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Maynard Anthony T. Acosta

BSCE II-4

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1. HAMMER

A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an impact to anobject. The most common uses are for driving nails, fitting parts,forging metal and breaking up objects. Hammers are often designed

for a specific purpose, and vary widely in their shape and structure.The usual features are a handle and a head, with most of the weight inthe head.

I. BLACKSMITH HAMMER Blacksmith Hammer is a common

main hand item. This item can be used as a feebleweapon, although it primarily serves as ablacksmithing tool for crafting objects that requiremetal working and an anvil.

II. HICKORY CLAW HAMMER 16 oz. (head) straight claw

hammer with a flame-treated hickory handle.

III. TACK HAMMER

An upholstery hammer (also called a tack hammer)is a light weight hammer used forsecuring upholstery fabric to furniture framesusing tacks or small nails. Usually, one face of the hammer is magnetized to aid in placement of tacks. Once started, the tacks are driven with theother face. To apply tacks rapidly an upholsterer will

hold tacks in the mouth and spit them onto the magnetizedface of the hammer

IV. BRICKLAYER’S HAMMER A hammer used in laying bricks

with a heavy rigid head and a handle; used todeliver an impulsive force by striking.

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V. BRICK HAMMER A steel tool, one end of which has a

flat square surface used as a hammer, forbreaking bricks, driving nails, etc.; the otherend forms a chisel peen used for dressing

bricks.VI. SHINGLER HATCHET

Shingler hammer. 12 3/4 in. long. Withblade. Patented tuning fork design reduces shockand vibration that can cause wrist and arminjuries. Forged, one-piece steel constructionfor increased strength and durability. Rim temperreduces incidences of chipping and spalling.

VII. SOFT-FACE HAMMER Soft faced hammer are hammers that

can have a variety of striking faces includingcopper, hide, aluminium, plastic, nylon, andrubber and give safe and effective blows to metaland other components which might be damaged byconventional steel hammer.

VIII. DRYWALL HAMMER A drywall hammer is a special type

of hammer that is used in the installation orremoval ofdrywall, which is a material used tofinish interior walls.A drywall hammer differs from aregular hammer not only in what it isdesigned to do, but also in terms of how itlooks. Typically, the front face of this typeof hammer is serrated, which makes it good forgripping the heads of nails. It usually has a back portion that isshaped like a hatchet as well, which is used for cutting throughthe drywall material. In fact, a drywall hammer is sometimesreferred to as a drywall axe because of the hatchet part of itsconstruction.

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IX. BALL PEEN HAMMER A ball-peen (also

spelled pein)) hammer, also known asa machinist's hammer, is a typeof peening hammer used inmetalworking.It is distinguished from a cross-peen hammer, point-peen hammer or chisel-peen hammer by havinga hemisphericalhead. Though the processof peening has become rarer in metal fabrication, the ball-peenhammer remains useful for many tasks, such asstriking punches and chisels.

2.ADZE

An adze is a tool usedfor smoothing or carvingrough-cut wood inhand woodworking. Generally,the user stands astride aboard or log and swings theadze downwards towards hisfeet, chipping off pieces of wood, moving backwards as they go and leaving a relatively smooth

surface behind. Adzes are most often used for squaring up logs, orfor hollowing out timber. The adze is also used for demolition of oldbuildings by hand for salvage. The single tool can serve all the needsof deconstruction with proper use. The blade of an adze is set at rightangles to the tool's shaft (like a hoe or plane), unlike the blade of an axe which is set in line with the shaft.

3. AXE’S

The axe , or ax , is an implement that

has been used for millennia to shape, split andcutwood; to harvest timber; as a weapon; andas a ceremonial or heraldic symbol. The axehas many forms and specialized uses butgenerally consists of an axe head witha handle, or helve . The axe is an example of a simple machine, as it is a type of wedge, or

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dual inclined plane. This reduces the effort needed by the woodchopper. It splits the wood into two parts by the pressureconcentration at the blade. The handle of the axe also acts asa lever allowing the user to increase the force at the cutting edge —not using the full length of the handle is known as choking the axe.For fine chopping using a side axe this sometimes is a positive effect,but for felling with a double bitted axe it reduces efficiency.

