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Key Stage 3 Science

Teaching Animal,Human and PlantBehaviourNotes, lesson plans and resources for classroom use

Adrian Tebbutt, David Glenn and Mike Land

Norfolk County Council Children’s Services Professional Development CentreWoodside RoadNorwichNorfolk NR7 9QL

Tel: 01603 433276Email: [email protected]

January 2008

www.schools.norfolk.gov.uk

Section 1

Simple AnimalBehaviour• Introduction• Suitable organisms• Ideas for experiments• Lesson plans• Additional resources

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Introduction

The new programme of study for KS3 includes the following in the Range and Content section:

• Behaviour is influenced by internal and external factors and can be investigated and measured.

• This includes human and animal behaviour (psychology and ethology).

(Ethology is defined as: The Study of animal behaviour. It is a combination of laboratory and fieldscience. The modern science of ethology is considered to have arisen as a discrete discipline withthe work in the 1920s of Nikolaas Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz.)

This provides the ‘missing link’ to the sudden introduction of the nervous system and the reflex arc inthe core GCSE science.

These notes, suggestions and lesson plans provide more ideas than you will need - we think 7-9lessons would be an absolute maximum for this topic - but they do provide opportunities for moreengaging practical work in all key stages. The lesson plans have an emphasis in skills, processesand how science works.

Studying animal (and plant) behaviour is an ideal opportunity for practical work and use of livesubjects. The organisms mentioned in the materials are all easily available and present no significanthealth and safety issues. In all cases refer to the appropriate CLEAPSS guidance. It is also anopportunity to consider the care and treatment of live organisms together with any ethical issues.

BackgroundThe behaviours likely to be encountered include:

TaxesTaxes are directional responses to directional stimuli e,g, moving along a concentration gradient,moving away from a source of light.

KinesisKinetic responses involve changes in the amount of movement, and often turning, observed in theorganism.

Tropism Directional response to a unilateral stimulus in plants.

Taxes, Kinesis and tropisms can all be described as negative - movement reduced as a result of, oraway from, a stimulus, or positive - movement increased as a result of, or towards, a stimulus.

ReflexPre-programmed pattern of behaviour that are rapid and often involve only part of an organism.Reflexes can be protective e.g. blinking, or form part of complex actions e.g. knee-jerk as part ofwalking.

InstinctsPre-programmed patterns of behaviour that involve longer time scales and the whole organism.

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Suitable organisms

Woodlice

Woodlice belong to the biological class Crustacea. Most of the animals in this classare aquatic, and although the terrestrial species can breath with the aid of primitive"lungs," they lack the features found in most other land dwelling arthropods. They donot have a waterproof waxy cuticle on their exoskeleton, like insects, and are thereforemore likely to suffer from desiccation compared with other arthropods, which have awell-developed waxy layer. Woodlice excrete their nitrogenous waste as ammonia gas directlythrough their exoskeleton, which means that their exoskeleton needs to be permeable to ammoniaand is therefore also permeable to water vapour. Most other animals excrete their nitrogenous wastein the form of urea or uric acid, so woodlice do not have to expend energy on such processes. Thefact that woodlice prefer high humidity and cooler temperatures is a direct response of thepermeability of their exoskeleton to water and the loss of water from their bodies.

Many of the behavioural responses of woodlice are concerned with water conservation and the needto avoid desiccation. They have a relatively high surface area to volume ratio and are therefore likelyto loose water by diffusion more quickly than many other species.

Woodlice show a kinesis type response to moisture. They show both an increased speed ofmovement, or orthokinesis, and increased rate of turning, or klinokinesis, in dry conditions andslower rates of movement and turning in moist conditions. Woodlice also show a positive orthokinesis as the temperature increases or decreases from theirpreferred range. Their rate of turning also seems to show a similar response. By moving morerapidly, they are likely to spend less time in these unfavourable conditions and therefore will avoidunnecessary desiccation. They are known to show a photokinesis as well. This would result in themmoving out of bright conditions and accumulating in darker regions. Brighter conditions tend to bedrier and warmer than dark conditions, so this behaviour will again result in decreased desiccation.

Finally, these animals have been shown to demonstrate positive thigmokinesis. This means they areless active when more of their body surface is in contact with other objects, including other woodlice.They will move around so that the maximum amount of their body is in contact with other objects.This behaviour results in woodlice forming groups or clumps and also means they will tend tocongregate in cracks and crevices. In any case, they will have better protection from desiccation andalso predators.

Problems with terminologyWhen experimenting on simple organisms like woodlice we use terms such as ‘preferences’ and‘choice chambers’. These terms imply that the woodlice make conscious choices as we do, fallinginto the trap of anthropomorphism - imagining that animals must experience the world as wehumans do - e.g. thinking that woodlice ‘prefer’ damp, dark crevices - or, even worse that they‘choose’ these places or ‘like’ them. They do not make choices or have preferences, it is just thatthey are more or less active in the different conditions. These differences in the levels of activity, andtherefore rates of movement, are automatic responses and don’t involve any thought!

Alternation behaviourLike many other animals, woodlice tend to alternate their turns; when forced to turn in one directionthey subsequently choose to turn in the opposite direction. Alternation is shown when a forced turnis followed by a turn in the opposite direction at the next barrier. For example if a woodlouseencounters a barrier which forces it to turn left, then if it next encounters another barrier where it hasa choice of turning either left or right, a right turn would indicate alternation has occurred.

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Alternation would result in the woodlice crossing an open (or hot, or low humidity) region, containinga large number of obstacles, more rapidly than if alternation did not occur. If alternation alwaysoccurred regardless of distance travelled between turns then it could result in the woodlousespending a longer time in the exposed conditions - this might occur when the exposed region hadfew obstacles. Obviously there should be a maximum distance or time after which alternationbehaviour would no longer be an advantage.

Isaac Asimov and WoodliceWhen he was a young child, Isaac's mother was startled by the strange expression on his face andasked him what was wrong. He was unable to reply so she became alarmed by this apparentaffliction. Isaac, in an effort to calm his mother spat out a mouthful of woodlice.When asked why he had done such a thing, he replied that he had thought that they would probablytickle his tongue as they walked about inside his mouth. Apparently they did tickle - although hismother did not appreciate this turn of scientific curiosity.

Ideas for Experiments

Apparatus for experimenting on woodlice

1. Choice chambersA problem of terminology already! Several modelsexist for these. The basic one uses a Petri dish.For light/dark comparisons one half of both thebase and lid are painted black. Moist, darkcoloured paper in the base is a simpleimprovement over the raw plastic

Another alternative is to cut a ‘doorway’ in the side of two Petri dishes, then glue them together. Thelids can be cut and glued, but it is easier to cover the dishes with a sheet of acetate or thin clearplastic. You can get the idea from the two diagrams. Filter paper in the base can make an effectivewet/dry chamber.

It is important to ensure that there are no right angled corners (use circular strips of cardboard to linethe interior walls) as this will encourage the woodlice to congregate there due to their thigmokineticresponse.

