result of illegal vehicular access.

There is no commercial activity within Hexham Swamp Nature Reserve.

Policies and Actions

* Vehicle access will be prohibited within both nature reserves with the exceptionof authorised service and management vehicles. Locked gates will be installedat all access points and keys issued to relevant authorities and emergencyorganisations.

* The Service recognises the rights of commercial fishermen and shippinginterests to utilise the waters contained by Kooragang Nature Reserve in asustainable way.

* The Service will seek to formalise its agreements with NSW Fisheries with theaim of ensuring a sustainable fishing, prawning and oyster industry that does notadversely affect migratory birds.

* It is a long term aim of the Service to reduce, and if possible eliminate, thenumber of non-park power lines and other utilities (including roads used for theirmaintenance) held under lease or license within the two nature reserves. To thisend such occupancies will be formalised and kept under regular review and

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where warranted the facility, including associated roads, will be relocated and orclosed and the site rehabilitated.

* Proposals for the occupation of areas within the two nature reserves for purposesinconsistent with the National Parks and Wildlife Act or this plan of managementwill be opposed by the Service.

* All management tracks used for the maintenance of structures on the naturereserve will be gated and signs erected to stop unauthorised use.

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5. PLAN IMPLEMENTATION

This plan of management is part of a system of management developed by the NationalParks and Wildlife Service. The system includes the National Parks and Wildlife Act,management philosophies, established conservation philosophies and strategicplanning at the corporate, regional and district levels.

The orderly implementation of this plan will be undertaken within the annual programs ofthe Service’s Hunter District. Priorities, determined in the context of district and regionalplanning, will be subject to the availability of necessary staff and funds and to any specialrequirements of the Director-General or Minister.

District programs are subject to ongoing review, within which, works and other activitiescarried out at Kooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves will be evaluated inrelation to the objectives laid out in this plan.

The environmental impact of all development proposals will continue to be assessed atall stages of the development and any necessary investigations undertaken inaccordance with established environmental assessment procedures.

Section 81 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act requires that this plan shall be carriedout and given effect to, and that no operations shall be undertaken in relation toKooragang and Hexham Swamp nature reserves unless they are in accordance with thisplan. However, if after adequate investigation, operations not included in the plan arefound to be justified, the plan may be amended in accordance with Section 76(6) of theNational Parks and Wildlife Act.

As a guide to the orderly implementation of this plan, relative priorities for identifiedactions are summarised below:

Management Program Reference________________________________________________________________HIGH PRIORITY

Maintain liaison and cooperative management with estuarine and 4.1.1water catchment authorities 4.2.1

Undertake community consultative programs 4.2.2

Review all developments within the estuary and catchment 4.1.2.Prepare a pollution action plan in conjunction with other authorities 4.1.2

Encourage the use of floodgates to mitigate pollution and 4.1.2flood threats both within and adjacent to the reserves

Negotiate agreements with land holders and/or support 4.1.5acquisition of lands to help ensure water quality in theestuary and catchment

Control Phragmites reed in Hexham Swamp 4.1.5

Encourage plant diversity in Hexham by regulating the saline 4.1.3and freshwater regimes 4.1.4

Enhance roost sites on Kooragang by selective and limited removal 4.1.4of mangroves if necessary

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Encourage the formation of a landcare or similar community 4.1.7group to assist with weed removal

Remove weeds on or adjacent to high tide roosts 4.1.5

Control of alligator weed 4.1.7

Remove cattle from all areas on Kooragang Nature Reserve 4.1.8

Prepare a fire action plan for the reserves 4.1.9

Establish fire breaks and trails and undertake hazard reduction 4.1.9

Seek agreement for the construction of floodgates and levees 4.1.5to approximately the one metre contour in Hexham Swamp

Reestablish saltmarsh west of Fullerton Cove by 4.1.5reintroducing a tidal regime

Liaise with the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project to 4.1.5ensure that proposals for the Tomago/B.H.P. lands and CobbansCreek do not proceed until the effects on the birds is understood

Continue to support the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation 4.1.5Project in its rehabilitation, recreational and educational proposalsfor the western end of Kooragang Island, Tomago and StocktonSandspit

Undertake monitoring of bird populations 4.2.1

Encourage research into the effects of grazing, fire and 4.2.1hydrological changes on vegetation and birds in Hexham

Acquire Area C on Kooragang Island to protect seagrass 4.1.3

MODERATE PRIORITY

Encourage and research pollution and water quality 4.1.2monitoring programs in conjunction with other authorities

Negotiate agreements with the Newcastle Ports Authority 4.1.1over dredging in the Hunter River

Construct ponds and islands in Hexham to enhance habitat diversity 4.1.1

Create an artificial roost on the west entrance to Fullerton Cove 4.1.4

Monitor the impact of boating, public access and aircraft 4.1.4noise on bird populations

Negotiate an aquatic reserve over the waters in Fullerton 4.1.4Cove and Ironbark Creek with NSW Fisheries

Prepare an introduced plants control program 4.1.7

Attempt to control alligator weed and water hyacinth using 4.1.7saline tidal regimes

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Enter into a joint management agreement with Tomago Aluminium 4.5.1and the Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project re therehabilitation of the Tomago buffer lands and adjacent nature reserve

Conduct a hydrological study of the Tomago/B.H.P. lands in 4.5.1conjunction with Tomago Aluminium and the Kooragang WetlandRehabilitation Project to ensure the protection of surrounding privatelands in the event that a tidal regime is reestablished

Support the Shortland Wetlands Centre in providing educational 4.2.2programs at Hexham

Provide locked gates at all vehicular access points to 4.2.3the reserves and provide keys to relevant authorities

