ks pbs winnipeg 2014
TRANSCRIPT
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Posi%ve Behavior Supports
Keith Storey, Ph.D.
Graduate School of Educa7on
Touro University
Applied Behavior Analysis
• In behavior analysis, it is assumed that the behavior of students is lawful.
• This means that students do things for a reason such as being previously reinforced for a behavior (such as turning in homework) or being punished for a behavior (such as talking out in class).
• In other words, students have a history of being reinforced or punished for certain behaviors and this history influences their current behavior.
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• The three basic assump7ons of applied behavior analysis are:
1. All behavior is learned. 2. Behavior can be changed by altering
antecedents and/or consequences. 3. Factors in the environment (the classroom or
school) can be changed to increase and maintain specific behaviors or to decrease specific behaviors.
• Interven7ons for undesirable behaviors are directed at changing environmental events (teacher behaviors or the classroom setup) to improve behavior (e.g., to increase desirable behavior).
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Factors that Influence Behavior
• There are two factors that influence behavior: 1. antecedents (what occurs before a behavior). 2. consequences (what occurs aRer a behavior).
• The overall purpose of posi7ve behavior supports in classrooms and schools is to create environments that are conducive to learning.
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• Researchers have demonstrated that academic failure is one of the most powerful predictors of problem behavior and social failure (Manguin & Loeber, 1996; Morrison & DIncau, 1997).
• Conversely, researchers have also demonstrated that academic success is associated with a decrease in problem behavior (Go\redson, Go\redson, & Skroban, 1996).
• When we consider problem behaviors as occurring in contexts, it becomes logical to focus on changing the context and how people behave within the context.
• Behavior change occurs by changing environments and by teaching skills to individuals that provide more effec7ve ways to behave within the context of the situa7on.
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• For example, if a student is having problem behavior when asked to read out loud in reading group (to avoid reading out loud because the student is embarrassed about poor reading skills), then the teacher may prescreen passages with the student to pick ones she knows or do pre-‐teaching on the passage to be read so that the student knows all the difficult words.
• The teacher may also have the student join a remedial reading group so that she becer learns how to sound out new and unfamiliar words. The teacher is changing the environment by modifying the context and adding instruc7on, which then changes the behavior of the student (she now knows difficult words and does not have to engage in the escape behavior).
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Func7onal Assessment and Analysis
• Research has increasingly shown that many behaviors, tradi7onally viewed as undesirable, serve a func7on for the student.
• Determining the func7on of an undesirable behavior is cri7cally important to understanding and developing an interven7on (whether formal or informal) for any undesirable behavior.
• Func7onal assessment is the key to effec7ve behavioral support.
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• Func7onal assessment should lead to a focus on preven7ng undesirable behaviors from occurring rather than wai7ng for the behavior to occur and then punishing it.
• Because the focus of assessment is on determining the func7on of the behavior, interven7on is more likely to be successful because the focus is on replacing disrup7ve behavior with appropriate behaviors that serve the same func7on.
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• Two major func7ons behaviors may serve: (a) to obtain something desirable or (b) to escape or avoid something undesirable.
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• A complete func7onal analysis involves three strategies: (a) interview. (b) direct observa7on. (c) systema7c manipula7ons.
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• A func7onal analysis is an assessment method of iden7fying the rela7onship between behaviors and the sedng, antecedent, and consequent events that maintain the behaviors.
VALUES OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
• Func7onal analysis acknowledges that a person's behavior is reasonable from that person's perspec7ve.
• Students do not engage in problem behavior because they have a disability label such as Down syndrome.
• There is a logic to peoples behavior, and func7onal analysis is an acempt to understand that logic.
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• The objec7ve of func7onal analysis is not to define and eliminate an undesirable behavior but to understand the structure and func7on of that behavior in order to teach and increase desirable and posi7ve behaviors.
• A func%onal analysis is complete when five main outcomes are accomplished: 1. A clear descrip7on of the undesirable behavior(s), including classes (classes of behavior are groups of behavior that are of the same topography and serve the same func7on such as hidng, kicking, bi7ng may be classed as “aggressive behaviors”) or sequences of behaviors that frequently occur together.