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CUTTINGTOOLS

A cutting tool (or cutter) is any tool that is used toremove material from the workpiece by means of shear deformation.Cutting may be accomplished by single-point or multipoint tools.Single-point tools are used in turning, shaping, plaining and similaroperations, and remove material by means of one cutting edge.Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint tools. Grinding tools arealso multipoint tools. Each grain of abrasive functions as amicroscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negativerakeangle), and shears a tiny chip. Cutting tools must be made of amaterial harder than the material which is to be cut, and the toolmust be able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-cuttingprocess. Also, the tool must have a specific geometry, with clearanceangles designed so that the cutting edge can contact the workpiecewithout the rest of the tool dragging on the workpiece surface. Theangle of the cutting face is also important, as is the flute width,number of flutes or teeth, and margin size. In order to have a long

working life, all of the above must be optimized, plus the speeds andfeeds at which the tool is run.

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1. Toothed Cutting ToolsThese are tools which have teeth in the edge where it's use

for cutting.

I. FILES

A file is a metalworking, woodworking and plastic working tool usedto cut fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It most commonly refersto the hand tool style, which takes theform of a steel bar with a casehardened surface and a series of sharp,parallel teeth. Most files have a narrow,pointed tang at one end to which a handlecan be fitted. A similar tool is the rasp.This is an older form, with simpler teeth.As they have larger clearance between teeth, these are usually used onsofter, non-metallic materials.

II. SAWA saw is a tool that uses a hard blade, wire, or chain with

a toothed edge to cut through softer materials. A saw may beworked by hand, or powered by steam, water, electricity orother power. An abrasive saw uses a powered circular blade forcutting metal.

a. HAND SAWIn woodworking and carpentry, hand saws, also

known as "panel saws", "fish saws", are used to cutpieces of wood into different shapes. This is usuallydone in order to join the pieces together and createa wooden object. They usually operate by having aseries of sharp points of some substance that isharder than the wood being cut. The hand saw is a bit like a tenon saw, butwith one flat, sharp edge.

b. CIRCULAR SAW

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The circular saw is a machine using a toothed metal cutting disc or blade. Theterm is also loosely used for the blade itself. The blade is a tool forcutting wood or other materials and may be hand-held or table-mounted. Itcan also be used to make narrow slots (dados). Most of these saws aredesigned with a blade to cut wood but may also be equipped with a blade

designed to cut masonry, plastic, or metal. There are also purpose-madecircular saws specially designed for particular materials. While today circularsaws are almost exclusively powered by electricity, larger ones, such asthose in "saw mills", were traditionally powered by water turning alarge wheel. A special arrangement involves the use of ahydraulic motor topropel the circular saw.

c. BAND SAWA band saw is a power tool which uses a blade consisting of a

continuous band of metal with teeth along one edge to cut various work

pieces. The band usually rides on two wheelsrotating in the same plane, although some bandsaws may have three or four wheels. Band sawingproduces uniform cutting action as a result of anevenly distributed tooth load. Band saws are usedfor woodworking, metalworking, or for cutting avariety of other materials, and are particularly usefulfor cutting irregular or curved shapes, but can alsobe used to produce straight cuts. The minimumradius of a curve that can be cut on a particular saw is determined by thewidth of the band and its kerf.

d. BACK SAWA backsaw is any hand

saw which has a stiffening rib on theedge opposite the cutting edge, allowingfor better control and more precisecutting than with other types of saws.Backsaws are normally usedin woodworking for precise work, suchas cutting dovetails, mitres,

or tenons in cabinetry and joinery.Because of the stiffening rib, the backsaws are limited in the depth to whichthey can cut. Backsaws usually have relatively closely spaced teeth, oftenwith little or no set.