Negotiate with NSW Waterways to limit boat speeds to 4 knots 4.2.2within Kooragang Nature Reserve (excluding the river arms)

Negotiate with NSW Waterways Authority to prohibit powered 4.2.2vessels in Ironbark Creek above the floodgates

Investigate the status of, and where appropriate, licence 4.2.3all occupancies within the reserves

LOW PRIORITY

Refill drains that contribute to acid sulphate soil potential 4.1.1

Replant indigenous rainforest at the western end of 4.1.3Kooragang in conjunction with the Rehabilitation Project

Conduct a survey of native mammals, reptiles and amphibia 4.1.4

Monitor and control where possible introduced animal populations 4.1.8

Encourage the provision and use of public boat ramps at the 4.2.2southern end of the dykes and under the Stockton Bridge

Approve construction of a boardwalk adjacent to Fern Bay 4.2.2by Port Stephens Council

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6. SELECTED REFERENCES

Blanch, S.J. and M.A.Brock (1994). Effects of Grazing and Depth on Two WetlandPlant Species. Aust.J.Mar.Freshwater Res.45:1387-94

Briggs, S.V. (1978a). Kooragang Island. Criteria for a Natural Area. NSW NationalParks and Wildlife Service Unpublished Report.

Briggs, S.V. (1978b). Hexham Swamp -Vegetation and Waterbird Habitats. NSWNational Parks and Wildlife Service Unpubl. Report.

Coastal Council of NSW (1985). Coastal Wetlands of NSW. Remington Centre.Sydney.

Coffey, E.J. (1973). Report and Findings of the Commission of Inquiry intoPollution on Kooragang Island. NSW State Pollution Control Commission.

Conroy, B.A. and P.M. Lake (1992). A vegetation Analysis of Hexham Swamp byDepartment Biological Services. Univ. of Newcastle. Report to IronbarkTotal Catchment Management Committee Committee.

Dames and Moore, (1978). An Assessment of the Effect on the Environment ofthe Proposed Stage II Landfill Scheme at Kooragang Island, Newcastle,N.S.W. Report for NSW Department of Public Works.

Department of Environment and Planning. (1986). Coastal wetlands: Facts aboutState Environmental Planning Policy No. 14. Department of Environmentand Planning.

Goodrick, G.N. (1970) A Survey of Wetlands of Coastal New South Wales. Tech.Mem. No.5, C.S.I.R.O. Div. Wildlife Research.

Hunter Catchment Management Trust (1995). The Ironbark Creek Draft TotalCatchment Management Strategy. Volumes 1 and 2. Ed. Ironbark CreekCatchment Management Committee.

Johnston, J., (1992) Kooragang Island Nature Reserve: Development andManagement Plan. Unpublished Thesis as Part of Course Requirements forthe Degree of Master in Environmental Studies (Coursework). University ofNewcastle

Keane, P. (1983) Wildlife Conservation in: Managing Ironbark CreekEcosystem. Ed. P.G.Irwin. Dept of Geog. Univ.of Newcastle.

Kendall, T. and F.Van Gessel (1972). Birds of Kooragang Island, PreliminaryReport. Hunter Natural History.4:72-93.

-----------------------------(1974). Report on the Proposed Natural Area of KooragangIsland. Hunter Natural History. 6(2):81-82.

Kooragang Wetland Rehabilitation Project (1994). Strategic Landscape Plan. LandSystems EBC. P/L.

Lane, B.A. and J.N.Davis (1987). Shorebirds of Australia. Nelson Publishers,Melbourne.

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McGregor, W.N. (1980). The Environmental Effects of Flood Mitigation withParticular Reference to Floodgate Structures on Estuarine Tidal Creeks.Report to NSW State Pollution Control Commission.

Markwell, K.W. (1984). A Biogeographic Study of the Frog Fauna of HexhamSwamp. Hons. Thesis. Department Geog. Univ. of Newcastle.

Marquis-Kyle, P., Walker, M., (1992) Australia ICOMOS The Illustrated BurraCharter. Australia ICOMOS

Moss, B. (1983). The Norfolk Broadland. Experiments in the Restoration of aComplex Wetland. Biological Reviews. 58:521-561.

Moss, J. (1983). Investigation of the Natural Areas of Kooragang Island, HunterRiver. NSW Department of Environment and Planning.

J.Moss, (Ed.) (1983). An Investigation of the Natural Areas of Kooragang Island,Hunter River. NSW Department of Environment and Planning.

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (1990). Fire Management Manual.

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (1981). Proposed Hexham SwampNature Reserve. Unpublished Report.

Outhred, R.K. and R.T. Buckney (1983). The Vegetation of Kooragang Island.Wetland (Australia). 3:58-70.

Planning and Environment Commission (1978). Joint committee to advise onLanduse Policy for Hexham Swamp-Report. Report to Planning andEnvironment Commission, Oct.1978.

Prater, A.J. (1981). Estuary Birds of Britain and Ireland. T. and A.D. Poyser,Calton, U.K.

Pressey, R.L. (1981). A Survey of Wetlands on the Lower Hunter Floodplain,Report to the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service.

Pressey, R.L. (1982). Hunter River Estuary. Assessment of National EstateNomination and Objections to the Nomination. Australian Government.Printing Service. Canberra.

State Pollution Control Commission (1990). Water Quality Criteria for NSW. InternalReport.

Urfi, A.J. (1995). India Takes the Birds Under its Wing. New Scientist, Forum.15th.April 1995.

Waterhouse, D. (1980). Observations of Avifauna Numbers on the SeasonalMeadow (Northern) Section of Hexham Swamp, 3rd April 1977 to 23rdApril 1978. Unpubl. Report.