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• 2. Iden7fica7on of the events, 7mes, and situa7ons that predict when the undesirable behavior(s) will and will not occur across the full range of typical daily rou7nes (knowing when undesirable behavior does not occur, such as small group instruc7on, can provide informa7on that is as important as knowing when undesirable behavior does occur).
• 3. Iden7fica7on of the consequences that maintain the undesirable behaviors (that is, what func7on(s) the behavior appears to serve for the student).
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• 4. Development of one or more summary statements or hypotheses that describe specific behaviors, a specific type of situa7on in which they occur, and the outcomes or reinforcers maintaining them in that situa7on.
• 5. Collec7on of direct observa7on data that support the summary statements that have been developed.
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• It is important to understand that individual behaviors may serve mul7ple func7ons for a student.
• For example, talking back to a teacher may allow the student to gain social acen7on in one situa7on (the func7on being to get) and in another situa7on to escape an academically difficult task (the func7on being to avoid).
How should interviews be used in determining the func%on of the behavior?
• The first step in performing a func7onal assessment is to conduct an in-‐depth interview with teachers and other staff as well as parents and other direct caregivers. Interviewing the student may also be appropriate in many instances.
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• The primary purpose of interview data is to begin to develop hypotheses about behavioral func7ons of undesirable behavior being exhibited by the student.
How should direct observa%ons be used in determining the func%on of the behavior?
• The Func7onal Assessment Observa7on form (FAO) (O’Neill, Albin, Storey, Horner, & Sprague, 2015) is useful for collec7ng direct observa7on data.
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Flowchart of Variables to Consider for Iden%fying Poten%al Interven%ons
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How do you determine replacement behaviors that serve the same func%on as the undesirable
behaviors? • Once the func7on of the behavior is understood then it is possible to effec7vely develop strategies which replace undesirable behaviors with more adap7ve alterna7ve behaviors (also known as skill building or replacement behaviors).
• When the interven7on is based on the func7on of the undesirable behavior the general strategy is to both weaken the maintaining consequence and strengthen a posi7ve skill building behavior that services the same func7on.
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• For example, if Freda is engaging in the behavior of disrup7ng a class in order to get teacher acen7on a replacement behavior could be teaching Freda appropriate methods of gedng teacher acen7on such as asking a relevant ques7on. The teacher could also give Freda acen7on at 7mes when she is engaged in her work which would make it less necessary for Freda to engage in undesirable behaviors to get acen7on and would also reinforce Freda’s on-‐task behavior.
• All too oRen the interven7on chosen is based upon the topography of the behavior rather than the func7on of the behavior. For example, a teacher may send any student who curses (the topography) to the office. While this may be an effec7ve interven7on for some students, for students who are engaging in the behavior in order to escape from a difficult academic task, the interven7on is ineffec7ve due to the teacher inadvertently reinforcing the escape behavior. In this situa7on, the student will be more likely to curse in the future when presented with a difficult academic task.
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• The focus on teaching replacement behavior is proac7ve. In other words, the interven7on takes place when the undesirable behavior is not occurring and is focused on making desirable behaviors more probable.
• In developing replacement behaviors it is important that the replacement behavior is func7onally equivalent to the undesirable behavior (it services the same func2on). The replacement behavior should:
• 1. Be as efficient for the student as the undesirable behavior.
• 2. Is something that the student chooses or wants to do.
• 3. Is building posi7ve skills for the student.
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Examples of Matching Interven7ons with Replacement Behaviors that Serve the Same
Func7on • Func%on of Behavior
Dawn becomes aggressive towards others when she doesn’t understand teacher direc7ons (escape behavior)
• Poten%al Interven%on Teach how to ask for help when direc7ons are not clear.
• Func%on of Behavior Kris7n likes to receive acen7on from peers (get behavior) but greets them inappropriately which evokes a nega7ve response from her peers.
• Poten%al Interven%on Teach appropriate gree7ng skills.
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• Func%on of Behavior Roald gets very anxious during tests and will cause commo7on in the hallway before a test in class so that he is sent to the office (escape behavior)
• Poten%al Interven%on Teach relaxa7on techniques in addi7on to test taking skills.