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e. BOW SAW

A modern bow saw is a metal-framed saw in the shape of abow with a coarse wide blade. This type of saw is also known as a swedesaw or a buck saw. It is a rough tool that can be used for cross-cuttingbranches (maybe up to 6 inches indiameter) down to size.Traditionally, a bow saw isa woodworking tool used forstraight or curved cuts. InEuropean vocabulary it issynonymous with frame saw. In

English and American vocabulary itdenotes a toothed bladesuspended between two long narrow handles called "cheeks" that aresupported and separated by a thin stretcher in the center of the handles,making a wide H shape (the cheeks form the uprights of the H, thestretcher the crossbar of the H). The blade is kept in tension witha turnbuckle or a twisted cord that runs parallel to the blade between thetwo cheeks but on the opposite side of the stretcher. If a cord is used, thecord is twisted with a toggle attached to one loop of the cord,adding tension. The toggle hits the stretcher, which keeps the cord fromuntwisting. A finer version of the saw uses a narrow blade (1/4" or less)with handles that allow the user to hold the saw and turn the blade.

f. RECIPROCATING SAW

A reciprocating saw is a typeof saw in which the cutting action isachieved through a push andpulls reciprocating motion of the blade.The term reciprocating saw is commonlyassigned to a type of saw usedinconstruction and demolition work. Thistype of saw, also known as a recipro sawor sabre saw has a large blade resembling that of a jigsaw and a handleoriented to allow the saw to be used comfortably on vertical surfaces. Thetypical style of this saw has a foot at the base of the blade, also similar to a

jigsaw. The user rests this foot against the surface being cut so that the

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tendency of the blade to push away from or pull towards the cut as theblade travels through its cycle can be countered.

g. Radial Arm Saw

A radial arm saw is a cuttingmachine consisting of a circularsaw mounted on a sliding horizontal arm.Invented by Raymond De Walt in 1922, theradial arm saw was the primary tool usedfor cutting long pieces of stock to lengthuntil the introduction of the power mitersaw in the 1970s. In addition to makinglength cuts, a radial arm saw may be configured with adado blade to createcuts for dado, rabbet or half lap joints. In addition some radial arm sawsallow the blade to be turned parallel to the back fence, allowing arip cut tobe performed.

III. SAND PAPER

Sandpaper, also known as glasspaper, is aheavy paper with abrasive material attached to itssurface. Sandpaper is part of the "coatedabrasives" family of abrasive products. It is used

to remove small amounts of materialfrom surfaces, either to make them smoother (painting and wood finishing),to remove a layer of material (e.g. old paint), or sometimes to make thesurface rougher (e.g. as a preparation to gluing).

2. Smooth Facing Tools Smooth facing tools are s ometimes regarded as ―Guided

Sharp Edge Cutting Tools‖. These are tools actually chisels withframes to guide and limit the cut in making smooth surfaces.

I. Spoke ShaveA spokeshave is a tool used to shape and smooth

wooden rods and shafts - often for useas wheel spokes, chair legs (particularlycomplex shapes such as the cabrioleleg), self bows, and arrows. It can also

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be used to carve canoe paddles. Spokeshaves can be made from flat-bottom, concave, or convex soles, depending on the type of job to beperformed. Spokeshaves can include one or more sharpened notchesalong which the wooden shaft is pulled in order to shave it down tothe proper diameter. Historically, spokeshave blades were made of metal, whilst the body and handles were wood. An early designconsisted of a metal blade with a pair of tangs to which the woodenhandles were attached, as with a drawknife. Unlike a drawknife, butlike a plane, spokeshaves typically have a sole plate that fixes theangle of the blade relative to the surface being worked. By thetwentieth century metal handles and detachable blades had becomethe most common. Prehistoric spokeshaves were made of stone.In archaeology, the term spokeshave is used to describe a tool,usually a uniface, that has at least one retouched lunate notch in oneedge. In a sense, the term is a descriptive "catch-all" category, sinceit is difficult to determine if this was actually the way in which such atool was used; the categorization is based entirely on the appearance of the tool.

II. Planes

A plane is a tool for shaping wood. Planes are used to flatten,reduce the thickness of, and impart a smooth surface to a rough pieceof lumber. Hand planes are generally the combination of a cutting edge,

such as a sharpened metal plate, attached to a firm body, that when movedover a wood surface, take up relatively uniform shavings, by nature of thebody riding on the 'high spots' in the wood, and also by providing arelatively constant angle to the cutting edge, render the planed surface verysmooth. Hand planes are ancient, originating thousands of years ago. Earlyplanes were made from wood. The cutting blade or iron was held in placewith a wooden wedge.