Griffin sell some large choice chambers with segmented bases that are good but expensive.

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2. MazesThese are used in the study of alternation. The length of the 'variable length' arm is varied from 2cmup to the point where alternation no longer occurs.

It is easy to build a maze fromlego, improved if you can smoothout the runway surface formaggots. You can also use thetemplate below to make one outof card. Vary the length bymoving barrier A. Force the turnby placing a barrier at B or C.Vary the length before the turn bycutting X-Y and sliding the outersection in or out.

slide

cut

slide

plan of the maze

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Alternation experiment methodFirst it needs to be established whether or not woodlice show a preference for turning in a particulardirection. With a barrier at position "A", allow a woodlouse to run along the channel to the T-junctionand turn whichever way it chooses, left or right. Record this direction. Repeat with new woodlice untilthere is a reasonable, even number of results [between ten and twenty could be achieved in a fewminutes and would give statistical significance].

If woodlice have no preference then their choice of turn will be random and you would expect equalnumbers of left and right turns. (This can be tested using the chi square test). Unless you areextremely unlucky most of your class will demonstrate that there is no preference.

Experiment - Put barriers at positions "A" and "B" and allow a woodlouse to run along the channel. Itwill be forced to turn right. When it reaches the next junction it will have a free choice of left or right.Record the direction it takes. It is useful to record the choice as "same" or "opposite" to the forcedturn. Repeat with a new woodlouse but this time force it to turn left by putting a barrier at position "C".Obtain data for equal numbers of forced left and forced right turns [at least five of each forsignificance].

Collect class results and analyse.

Evaluation - This exercise throws up plenty of practical problems for students to discuss. For example: • How can the effects of extraneous stimuli such as the direction of light, noise, draughts etc. be

minimised? (The orientation of the apparatus can be randomised from trial to trial. )• What if a woodlouse leaves behind a chemical trail which influences the direction taken by the

next woodlouse? (Short of using a fresh channel for each trial, the run can be swept using a finepaintbrush to spread out any chemical traces and spoil the signal.)

• What sort of woodlouse should be used? (Ideally only one species should be used in oneinvestigation.)

More experiments A) For how long does the memory of a forced turn last?

It is relatively easy to vary the time between a forced turn and a choice either by restraining awoodlouse after a forced turn with a paintbrush gently held on its back or by altering the length ofchannel between the forced turn and choice turn (the length can be altered by sliding the endsections in or out).

B) How does a woodlouse detect the direction of a forced turn?

Hypotheses:1. internal inertial receptors are stimulated by rotation.2. the action of the legs on each side are compared; those on the outside of the turn will have walked further/ stepped more quickly than those on the inside.

This apparatus can be used to test the effect of a passive turn simply by turning it through 90° whilethe animal is running along a channel towards a "T" and noting the choice at the junction. Stimulatingthe legs on one side more that the other is more difficult.

3. Measuring kinesisThis can be done simply by putting squared paper under a Petri dish and then counting the squaresentered in a given time period. Squares copied onto acetate can be used above a chamber if e.g.comparing damp/dry.

For investigating the effect of temperature put a piece of filter paper in the bottom of a 250ml beaker

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and mark it with a line across the centre. Hold the base of the beaker in a waterbath, at the chosentemperature, introduce the woodlouse and count how many times the line is crossed in a given time.

The same idea can be used to count the number of turns, but there are problems with this –principally what is a ‘turn’?

How should woodlice be handled?A plastic teaspoon and fine paintbrush are the most useful tools. Sod's Law usually applies whenyou put them into the channel: whatever you do they almost invariably go in backwards and youhave to turn them with the paintbrush. Of course you should disturb the animals as little as possible,but alteration is such a robust behaviour that it is difficult to stop them doing it!

Some questions suitable for investigation• Do woodlice ‘prefer’ light or dark conditions?• Do woodlice ‘prefer’ red or blue light?• Do woodlice ‘prefer’ damp or dry conditions?• Do woodlice excrete gaseous ammonia?• What foods do woodlice prefer?• What if the animals are forced through angles other than 90°? Does the choice turn angle

equal the forced turn angle?• Does the tendency to alternate vary between woodlouse species?• How does temperature affect the movement of woodlice?• Do woodlice show alternating behaviour?

Maggots

Maggots are the larvae of a huge range of insect species – there are over 90,000 varieties of whatwe would call maggots. The fishing maggot that is readily available for classroom use is the larvalform of the blowfly – Calliphora sp. With the current interest in Forensic science (CSI, waking thedead etc.) the use of forensic entomological evidence can be significant - various flies are some ofthe first organisms to visit dead bodies. Consequently, the eggs/larvae present can help determinethe time of death of a corpse.

Maggots in the classroom are useful because they show taxes clearly, being negatively phototactic.They can also be used for alternation experiments.

Handling maggots bought commercially is safe (see CLEAPSS advice), but probably not popularwith some students – again the paint brush and plastic spoon are good tools.

Maggots move using a hook like organ that is extended, fixed into the substrate the body beinghauled after it. Without something to grip on locomotion is rather limited, so sheets of glass givemaggots a huge headache! Any slightly rough surface will work – coarse paper, plastic rubbed overwith an abrasive etc. I suggest you try your surfaces before going ‘live’ with the experiment

Apparatus for experimenting on maggots

1. Mazes as above for alternation, but pay attention to the floor material.

2. Effect of temperature – a difficult one as maggots travel in straight lines generally. One possibility is to use narrow plastic tube – thermometer cases work for this – maggot in tube, stopper the ends and place on the surface of a water bath, time the maggot along the tube.

3. Photaxis – a difficult one as choice chambers are less effective – once the wall is reached they tend to keep moving round the edge. The simple choice chamber design for woodlice can give good results if the light/dark difference is large.

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This method is an alternative. A piece of marked paper (shown below) is put in a suitable container – petri dish, plastic tray etc.Each of the positive and negative sectors should have angles of 120° and each of the neutral sectorsshould have an angle of 60°. The end marked “positive” is positioned nearest to the light. The centrecircle is 2cm diameter.

Black out the lab and put the container about10cm away from the front of a lamp. Thelamp should be shining at a shallow anglealong the tray.

Spin a pencil to find a random direction. Themaggot is then placed in the centre of theinner circle facing in the direction of thepencil.

You can then use several methods fortracking the maggot:

Complex: Put an acetate on the tray. As soonas the maggot’s head leaves the paper’sinner circle start a stopclock and mark theposition of the maggot’s head is every 5seconds until the maggot leaves the outer circle.

Simple: mark the direction that the head of the maggot is facing after 1 minute or as it crosses theouter circle. Use a duplicate of the sheet above for this.

If you are being extremely careful then replace the sheet each time and use a fresh maggot for eachrun.

Use a ray box and variable power supply to investigate effect of light intensity.