What is posi%ve reinforcement? • Posi7ve reinforcement is an event or s7mulus presented aRer a response has been performed that increased the frequency of the behavior it follows (Kazdin, 2001).
• In other words, posi7ve reinforcement is a process.
• You can only see that reinforcement has happened when an individual's behavior increases following the delivery of the reinforcer. If the behavior doesn't increase, it isn't a reinforcer.
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• For instance, if Humera lines up appropriately for recess and the teacher praises her (“Humera, I like the way that you lined up right away for recess”) and if the teacher’s praise is reinforcing for Humera, then she will be more likely to line up appropriately in the future (an increase in her behavior).
• Another way to analyze reinforcement is that you are arranging condi7ons under which a student gets things rather than is being given things.
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What is nega%ve reinforcement?
• Nega7ve reinforcement is the con7ngent removal of an aversive s7mulus immediately following a response that increases the future rate and/or probability of the response. (Alberto & Troutman, 2009). The key words in this defini7on are increases and removal.
• Both posi7ve and nega7ve reinforcement increase behavior. Nega7ve reinforcement refers to the increase in the frequency of a response by removing an aversive event immediately aRer the response has been performed.
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• With posi7ve reinforcement, when a student performs a behavior, the teacher gives the student something they like to increase the behavior. With nega7ve reinforcement, when a student performs a behavior, the teacher removes something that the student dislikes.
• For example, students work at a faster pace aRer their teacher states that she will relieve them of homework if they complete a certain amount of academic work in class (20 math problems correct). The homework is the nega7ve reinforcer which is then removed following the desired behavior (comple7on of academic work).
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• Nega7ve reinforcement is not a judgment of something being good or bad.
• It is important to remember that nega7ve reinforcement can increase desirable behavior.
• Nega7ve reinforcement works because the student performs the behavior to escape the aversive s7mulus.
Examples of Nega7ve Reinforcement • A student may have frequent outbursts during an assignment that he dislikes. The teacher may acempt to reduce outbursts by placing the student in a corner of the room. The student however, prefers isola7on to doing the assignment.
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• Student frequently complains that assignments are too difficult. Teacher responds to the complaints by consistently reducing the difficulty of the assignments. Complaints are nega7vely reinforced (by making the task easier) and teacher should expect complaints to increase.
• Contrary to popular belief, many off-‐task and disrup7ve behaviors in classrooms are probably not maintained by teacher acen7on. Instead, students oRen use these behaviors to escape or avoid an instruc7onal task (nega7ve reinforcement).
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• There are three ques7ons to ask in order to determine if nega7ve reinforcement con7ngencies are controlling undesirable behaviors:
• A: Does the behavior result in the termina7on or postponement of specific teacher requests, instruc7onal demands, or instruc7onal tasks, ac7vi7es, or materials?
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• For example, the teacher tells Kris7n to get her reading book out and Kris7n makes an obscene remark to the teacher. The teacher then sends Kris7n to the office for cursing. The specific teacher request (to get the reading book out) has been terminated.
• B: Is the student not competent with regard to the specific instruc7ons, tasks, teacher requests, or materials, iden7fied in A above?
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• For instance, Humera is a kindergarten student and on the first dayof school (which is also Humera’s first day in any school) the teacher instructs her to line up for recess. Humera does not understand what it means to “line up for recess” so she does not respond and con7nues to sit at her desk.
• C: Does the problem behavior occur more frequently under those specific content areas, tasks, materials, or teacher requests iden7fied in A and B above (in contrast to other content areas or tasks where the student is more capable academically)?
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• For example, Betsy has trouble with math and during math class, if she is called to the board to complete a problem, she will oRen engage in undesirable behavior.
• In contrast, Betsy is very good in reading and language arts and in this class, when she is called to the board to diagram sentences, she is very enthusias7c and there is never any undesirable behavior that occurs.
• General comment. Remember that you want the student to be reinforced for desirable behaviors.
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Punishment
• What is punishment? Type one punishment is the presenta%on of a s7mulus or event aRer a behavior that decreases the frequency of the behavior (Kazdin, 2001). Type Two punishment is the removal of a s7mulus or event aRer a behavior that decreases the frequency of the behavior (Kazdin, 2001).