Two styles of plane are shown with some parts labeled. The topof the image is a bench plane; the bottom is a block plane.

A: The Mouth is an opening inthe bottom of the plane downthrough which the bladeextends, and up through whichwood shavings pass.

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B: The Iron is a plate of steel with a sharpened edge which cuts thewood.

C: The Lever cap holds the blade down firmly to the body of theplane.

D: The Depth adjustment knob controls how far the blade extendsthrough the mouth.

E: The Knob is a handle on the front of the plane. F: The Chipbreaker or Cap iron serves to make the blade morerigid and to curl and break apart wood shavings as they pass throughthe mouth.

G: The Lateral adjustment lever is used to adjust the iron so thatthe depth of cut is uniform across the mouth.

H: The Tote is a handle on the rear of the plane. I: The Finger rest knob Block planes are held in the palm of thehand the tip of the user's index finger rests in the indentation on top

of the knob. J: The Frog is a sliding iron wedge that holds the plane Iron at theproper angle. It slides to adjust the gap between the cutting edgeand the front of the mouth. The frog is screwed down to the inside of the sole through two parallel slots and on many planes is onlyadjustable with a screwdriver when the plane iron is removed.

a. Jack Plane

A jack plane is the general-purposebench plane, used for general smoothing of the edges, sizing of wood and jointing edges.Jack planes are about 12-15 inches long, andthe blade can have either a slightly circlededge for smoothing stock, or a curved edgefor jointing stock.In preparing stock, the jackplane is used after the scrub plane andbefore the jointer plane and smoothingplane. The name is related to the saying"jack of all trades" as jack planes can be made to perform some of the workof both smoothing and jointer planes, especially on smaller pieces of work.

A jack plane came to be referred to as a "No. 5" plane or a "Bailey patternNo. 5," at the end of the 19th century. Prior to that, all but the blade wasmade of wood in bench planes. The "No." nomenclature originally usedby Stanley Tools to label its Bailey pattern plane products continues toidentify planes made by various manufacturers. Not all manufacturers of theera had the same number scheme for their planes. Millers Fall and Sargenthad different numbers to refer to the same planes.

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b. Fore PlaneThis plane is 18 inches long, and is the

proper one to follow the jack plane. Itis used to remove all inequalities leftby the latter tool, and to bring thesurface of the wood to a true andperfectly level condition. The properuse of the fore-plane is essential forthe production of satisfactory work.The amateur should take every opportunity of learning how to usethis tool. To produce a true surface, the plane must be so applied asto remove a shaving the full length of the wood, for unless this isdone inequalities are almost certain to obtain. Under no conditionsmust the plane be moved in any curving direction: absolutelystraight strokes are imperative. The Bailey fore plane is a trulybeautiful tool, having all the parts and adjustments already describedand illustrated; and, when in good order, works in a way that cannotbe calculated upon with any ordinary wood plane in existence : itsiron sole never goes out of shape, while a wood plane, as ourexperience has taught us, is always liable to twist and becomeuseless until dressed true. As in the case of the jack plane the fore ortrying plane is practically indispensable.

c. Jointer Plane

The jointer plane (also commonly calledthe try or trying plane) is awoodworking tool designed forplanning long edges square, straightand true. ―Jointing‖ is the term usedto describe this process, as it isgenerally done to prepare a board tobe joined to another board, so that a

single, wider board is created. As theaim of the jointer is to create, long,flat edges, so the sole of the jointerplane is flat and long – very long!Jointer planes typically have a sole that is from 18in right up to 36inlong – quite a hefty looking tool! While some other planes (such asthe jack plane, and even the smoothing plane) may have their bladeshoned to a slight arch, or the corners rounded, the blade on the

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jointer would typically be ground square. This ensures that the edgesof the boards being jointed have the best chance of being square,ensuring an even, tight fitting join. When using a jointer on the edgeof a board, initially the shavings will probably be quite short, as thelong sole of the plane ensures that the blade will only hit the high

spots on the edge. As these high spots are lowered, the shavings willbecome longer and longer, until you get a straight edge, which willgive you a shaving the entire length of the board.