Some questions suitable for investigation

• Do maggots ‘prefer’ light or dark conditions?• Are maggots sensitive to different colours of light? • Do maggots ‘prefer’ damp or dry conditions?• How does temperature affect the movement of maggots?• Do maggots show alternating behaviour?

Daphnia

Daphnia are members of a collection of animals that are broadly termed as "water fleas". These arepredominantly small crustaceans, and Daphnia belong to a group known as the Daphniidae (whichin turn is part of the Cladocera, relatives of the freshwater shrimp, Gammarus et al, and the brineshrimp, Artemia spp). They get their common name from their jerky movement through the water.They are completely unrelated to real fleas, are insects. All species of Daphnia occur in differentstrains - sometimes the same species can look completely different, both in terms of size and shape,depending on its origin, and environmental factors at that location.

Daphnia feed on particles found floating in the water (phytoplankton, but also attached vegetation ordecaying organic material), but the predominant foods are free-living algae (eg Chlamydomanasspp, Volvox spp, etc), bacteria and fungi. In the summer months, they can often be seen "blooming"in ponds and lakes as the concentration of algae builds up.

Positive

Neutral

Negative

Neutral

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Brine Shrimps

Artemia salina. These are a hardy organism whose natural habitat is a salt lake or salt pan. Theytolerate salinity between 0.3% and 10%, temperatures between 10°C and 30°C and are easy andcheap to keep, and, more importantly, can form a self sustaining ecosystem needing little care. Theyfilter feed on algae suspended in the water, swimming efficiently using paired leafy legs.

Both Daphnia and Artemia are also readily available from aquarist shops and the normaleducational suppliers.

Handling For handling individual organisms a plastic pipette with the end cut off to increase the diameter issimple and effective. Larger numbers can be scooped using any suitable container.

Both species can be used for a range of experiments. The following ideas give a range of possibleexperiments suitable for KS3 – KS5. Time scales suggested can be adjusted to suit the pupils.

Some Experiments in Animal Behaviour(from Bench Biology 1995, A. Tebbutt)

ExperimentsThe tube diameter for the following apparatus was determined by the stock we had available - I amsure other sizes will work just as well!Depending on the group using the apparatus it can be set up with the organisms already present orby the students themselves. Students are instructed to return organisms to their tanks if they showsigns of distress. The water in the tube should be the normal solution that the organisms are kept in- this should contain food and oxygen enough to maintain normal behaviour patterns for the durationof all experiments described.The apparatus can be used successfully with both Daphnia and Artemia.

Filling the tubes completely can be achieved by putting a pin alongside the bung as you push it in –it allows excess water/air to escape and can then be removed.

PhototaxisBoth Daphnia and Artemia are positively phototactic, and this can easily be demonstrated in thefollowing apparatus:

Basic MethodWith the room either dimmed or blacked out - not essential but it gives a better controlledenvironment - each tube is illuminated uniformly by a bench lamp above it. The number of Artemiain each segment/half are then counted at one minute intervals for 5 or 10 minutes depending on timeavailable or age of pupils. A black paper collar is then slid over the tube and used to cover 2 endsegments. Numbers of Artemia in each visible segment/half are counted as before. This can berepeated covering the middle segments and the other 2 end segments. Number visible/minute canthen be plotted, or more sophisticated statistical analyses carried out.

ModificationsIf a suitably shaped card shield is placed over the middle of the tube allowing each side to beilluminated independently (below), a further range of experiments is possible.

ColourDifferent colours of light (intensity measured andadjusted!) can be used to illuminate the two sides ofthe tube, counting as before. The ambitious couldtry three or four colours simultaneously.

Light IntensityThe response to light intensity can be investigated ifthe illumination is varied on each side. This can bequantified with the use of a suitable light meter.

The reasons for the behaviour patterns shown canthen be deduced by students - e.g. feed on algae,algae photosynthesise, therefore found in light;oxygen produced by photosynthesis, thereforemove to areas of high oxygen concentration; morephotosynthesis in red light, therefore reasons asabove etc.

GeotaxisWith uniform illumination the basic tubing is stood on end, Artemia per segment are counted/minutefor 5-10 minutes and plotted as a graph. As a control the apparatus is inverted and the experimentrepeated.

If any patterns emerge what might the reasons be?

ThermotaxisResponse to temperature can be investigated using the basic apparatus set up as below. I would notrecommend high end temperatures above 40°C for Daphnia or 50°C for Artemia. Numbers ofArtemia are counted per segment at suitable intervals, and as a temperature gradient establishesalong the tube the organisms will congregate in a preferred range. This temperature can then bemeasured using e.g. a thermocouple device on the outside of the tube, a thermometer ortemperature probe slid through a modified bung in either the experimental or a dummy apparatus.

Preferences can then be related to environment, organism behaviour etc.

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ChemotaxisA method of examining responses to, for example, food quantity and chemical stimuli wasdeveloped following suggestions for further work from students. The modification to the apparatusfinally arrived at was simple, merely a hole melted into the tube near one end. This is simply doneby heating the required spot with a fine flame - micro gas torch or blowpipe through a Bunsen flame- and pushing the hole through from the inside with a mounted needle, seeker, or equivalent. Thefinished product looking like:

When filling the tube the hole can be covered with insulating tape. It can be kept upright on thebench using plasticene.In these experiments it is advisable to use a water supply that can be disposed of after use ratherthan a carefully nurtured culture solution.

ChemicalsResponses to pH, nutrients and other chemical stimuli, such as glucose, protein etc. can be studiedby counting Artemia per segment per minute for 5/10 minutes and then introducing the substanceunder test through the hole using a syringe and needle, or dropper if the hole will permit. Numbersper segment are then counted per minute for a further 5/10 minutes. In class organisation terms it isbest to have each group investigating a different compound if a range are to be studied. Oncompletion the tubes can be emptied via a sieve, thus preserving the Artemia and avoiding addingcontaminated water to the stock tanks.I have used the following substances successfully: Ethanoic Acid, Sodium Hydroxide, Glucose,Sucrose, Protein solution, Olive oil, yeast suspension, Algal suspension from stock tank

OxygenThis apparatus arose from a suggestion that it might be the oxygen from photosynthesis that was thestimulus causingphototacticresponses, notthe light.

The apparatus was modified by adding a second hole and by placing it on a slight slope. Thisallowed oxygen to be bubbled into (and escape from) a solution that had been boiled and cooled toreduce its oxygen content to a low level. Precise values can be measured using an oxygen probe.

To avoid stress to the organisms I would suggest counting at 1 minute intervals for only 3 minutesbefore the oxygen is turned on, and for 3/5 minutes afterwards, although this could be modified if theorganisms are carefully monitored.

FinallyI am sure there are other possibilities for this apparatus that I haven’t thought of yet, but someinquisitive student will undoubtedly come up with an idea or question in the future.