• Punishment can be said to have occurred only if the student's rate of emidng the behavior has been reduced. Punishment, like reinforcement, is defined solely by its effect upon behavior (that it decreases the behavior). If the behavior doesn't decrease, it isn't a punisher.
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• Is there any role for punishment in Posi7ve Behavior Supports?
• Yes….but under only certain condi7ons.
• Only short term. • Use so that you can build adap7ve behavior.
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• Punishment per se is not necessarily either a “good” or a “bad” thing. When combined with reinforcement and other posi7ve interven7ons, the use of punishment can be an effec7ve strategy in implemen7ng posi7ve behavior supports. The more effec7ve the posi7ve interven7ons are, then the more effec7ve and enhanced the mild and brief punishment procedures will be.
PROBLEMS WITH USING PUNISHMENT
• A. At best punishment just stops a behavior. Just stopping a behavior doesn’t solve problems.
• B. Stopping one behavior will cause another behavior to take its place.
• C. Because there are prac7cally more ways to do something wrong than to do it right, by punishing undesirable behaviors without reinforcing or teaching a construc7ve alterna7ve, you are likely to get another undesirable behavior that serves the same func7on.
• D. The behavior that gets punished may not be the behavior that you want to stop.
• E. Punishment, like posi7ve reinforcement, is highly individual.
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• Reasonable types of punishment procedures: • 1. Time Out. • 2. Ex7nc7on (planned ignoring). • 3. Response Cost.
Posi7ve Behavior Supports in Prac7ce
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Classroom Structure
• Classroom Rules • The purpose of these rules is to communicate teacher expecta7ons regarding student behavior.
• These classroom rules provide a basis for student accountability, as well as for catching the students “being good.”
• The rules should be specific and refer to observable student behavior.
• For instance, the rules “be on 7me with materials” or “focus on work” are observable behaviors, while the rules “be responsible” or “do your best” are not.
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Characteris7cs of good classroom rules: 1. Keep rules to a minimum (3-‐4) for any classroom situa7on.
2. Keep the wording of the rules simple, such as, “keep hands and feet to yourself.”
3. State the rules posi7vely. This is very important as it serves to 7e reinforcement systems to the classroom rules by ledng students know which behaviors will be reinforced.
4. Post the rules in a prominent loca7on where the rules are easily visible to students.
5. Go over and prac7ce the rules repeatedly, especially at the beginning of the school year.
Examples of Classroom Rules 1. Follow teacher direc7ons first 7me given. 2. Raise your hand and wait for permission to
talk. 3. Be at class on 7me. 4. Bring what you need with you. 5. Be ready to work when the bell rings.
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• Classroom Guidelines • Teaching Sta7ons: • Teaching sta7ons can best be placed in the corners of room. The student chairs should face the wall to reduce distrac7ons. The teacher’s chair should face the room making it easier to monitor other areas of the room.
• Classroom Structure • Classrooms with more structure promote more appropriate academic and social behavior, greater task involvement, becer peer interac7ons, and more acen7ve behavior.
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• Classrooms should be designed to minimize crowding and distrac7ons.
• Ac7ve supervision posi7vely impacts student behavior in different sedngs including classroom and non‑classroom areas (e.g., hallways).
• It is oRen a good idea to have quiet areas (pillows, books, or other headphones with music) and reinforcement areas (with games, puzzles, art materials) for students to go to as needed (or finished with work).
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• It is oRen very advantageous, to have roles assigned to students (on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis).
• These roles can include messenger, greeter, phone answerer, material distributor, acendance taker, encourager, and token distributor.
• Having students in these roles can increase student engagement, teach responsibility, and allow posi7ve role models for other students.
• If possible, every student in the class should always have a role assignment and these assignments can be rotated on a regular basis.
• Classroom Procedures • General rou7nes • Having clearly established rou7nes, with students repeatedly prac7cing them, will make expected behaviors clear to students and allow teacher opportuni7es for reinforcing students to engage in these behaviors.
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Classroom Rou7nes that Need to be Established 1. Entering class. 2. What to do if tardy. 3. Notes from home. 4. Taking seat. 5. Taking of acendance. 6. Transi7on to ac7vi7es, staff, or sedngs. 7. How to seek help or ask ques7ons. 8. Restroom rules.