d. Smoothening Plane

The smoothing plane isgenerally slightly smaller in length thanthe Jack Plane – typically 9-10incheslong, with a blade width of around 2inches, and is the last plane to be used

to finish the surface of your wood.Many fine craftsmen will use the smoothing plane as the tool whichgives the final finish on their job – with this woodwork tool finelytuned and wielded by experienced hands, it really isn‘t necessary tosand or scrape to obtain a professional, high quality finish. Indeed,some people use such a fine cut on their final pass with theirsmoothing plane that it is more of a polish than a cut. There is somecontention over whether the blade of the smoothing plane should behoned square, or whether the corners should be slightly rounded toprevent them from digging in. In general, considering that thepurpose of the smoothing plane is to smooth. Rounded corners orsquare, the key to success with a smoothing plane is to ensure thatthe cutting edge is perfectly parallel to the mouth of the plane, andalso ensure that the depth of the blade is set to the finest of cuts. Atip that may help you to determine if your blade is not square to themouth is to look at how the shavings are coming out. If the blade isnot square to the mouth of the plane, the shavings will often skewout to one side, rather than come straight up.

e. Block Plain

The smallest of the planescommonly foundamongst woodworking tools ,the block plane is normally onlyabout 5-6 inches long, and isdesigned to fit comfortably in one

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hand. Originally designed for trimming end grain, the block plane is aversatile woodwork tool that you will find many uses for. The blockplane is different from other planes in a number of ways. Other thanthe most obvious size difference, it is the orientation of the bladethat really sets it apart. The blade in the block plane is reversed so

that the bevel of the iron is facing up, rather than bevel-down as isthe case with bench planes such as the Jack or Smoothing planes.The blade in a block plane is also set at a lower angle than benchplanes, generally about 20 degrees, however you can also get low-angle block planes, with an angle of around 12 degrees. The lowerangle blades are great for working with difficult grain or very hardwood. Block planes can be pushed or pulled, and are often used in ashearing style cut – the plane is rotated at an angle to the directionof travel. This allows the fibres to be cut in a shearing motion alongthe length of the cutting edge – perfect for that difficult end grain.

3. Sharp Edge Cutting ToolChisels are considered sharp edge cutting tools. The

chisel is an indispensable tool and is often the most abused. It shouldbe used solely for cutting wood surfaces. It should never be used forprying or as a screwdriver. A chisel is a flat piece of steel (of varyingthickness and widths) with one end ground to an acute bevel to forma cutting edge. Chisels are group into categories:

I. With respect t duty or service:

a. Pairing Chisels.A paring chisel is a longer,

thinner chisel which can be pushed intolong joints such as housing joints. It isused for cleaning up the joint and to makeit an accurate fit.

b.

Firmer Chisels.Firmer chisels have a bladewith a rectangular cross-section. Thismeans that they are stronger and can beused for tougher/heavier work. .

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c. Framing Chisels.A large chisel with a long, heavy

blade, 1.5 to 4.5 inches wide, which is strongenough to be struck with a mallet. It istypically used for work in rough carpentrysuch as cutting tenons t fit mortises. Aframing chisel is usually made like a firmerchisel, in other words with a socket that fitsinto the blade.

II. With respect t the length of blade.

a. Butt Chisel.Butt chisels are short chisels

that are designed to rest easily inthe ball of the hand. Generally, the

blade on a butt chisel is relativelyshort and beveled along theedges. As with many differenttypes of chisels, the butt chisel isdesigned primarily to use incutting and paring tasksassociated with carpentry projects. The handle on the butt chisel isnormally shaped somewhat like an elongated bulb. Typically, thehandle is made of either hard wood or heavy-duty plastic. Part of thepurpose for the rounded design is to make the handle of theball chisel fit neatly into the ball of the hand comfortably, allowing

the user to work with the chisel for long periods of time without agreat deal of discomfort.

b. Pocket Chisel.At first glance, the Pocket

Chisel looks like it should be hangingout with the butterfly knives andswitchblade combs at the swap meet,and it does function like a butterfly.The grooved nylon handles encase thechisel blade, protecting it and yourpockets. The handles lock in the openposition, and you can hammer away on the split handle like youwould a normal chisel.

c. Mill Chisel.A woodworking chisel

having a blade more than 8 in. (20cm) long. Also called millwrightchisel.