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Topic:Simple animal behaviour lesson 1

Learning Objectives: pupils should learn

• The factors that affect the behaviour of woodlice• To test ideas and to evaluate scientific evidence

Learning outcomes: pupils can

• Have carried out the experiment and recorded the results accurately • Have commented on the accuracy, reliability and validity of your results• Have written a conclusion and explained how your evidence and the

class evidence support the conclusion

Possible assessment:• How science works – accuracy, reliability and validity of results

Possible lesson starter:• Walt and Wilf for the lesson• Vocabulary card sort – reduced set focusing on the key words

ACCURACY, RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, PREDICTION, SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS, KINESIS, STIMULUS, RESPONSE

• Highlight the meanings of accuracy, reliability, validity!

Possible teaching activities:• Outline experiment – Do woodlice ‘ prefer’ light or dark conditions? Explain

carefully that there is no conscious choice, just simple behaviour patterns about survival. Explain the ‘choice’ chamber and how it works.

• Get pupils to make a prediction as to which conditions they think woodlice will prefer (ref. vocab card sort) and to make a hypothesis as to why they have made this (again ref. vocab card sort)

• Outline method – group 1 have 1 woodlouse, group 2 have 2 etc. up to a max of 10. (double up some groups). Suggest structure for results table.

• Place woodlice into centre of choice chamber and record the number on light/dark sides after 1 minute, 2 minutes and 3 minutes

• Collect class results on the board. Start with the group(s) who had one woodlouse: Check their predictions and Question the class as to are these results Accurate? -explain Reliable? – explain Valid? – explain (could check reliability against other groups with one woodlouse) useful here to have the definitions of A, R and V available.

• Add more data from other groups with the same questions – what happens to the accuracy (no change), reliability and validity as we collect more data

• Groups now write their conclusion as to the preferences of woodlice and their comments on their and the class results ref. A, R and V. and how they support the conclusion(ref. WILF statements)

Plenary activity:• Select one or two groups to read their conclusions and explanations – use

these to highlight the WILF statements for the lesson

Resources:

Scientific enquiry:• How science works – accuracy, reliability and validity of results

Time

10

25

10

10

light/dark choice chambers – 1 between 2, woodlice, stop clocks, cardsort prepared for pairs or fours

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Additional notes:

This is also an ideal opportunity to build on previous work on structuring explanations – it might benecessary to reiterate the structure etc. for explanations.

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Topic: Simple animal behaviour lesson 2a and b – woodlicePlanning the method in outline may be done as homework from the previous lesson

Learning Objectives: pupils should learn

• To plan and carry out a practical investigation as part of a group • To ensure results are precise, accurate reliable and valid• To apply scientific thinking to explain some observations

Learning outcomes: pupils

• Have planned an experiment to find out if woodlice prefer damp or dry conditions• Have explained how the results collected will be made accurate and reliable• Have recorded your results in a suitable table• Have drawn a conclusion and tried to explain your observations and the validity

of the results

Possible assessment:• How Science Works - Practical and enquiry skills and Critical understanding of

evidence

Possible lesson starter:• WALT and WILF for the lesson• Recap of previous lesson and key ideas - put words/phrases (e.g. prefer, choice

chamber, reliable and valid) on board and get pupils in groups/pairs to come up with 1 or two sentences to define or explain them

Possible teaching activities:Lesson 2A

• Demo the wet/dry choice chamber• Pupils then have to plan in groups and in bullet points an approach to answer the

question do woodlice prefer wet or dry conditions? See note about homework in preparation (This might be supported by a writing frame) This should include:- Method- What results will be collected- How the results will be displayed- How the results will be made accurate and reliable

• Circulate and check plans, distribute apparatus and get practical started and results collected

• Use plenary listed below

Lesson 2B• Processing of results – how will they be presented, graph, table etc. – opportunity

for mini starters/plenaries for these aspects and use of Scientific Enquiry support materials ref.choice of graph, describing graph etc.

• Write conclusion, again, opportunity for use of Scientific Enquiry and Scientific Writing support materials to develop skills

• Explain if results are accurate, reliable, valid etc.

Plenary activity:Spend longer on the plenary after lesson 2b

• Use ‘interactive plenaries’ powerpoint - give class list of the questions, choose

Resources:wet/dry choice chambers, stop watches, woodlice,

Scientific enquiry:

Time

10

20

20

timeaccording

to need

10/20

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Additional notes:

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Additional Resources

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How close a measurement ofsomething is to its true value.

How far the data is dependable. It is ameasure of their repeatability and/or

consistency.

Considering how far the data reliablyand accurately test the prediction.

What you think will happen in aparticular situation. Predictions arebased on current explanations for

how something works.

A suggested explanation for howsomething happens. A hypothesis is

usually based on observations.

An increase in movement andchanges in direction when in

unfavourable conditions

The thing that detects a stimulus, e.g.A sense organ

A change in the environment detectedby animals or plants that produces a

response

A change in an animal or plant as aresults of a stimulus

Directional responses to unilateralstimuli IN ANIMALS

ACCURACY

RELIABILITY

VALIDITY

PREDICTION

SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS

KINESIS

RECEPTOR

STIMULUS

RESPONSE

TAXES

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A directional response to a unilateralstimulus IN PLANTS

One sided

a stimulus or response that in worksin a particular direction

An automatic response o a stimulusover a long period of time that affects

the whole animal

A rapid, automatic response to astimulus that affects only part of an

animal

TROPISM

UNILATERAL

DIRECTIONAL

INSTINCT

REFLEX

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More Suggestions for experiments

Most of these factors have been investigated by groups or individual students over the last fewyears. You will may want to refer to the background information and the equipment used pagesbefore you can start to plan these experiments.

Investigate the mechanism causing the grouping instinct - is it odour, sound or some otherfactor?

What are the preferred light conditions for woodlice? - eg light intensity and colour of light.

What are the effects of temperature on behaviour - rate of turning, speed of movement etc.

Investigating alternation in woodlice. Is time or distance travelled the main factor in determiningwhether alternation is likely to occur?

Is humidity or temperature the most important factor in determining the clumping behaviour ofPorcellio scaber?

How do changes in water saturation affect the behaviour of Porcellio scaber? (eg clumping,activity levels)

What is the effect of ‘clumping’ on the rate of water loss from Porcellio scaber?

Can woodlice absorb and/or loose water through their exoskeleton?

Do woodlice excrete gaseous ammonia? Is there any difference between night and day?. Isthere any difference between active and inactive woodlice?

Ammonia excretionWoodlice do not produce urine. Instead of excreting urine, woodlice excrete their nitrogenouswaste in the form of ammonia gas. Most animals find ammonia to be too toxic for excretion andso any ammonia formed is normally converted to urea or uric acid for excretion.Woodlice seem to have very high resistance to ammonia and are able to excrete it as a gasdirectly through the surface of their exoskeleton. This means that they do not need to use energyto convert the ammonia to area or uric acid before excretion.