9. What to do when work is finished early. 10. Paper/work distribu7on. 11. What to do when teacher is busy. 12. Use of smart phones and other electronic devices. 13. What to do if need to leave class or cannot cope with situa7on.
14. Water and/or snack rules. 15. Clothing rules (hats, hoods, etc.) 16. Cleaning up materials and areas. 17. Exi7ng class.
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• Academic Work • Policies for academic work should be clearly laid out for students and their family and specified in a course syllabus, posted on web sites, or shared through email or social media techniques.
• Such policies might involve how certain issues are handled for students such as late work, makeup work, extra work, and repor7ng of student progress and grades.
• Publically posted class/day’s schedule can help students to understand and plan for the sequence of ac7vi7es that will be occurring.
• Visuals can be used to clarify what is expected of students (pictures, short video clip, diagram, power point, etc.) or to give a visual 7me warning or countdown (10 seconds 7ll groups are to start).
• It can be beneficial to start day/class with a student preferred ac7vity as this reinforces students for being to school/class on 7me and encourages par7cipa7on. During class 7mes, as well as days, it is oRen a good idea to alternate least-‐preferred ac7vi7es with most-‐preferred ac7vi7es.
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Down Time • Down 7me should be kept to an absolute minimum.
• Time fillers (also known as sponge ac7vi7es) should be set up and ready for quick use. These 7me fillers can be interes7ng academic ac7vi7es such as math problems, puzzles, etc.
• These can also be used for extra points or other reinforcement.
Transi7on Procedures • Transi7ons, whether they are from task to task, sedng to sedng, person to person, or behavior to behavior, can be fraught with poten7al problems.
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Preventa7ve Procedures and Interven7ons
Broader aspects of a student’s life: It is important to look broadly at a student’s life to evaluate factors to change for increasing desirable behavior in that student. This evalua7on may include factors such as:
1. Changing schedules or rou7nes. 2. Resolving physical or medical issues. 3. Increasing posi7ve social contacts in and/or outside of school.
Opportuni7es to Respond (OTRs) (also known as ac7ve student responding)
• Is a ques7oning, promp7ng, or cueing technique that begins a learning trial (e.g., "What number comes aRer 10?").
• OTR’s increase the frequency of student responses leading to increased correct responses, increased student engagement, and a decrease in undesirable behaviors .
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OTR’s include: 1. Frequent teacher instruc7onal talk that includes a variety of cues and prompts for student responding.
2. Presen7ng informa7on in a manner that increases correct student responding (also known as errorless learning). For example, the teacher could say “2 plus 2 equals 4. What does 2 plus 2 equal?”
3. Frequent checks for individual student understanding and accuracy (“Neil, what does 2 plus 2 equal?”).
4. Providing correc7ve feedback for student errors.
5. Providing reinforcement for correct student responses.
• Token Economies • A reinforcement system based on tokens is referred to as a token economy. Tokens func7on in the same way that money does, where tokens are used to purchase back-‐up reinforcers.
• Tickets, stars, points or checkmarks are commonly used.
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The Good Behavior Game The Good Behavior Game encompasses a variety of strategies where students are divided into teams, compe7ng against the other teams, or to meet a specific goal to earn points for their team (all teams can win).
• The Good Behavior Game has been effec7ve for both decreasing undesirable behaviors and, also, for increasing desirable and academic behaviors.
• For instance, being to class on 7me or raising hand to answer ques7ons.
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• The generic strategy of the Good Behavior Game is: 1. The class is divided into teams.
2. The teams compete to see which can earn the most points in a class period, day, week, month, semester, and/or year. All of these con7ngencies can poten7ally be in play at one 7me which increases the opportuni7es for reinforcement.
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3. Compe77ons (in which teams receive reinforcement) may be on a daily basis, weekly, in a league, etc.
4. May set up a criterion (a point goal) so that all can end up winners. For example, every team that gets 5 points during a class period receives reinforcement.
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5. May be used for academic performance and/or student conduct. For instance, every team member who turns in their homework earns one point for their team and every student who is at class on 7me earns one point for their team.
6. Back up reinforcers are provided for winners (such as ac7vi7es, prizes, etc.).
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