Blue bloodWoodlice along with most other crustaceans have the compound haemocyanin in their blood.Haemocycanin carries oxygen in the same way that haemoglobin does in mammals.Haemocycanin contains a copper atom instead of the iron atom found in haemoglobin. The bloodis pale blue when it is carrying oxygen and colourless when it is not carrying oxygen.

Because a woodlouse contains very small amounts of haemocycanin it is not possible to seethese colour changes by direct observation.

Blue WoodliceAn iridovirus can infect woodlice and at advanced stages of infection virus accumulates in suchlarge numbers that it forms crystallinel structures in the diseased tissues. These crystallinestructures give an intense blue or purple colour to the woodlice.

Individuals infected to this extent will usually die within a short time.

Orange Porcellio scaberThis orange form appears to be rare in this region. The example here isthe only one found in a collection of over 400 from the same compostheap - it is also the only one, of two, that I have observed over the last 10years. The red forms of woodlice are genetically determined but their raritysuggests that this form is not as well adapted to the habitat as the darkergray forms.

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CoprophagyWoodlice, like many other animals, eat their faeces. In the case of woodlice this helps them toreabsorb sufficient copper minerals which have been lost in their faeces. Bacterial action on thefaeces probably changes the copper to a form which is more easily absorbed into their bodies.Coprophagy is the term used to refer to the eating of faeces.

Drinking through the anusWoodlice get water with their food. But they can also drink it through their mouth parts and alsoby using their uropods. The uropods are tube-like structures on the posterior (back end) of theanimal. When they use them for drinking they press their uropods close together and touch itagainst a moist surface. Capillary action pulls the water up the uropods and into the anus.

Woodlice also seem to be able to absorb water vapour directly through their exoskeleton surfacein regions of high humidity, and in fact if they remain in high humidity regions for too long theyappear to become water logged and then tend to move to areas of lower humidity.

Isaac Asimov and WoodliceWhen he was a young child, Isaac's mother was startled by the strange expression on his faceand asked him what was wrong. He was unable to reply so she became alarmed by this apparentaffliction. Isaac, in an effort to calm his mother spat out a mouthful of woodlice.

When asked why he had done such a thing, he replied that he had thought that they wouldprobably tickle his tongue as they walked about inside his mouth. Apparently they did tickle -although his mother did not appreciate this turn of scientific curiosity.

MoultingYou may sometimes see a woodlouse which is two-toned. For example the front half of the bodymay be a pinkish colour and the back half may be the "normal" grayish colour. This occursbecause the woodlouse moults its exoskeleton in two sections. It first moults the back half of itsexoskeleton, then a few days later it moults the front half.

The advantage of this two part moult is to help reduce its vulnerability to predation or desiccationduring moulting. Adults moult about every two months.

Sense of smellWoodlice are able to detect chemical odours by using sensory receptors on either the ends of thelarge antennae or on the surface of their antennulae (these are usually an inner pair ofinsignificant small antennae) P. scaber seems to be able to detect litter by smelling the odoursreleased by micro-organisms living on the litter.

Postage StampsIn 1995 St. Helena issued a set of stamps depicting small animals.The 53p stamp shown here, illustrates a Spiky Yellow Woodlouse.Why is the rest of the world ignoring these fascinating creatures?

Changing SexMale woodlice infected by Wolbachia bacteria will turn into female woodlice! The bacteria upsetthe normal action of the woodlouse male hormone.

As the bacteria are passed to the next generation of woodlice in the cytoplasm of the egg cellsthis process means that there is a better chance of Wolbachia survival as all infected offspring willbe female and therefore will allow infection of the third generation of woodlice.

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1. Red Light vs Blue Light preference

2. Dim light vs Bright Light preference

Thanks to Sandhya Deo for these results

21

3. Preferred Light Intensity

Thanks to Wei-Hsin Chan for these results

4. The effects that distance travelled has on alternation behaviour.

In this experiment the woodlice were forced to make a right hand turn and then after a variabledistance were given a choice of taking a left or right turn. Those that turned left showed thealternation behaviour. The experiment was repeated with the forced turn being to the left and resultsfor both were collated.

Thanks to James van Rij for these results

1 Mature Woodlice2 Juvenile Woodlice1

2

5. The Effect of clumping on water lossWater loss was measured by taking the drop in weight of 10 isolated woodlice and comparing thiswith the drop in weight of 10 woodlice which had been allowed to clump together as a group.

Thanks to Rebecca Wilson for these results

6. The Effect of humidity on water loss

Thanks to Adam Blower and Steven Hardy for these results

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1 Clumped group2 Individuals group

1

2

1 - 100% 2 - 80% 3 - 60%4 - 40% 5 - 20% 6 - 0%

1

3

4

5

6

2

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More Experimental Backgound and Data

It has been studied that Isopods are very active when it comes to varying conditions in theirenvironment. This activity leads them to be typically found in dark, moist, and crowded places.Isopods are known by several names: sow bugs, pill bugs, or woodlice. Because of the largenumber of species in the isopod order, it was necessary to determine the specific family of which thestudies were done. Pill bugs are classified in the family Armadillidae and can roll themselves into asmall ball. However, the animal being studied here was unable to perform this activity and wasdetermined to be a sow bug species. More specifically, this species is a member of thePorcellionidae family. The Porcellios are a group of animals that are grayish in colour and when it isdisturbed it tends to quickly run away. The head is crown shaped with the two outer lobes beingrounded. It has two pairs of projections on the rear of the body called uropods. The inner pair ofuropods is much smaller than the outer pair. The posterior ends of the plates of the exoskeleton tendto come to a sharp point. On the underside of the body there are two pairs of pleopod lungs. Theouter margins of the plates of the exoskeleton are slightly reverse curved in the upward direction.They have 7 pairs of legs and their bodies consist of three fused sections so that it is difficult to besure where each section starts or finishes.

Woodlice, as they are also referred, are often found in the upper layers of compost heaps, underrotting wood or logs, under surfaces or stones, and in other dark, damp places. Woodlice belong tothe biological class Crustacea. Most of the animals in this class are aquatic, and although theterrestrial species can breath with the aid of primitive "lungs," they lack the features found in mostother land dwelling arthropods. They do not have a waterproof waxy cuticle on their exoskeleton, likeinsects, and are therefore more likely to suffer from desiccation compared with other arthropods,which have a well-developed waxy layer. These animals excrete their nitrogenous waste as ammoniagas directly through their exoskeleton, which means that their exoskeleton needs to be permeable toammonia and is therefore also permeable to water vapour. Most other animals excrete theirnitrogenous waste in the form of urea or uric acid, so woodlice do not have to expend energy onsuch processes. The fact that woodlice prefer high humidity and cooler temperatures is a directresponse of the permeability of their exoskeleton to water and the loss of water from their bodies.These preferences are behavioural adaptations to help reduce desiccation. The experimentspreformed here are testing this theory and demonstrating this behaviour.

Many of the behavioural responses of woodlice are concerned with water conservation and the needto avoid desiccation. They have a relatively high surface area to volume ratio and are therefore likelyto loose water by diffusion more quickly than many other species. Porcellio scaber show a kinesistype response to moisture. They show both an increased speed of movement, or orthokinesis, andincreased rate of turning, or klinokinesis, in dry conditions and slower rates of movement in moredamp conditions. This response will result in them accumulating in more damp regions, and so willnot loose water from their bodies. Interestingly, it has been reported that woodlice taken from verydamp conditions show a different reaction. They may either show no difference in their reaction tochanges in moisture or may even actively avoid the damp regions in preference for the drier regions(Sutton, Woodlice, 1972). Woodlice also show a positive orthokinesis as the temperature increasesor decreases from their preferred range. Their rate of turning also seems to show a similar response.By moving more rapidly, they are likely to spend less time in these unfavourable conditions andtherefore will avoid unnecessary desiccation. They are known to show a negative phototaxis as well.This would result in them moving away from bright conditions towards darker regions. Brighterconditions tend to be drier and warmer than dark conditions, so this behaviour will again result indecreased desiccation. Finally, these animals have been shown to demonstrate positivethigmokinesis. This means they are less active when more of their body surface is in contact withother objects, including other woodlice. They will move around so that the maximum amount of their

24

body is in contact with other objects. This behaviour results in woodlice forming groups or clumpsand also means they will tend to congregate in cracks and crevices. In any case, they will havebetter protection from desiccation and also predators.

ProcedureIn order to demonstrate the effects of temperature and moisture on the animals, a chamber was setup with an underlying grid, used for calculations. The chamber could be altered in order to create adifferent environment. In this case, temperature was varied from cold, to room temperature, to warm.In each temperature range, damp versus dry was compared. The animal was placed in the chamberfor a period of time and recorded using a digital camera. Upon playback of the video, the number ofsquares the animal covered over the period of time was calculated to give a value of orthokinesis.Also, the number of turns made by the animal was counted to demonstrate the value of klinokinesisoccurring in each environment. These values were then tabulated and compared.

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Results - Orthokinetic experiment

Cold-Dry Cold-Wet

Run Squares Time Orthokinetic Run Squares Time Orthokinetic Covered Value Covered Value

1 122 300 0.4067 1 9 180 0.05002 206 300 0.6867 2 41 180 0.22783 62 180 0.3444 3 34 180 0.18894 42 180 0.2333 4 59 300 0.19675 97 180 0.5389 5 72 300 0.24006 76 180 0.4222 6 18 180 0.1000

Average = 0.4387 Average = 0.1672

Room Temperature-Dry Room Temperature-Wet


1 129 300 0.4300 1 2 300 0.00672 149 300 0.4967 2 34 300 0.11333 73 180 0.4056 3 37 180 0.20564 96 180 0.5333 4 21 180 0.11675 262 180 1.4556 5 24 180 0.13336 104 180 0.5778 6 13 180 0.0722


Warm-Dry Warm-Wet


1 103 94 1.0957 1 16 31 0.51612 38 31 1.2258 2 11 30 0.3667


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Klinokinetic experiment

Cold-Dry Cold-Wet

Run Turns Time Klinokinetic Run Turns Time Klinokinetic Value Value

1 3 60 0.0500 1 2 60 0.03332 15 60 0.2500 2 9 60 0.15003 16 60 0.2667 3 11 60 0.18334 6 60 0.1000 4 8 60 0.13335 8 60 0.1333 5 11 60 0.18336 2 60 0.0333 6 7 60 0.1167Average = 0.1389 Average = 0.1333

Room Temperature-Dry Room Temperature-Wet


1 16 60 0.2667 1 2 60 0.03332 33 60 0.5500 2 4 60 0.06673 22 60 0.3667 3 16 60 0.26674 18 60 0.3000 4 21 60 0.35005 31 60 0.5167 5 11 60 0.18336 14 60 0.2333 6 17 60 0.2833Average = 0.3722 Average = 0.1972

Warm-Dry Warm-Wet


1 57 60 0.9500 1 9 31 0.29032 41 31 1.3226 2 7 30 0.2333Average = 1.1363 Average = 0.2618

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Experimental ConclusionsBoth experiments followed the predicted outcomes. The orthokinetic experiment showed that the rateof movement increased with temperature. The discrepancy in the moist environment is most likelydue to the animal pausing at moist points to take up water. This is seen in the cold and roomtemperature environments. The warm environment was highly unfavourable for the animal in anycase. This is due to the heat causing excessive desiccation.

In the klinokinetic experiment, the same predicted outcomes were observed. The rate of turningincreased with temperature. One result to point out here is that the rate of turning increased muchmore in the dry environment than in the wet environment. This would most likely be due to the factthat a wet environment is favourable over dry for the animal, so it is to be expected that the rates arehigher for the dry environment.

General InformationOne behaviour that was noticed during the experiment was the use of the uropod structures at theposterior of the animal. Woodlice get water with their food, but they can also drink it through theirmouth and also by using their uropods. The uropods are tube-like structures on the posterior of theanimal. When they use them for drinking they press their uropods close together and touch it againsta moist surface. Capillary action pulls the water up the uropods and into the anus. The above pictureshows the uropod lifted in order to prevent suction of water.

Woodlice, along with most other crustaceans, have the compound haemocyanin in their blood.Haemocycanin carries oxygen in the same way that haemoglobin does in mammals. Haemocycanincontains a copper atom instead of the iron atom found in haemoglobin. The blood is pale blue whenit is carrying oxygen and colourless when it is not carrying oxygen. Because a woodlouse containsvery small amounts of haemocycanin, it is not possible to see these colour changes by directobservation. There are cases of blue woodlice. An iridovirus can infect woodlice and at advancedstages of infection virus accumulates in such large numbers that it forms crystalline structures in thediseased tissues. These crystalline structures give an intense blue or purple colour to the woodlice.Individuals infected to this extent will usually die within a short time.

Another interesting fact about woodlice is that they have the ability to change sex. Male woodliceinfected by Wolbachia bacteria will turn into female woodlice. The bacteria upset the normal action ofthe male hormone. Bacteria are passed to the next generation in the cytoplasm of the egg cells, andthis process means that there is a better chance of Wolbachia survival as all infected offspring will befemale and therefore will all allow infection of the third generation of woodlice.

Woodlice are land-dwelling crustaceans. They breathe through gills which need to be keptmoist at all times, and this requirement influences much of their behaviour. It is easy to fall intothe trap of thinking that woodlice ‘prefer’ damp, dark crevices – or, even worse that they‘choose’ these places or ‘like’ them. This is falling into the trap of anthropomorphism –imagining that animals must experience the world as we humans do.

In England students are often asked to write school reports about the behaviour of woodlice aftercarrying out experiments using ‘choice-chambers’. I have no intention of writing such a reporthere, but there is no harm in pointing out some common mistakes and giving a few ‘clues’.Woodlice are most active during the night and are usually found huddled together in dampplaces during the day, but they do not move towards damp conditions, it is just that they aremore active in the dry. Similarly they do not choose crevices or other woodlice, but are moreactive when their bodies are not being touched. These differences in the levels of activity, andtherefore rates of movement, mean that woodlice spend most of their time crowded together indamp crevices. This type, of behavioural response to stimuli is known as ‘kinetic’- it is notdirectional. The other error that students often make is to fail to mention the species ofwoodlouse they observed. (Key to help Identify British Woodlice).

Section 2

Human Behaviour• Lesson plans• Resources

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A series of three lesson plans exploring aspects of behaviour in humans. Starting withbehaviours which we share with other vertebrates (instincts and reflexes) the lessons moveon to aspects of human behaviour which mark us out from them – problem-solving anddecision making, and then look at personal space as an example of a human socialbehaviour concept, with a related investigation.

Lesson 1: Instinct, reflexes and learned behaviours

Part

HSW skills

Objectives

Outcomes

Starter

Main part

Content

Communication: presenting an investigation

To describe and distinguish between types of animalbehaviours, noting differences and similarities with humans

Pupils will confidently define, and give examples ofinstincts and reflexes in humans and animals

Discuss definitions – start by describing some instincts;homing instinct of pigeons, suckling instinct of babies andyoung animals, rocking instinct when a person picks up ababy to comfort them. Ask for examples seen in pupils’pets and families. Elicit that instincts are untaught, arebehaviour patterns and are ‘hardwired’ (genetic). Theyoccur across ethnic groups and often have a primitivesurvival function.Cardsort: sort these out into ‘instinct’ and ‘not instinct’ toreinforce understanding of meanings.Point out that some automatic actions which are notinstincts, called ‘reflexes’, are triggered when a nerve isstimulated. We’re now going to try out some:

Circus of investigations –

1. Firmly stroke a spoon handle down the sole of a barefoot. Watch the toes.

2. Sit down, cross legs, firmly but gently tap under knee-cap. Watch the lower leg

3. Spin a subject round until dizzy – an office chair is a safer way to do this.Keep the person still and look in their eyes – do you seethem flick side to side (‘nystagmus’) as the ‘room spins’for them? For variety try it with the head heldhorizontally.

4. Clap your hands in front of the subject’s face. Pretend to punch them in the stomach but stop justshort. What reflex actions help protect them from danger?

Resources

Card-sort sets

Spoons,office chair

beaker of water

32

Plenary

Differentiation

Homework

Safety

Other notes

5. Dip three fingers in water for a few mins. Look for thewrinkling – a nerve controlled reflex. (cutting the nervesto the hand will prevent it). What advantage might itgive? What happens to the other fingers, and the otherhand? Try it with the elbow – no wrinkling.

Then either:Make an annotated poster on large paper to illustrate thefindings for one of the investigations. OrPresent your investigation In the style of Robert Winston ora news report.

See interactive ppt slide

Most able pupils may also be introduced to the additionalcategory of learned reflexes and an example included inthe circus - eg. Ask them to use a knife and fork the wrongway round, or fasten the buttons on a shirt belonging tosomeone of the opposite sex, and report on the difficulties.But avoid KS4 conditioned reflexes issues.

Spinning a subject to make them dizzy needs careful adultsupervision and removal of objects and furniture whichmight cause injury if they fall.

Some pupils may be embarrassed to take their shoes andsocks off and this should be avoided if likely to be aproblem. A demo on an adult is an alternative.

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Lesson 1: Is it an instinct?

Newly hatched ducklings follow the first moving object they see and assume it is the mother duck

Male robins attack a dummy bird which has a red breast on it

Salmon in the sea return to the stream they were born in, to breed

An injured animal will lick its wounds

All the fish in a shoal turn direction together

New-born human babies ‘walk’ if you hold them above a surface

A female horse eats its placenta after giving birth

A cat, when dropped, lands with its feet downward

Dogs gather round the house of a bitch on heat

Answers: left side are instincts. They fulfil the requirement of being behaviours which are not learned,and are not simple responses to nerve stimulation. The right side responses are either reflexes,learned responses, or not true.

People usually say ‘bless you’ when someonesneezes

Everyone shakes hands using their right hand

Most people feel that wearing brown and purplestripes looks bad

Bears eat rubbish out of bins in Canada

Drivers brake when they see a red light

A dog will come up to you when you whistle it

Welsh people are all good singers

Blind people have a better developed sense ofhearing

Crows are scared of a scarecrow

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Lesson 2: Investigation into how people solve problems

Part

HSW skills

Objectives

Outcomes

Starter

Main part

Resources

candles

matches

boxes of drawingpins

posts and discs

Content

Groupwork, experimental design

To explore the use of planning, decision-making, lateralthinking, discussion, trial-and error, and deferredgratification when humans solve problems. To be able to relate these to times in scientific enquiriesand general life when these behaviours are used

Pupils will solve a practical problem in order to considerthe strategies they used, and be able to explain theirmethods

Ask pupils to relate examples of when animals seems ‘silly’– suggest birds stuck inside the house, dogs stuck inpipes or burrows, etc. Take two or three of their funniest.Point out the lack of considered thought animals put intosolving their problems. How, generally, our problem solvingtechniques set us apart from other animals in ourbehaviour.Explain that we are now going to solve a couple ofproblems, but the purpose is not so much finding thesolution, as watching ourselves do it and thinking about thestrategies (behaviours) that we use. The science ofpsychology is the study of behaviour

Divide pupils into groups of threes, or other appropriategroupingsOne pupil acts as observer and note-maker. The other twodiscuss and solve the problem. The note-maker must beprepared to report back to the class verbally

Problem 1: Pupils are given a candle and a box ofdrawing pins. They have to attach the candle to the noticeboard in such a way that when it is lit it is upright anddoesn’t scorch the board. This encourages lateral thinkingas it is not immediately obvious that the box can be usedas a candle-holder and the candle secured to the box withmelted wax, while the pins hold the box to the wall.

Problem 2: Three posts are fastened upright on the deskin a row. On post ‘A’ are slotted four discs as in thediagram.

A B C

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Plenary

Differentiation

Homework

Safety

Other notes

Mini white-boardsand pens

a big jar ofsweets and

monkey maskwould be useful

The task is to move them to post ‘B’, always following therule that no disc can be placed over one that is smaller.Post ‘C’ can be used as a temporary holder although therule applies to that post too. Only one disc may move at atime. The aim is to use the fewest possible moves.

The observer, in explaining what the team did, may seethat they first defined the problem, then discussed possibleoptions before deciding on a strategy. This may or may nothave been successful first time. Some teams may startimmediately and use trial and error, while others plan thenact. The merits of these approaches can be discussed,and comparisons made with animals. The value of speechwill be apparent (you could try a ‘silent’ group) The point isnot the solution of the problem, but the tactics used to getthere. Suitable posts could be pencils in a pencil block, ormass-holders with different sized masses on them. Discscould include CDs, rubber bungs, masses or you couldprepare cardboard ones.

Groups that worked by trial and error, or rushed straight toa possible conclusion, will appreciate the story of the manwho caught a monkey by putting sweets into a heavynarrow-necked jar. The monkey took a fist-full and couldn’tget its hand out. If it tried to escape, it had to let go of thesweets. Monkeys are not good enough problem-solvers toallow ‘deferred gratification’ – neither are small children (orsome not so small). Ask the pupils to illustrate one humanexample of failing to apply ‘deferred gratification’ on theirmini white-boards in cartoon style. (prompts if needed –pocket money, alcohol, marathon running, pensions)Make the point that this is a higher-order behaviour. Whenis this behaviour actually a disadvantage? Do squirrelsshow DF by hoarding nuts? When might a scientist needthis behavioural skill, for instance in solving a crime?

The tasks may be made easier with the use of promptcards or written instructions, and made harder with a stricttime limit, no-talking rule, or for problem 1 fewer pins, forproblem 2, more discs.

Octopuses are supposed to be the most intelligentmolluscs. Design an experiment to test their problem-solving skills. Draw an annotated diagram of the set-up,explain how you would get the octopus to do it (after all,they can’t read or understand you talking to them!),measure its success, and what you would look for to seehow the animal went about solving the problem. Whatmight you have to find out about octopuses first?

Check the candles are safe and securely fastened beforepupils are allowed to light them.

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Content

Use range of scientific methods to test ideasEvaluate evidenceUse secondary sources

Investigate personal space as an example of humanbehaviour which is affected by a range of factorsCritically discuss and extend simple experiments on humanpsychology

Pupils will be able to explain and describe personal spaceand its ‘invasion’They will have looked at a psychological experiment andconsidered how it was set up, controlled and how resultscan be analysed, and will be able to give a reasonedexplanation of the techniques used.

When the class is seated and settled, the teacher gets aseat and sits as close as possible to a chosen pupil whilethe register is taken (or other suitable neutral activity). Notethe body-language, comments and other behaviours of thepupil. (Choose carefully!)Introduce the lesson by asking pupils how they would reactif they were sitting in an otherwise empty row of seats in atrain and someone came and sat right next to them.Compare with the reaction of the squirming pupil theteacher chose to sit next to. Why do we react like that?What factors might influence our reactions or the amount ofcloseness we can tolerate?Define personal space as a kind of invisible bubble aroundus where there are rules about who can move into it, howthey act there and under what circumstances we toleratethem.

Read sheet 1 (first page only) with the class. Discuss theexperiment and the questions in bold.Now hand out the second page of sheet 1. Presentation ofthe results (best as overlapping line graphs) is optionaldepending on time and the needs of the group. Anotheroption at this point is to plan to carry out a similar orrelated experiment in your own library or dining hall.

Hand out sheet 2, give time to complete, then discuss…Answers are: 1 closer; 2 further; 3 closer; 4 further; 5closer; 6 further; 7 further; 8 further; 9 further; 10 further; 11closer. What other factors might they add?

Ask a pupil to stand in the middle of an empty piece offloor. Draw concentric circles around them, at a radius ofapprox 40 cm, 110cm and 4 metres.

Lesson 3: Experimenting with personal space

Part

HSW skills

Objectives

Outcomes

Starter

Main part

Resources

Sheets 1and 2

Stick of chalk

37

Plenary

Differentiation

Homework

Safety

Other notes

The zone they are standing in is the intimate zone, thencome the arms-length zone, personal zone and socialzone. What zone would they feel comfortable…

• Talking at a party• Meeting the Headteacher• Standing by an adult stranger of the opposite/same sex• Having a confrontation• Chatting someone up• Playing with a toddler

You can ask for other examples. Outside the social zonecommunication is difficult. When might you keep someonethat far away?

Summarise the functions and features of personal space.Finally explain that personal space is protected byunwritten rituals in our society. One of these is ‘shakinghands’. Pupils can be shown how to shake handseffectively – avoiding the ‘wet-fish’ and the ‘bone-crusher’,not touching the other person with the other hand etc.Then practice with each other. Most school pupils nevershake hands socially, find it embarrassing and are at aloss when expected to do so, eg at an interview, so it’sworth a practice!

The sheets with this lesson contain more work than ispracticable in 1 hour. Take away activities as appropriate

India has the most formalised caste system to protectpersonal space – a new caste has recently beendescribed, lower than the ‘untouchables’, who wash theclothes of the untouchables. They only come out at nightas they believe if a high-caste person sees them they willcontaminate that person. Most people were not evenaware that this group existed until recently.Your task – to research the castes on the internet and writea paragraph on each caste to explain what they are.

No issues

It’s obvious, but be sensitive to cultural and gender issueswith class members when demonstrating personal space,shaking hands etc.

38

Lesson 3: Sheet 1

In 1966, in an American University, a female psychology student tried the following experiment:

There were six chairs around a large table in the University library, fairly evenly spaced. Only one, oroccasionally two of these chairs were occupied by unsuspecting female students, who were busyreading.

The experimenter tried out these different tests on the students round the table:

1. She sat next to a student, and moved her chair to within 8cm (as close as you can get withouttouching). If the student moved away, she moved nearer again, saying nothing.

2. She sat next to a student, but at an acceptable distance of half a metre away.

3. She sat one seat away from the student (leaving one chair between them)

4. She sat three seats away

5. She sat immediately facing the student across the table

What results would you expect to get?

What sort of things might the experimenter have measured to get her results?

In what way might she have made this a controlled experiment?

How could the experiment be adapted to get more reliable results?

Her results:

She repeated the experiments many times over.

Only 55% of the students she sat very close to (test 1) stayed at the table for more than 10 minutes.90% of the others (tests 2 to 5) stayed for more than 10 minutes.

100% of students stayed longer than 10 minutes when the experimenter didn’t sit on the same tableat all, but the table and chairs were arranged the same way. This was her control.

After 20 minutes the number of students staying in test 1 dropped to 45%, and 80% for tests 2 to 5.There were still just under 100% of students at the table if the experimenter didn’t go near.

After 30 minutes the number of students staying in test 1 dropped to 30%.For tests 2 to 5 there were 73% remaining, and 87% at the table without an experimenter.

In test 1, students didn’t just move off. Sometimes they made barriers of books or their bagsbetween themselves and the ‘intruder’.

In the space below show these results in an easy-to-understand diagram or chart form.

39

Lesson 3: Sheet 2

Closer or Further Away??

Some factors lead to us setting up a bigger personal space, some make it smaller. Foreach of these, write ‘Closer’ or ‘Further away’

1. The other person is a close family member

2. The other person is elderly

3. You are in a crowded bus

4. You live in the country, not a city

5. You are under the age of six

6. The other person smells

7. The other person may be drunk

8. You are a criminal convicted of a violent crime

9. You are schizophrenic

10. Both of you are Swedish or Scottish

11. Both of you are Arab or South American

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