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4. Single Surface PlannerIs a power driven rotating edge cutting

tool. The full width knives are setequidistant along the circumference f thecutter head which rotates at a speed of 3600 to 7200 rpm. The knife cuts under theprinciple of a continuous set of cuttingwedges.

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BORING TOOLSIn machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole

that has already been drilled (or cast), by means of a single-pointcutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), forexample as in boring a cannon barrel. Boring is used to achievegreater accuracy of the diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut atapered hole. Boring can be viewed as the internal-diametercounterpart to turning, which cuts external diameters. There arevarious types of boring. The boring bar may be supported on bothends (which only works if the existing hole is a through hole), or itmay be supported at one end. Lineboring(line boring, line-boring)

implies the former. Backboring (back boring, back-boring) is theprocess of reaching through an existing hole and then boring on the"back" side of the workpiece (relative to the machine headstock).Because of the limitations on tooling design imposed by the fact thatthe workpiece mostly surrounds the tool, boring is inherentlysomewhat more challenging than turning, in terms of decreasedtoolholding rigidity, increased clearance angle requirements (limitingthe amount of support that can be given to the cutting edge), anddifficulty of inspection of the resulting surface (size, form, surfaceroughness). These are the reasons why boring is viewed as an areaof machining practice in its own right, separate from turning, with its

own tips, tricks, challenges, and body of expertise, despite the factthat they are in some ways identical. Boring and turning haveabrasive counterparts in internal and external cylindrical grinding.

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1. Drill Press A drill press is preferable to a hand drill when the location and

orientation of the hole must be controlled accurately. A drill press iscomposed of a base that supports a column, the column in turnsupports a table. Work can be supported on the table with a vise orhold down clamps, or the table can be swiveled out of the way toallow tall work to be supported directly on the base. Height of thetable can be adjusted with a table lift crank than locked in place witha table lock. The column also supports a head containing a motor.The motor turns the spindle at a speed controlled by a variable speedcontrol dial. The spindle holds a drill chuck to hold the cutting tools(drill bits, center drills, deburring tools, etc.).

2. Portable Electric Drill

The portable electric drill consists of a housing with a handle, a motor,and a chuck. Most of theseelectric drills have a key-typechuck. These tools are made in avariety of shapes. The mostcommon shapes are the pistol-gripdrill which usually will hold drillbits up to 1/4", and the spade

handle drill which usually has a chuck capacity up to 1/2". Some drillhousings are made of plastic in order to reduce the danger fromshock. Others have a built-in variable speed unit, with the speedvarying directly with the amount of pressure exerted on the triggerswitch. The cutting tools can be twist drills, auger bits (if they havestraight shanks), or spade (speed) bits. The combination drill andcountersink is a convenient tool for inserting wood-screws. It isalways necessary to drill the correct size holes for wood-screws toprevent splitting the workpiece and to get the maximum holding

power. This is usually a three-step procedure, if the screw is to becountersunk. The combination drill, however, will drill the pilot hole,shank hole, and the countersink, all in one operation.

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TORSIONTOOLS

Torsion tools are used to grip, fasten, and turn. These include wrenches,pliers, screwdrivers, vises, and clamps. There are many varieties of eachtype of torsion tools. Selection is very important. Here are a few safetyprecautions for common torsion tools:

Wrenches should always be pulled and not pushed. Pushing a wrench cancause a loss of control if there is a sudden release of pressure. A short,steady pull should be used rather than quick, jerky motions. Whereavailable, use a socket wrench instead of an adjustable or open-endedwrench. Socket wrenches are generally easier to control, are moreconvenient, and are less likely to damage a bolt or nut. When using anadjustable wrench, the pressure should be applied to the fixed jaw. Pipewrenches can easily slip on pipes or fittings, causing injury. To preventslipping, make sure that the pipe or fitting is clean and the wrench jaws aresharp and kept clean of oil and debris. Pliers should never be substitutedfor a wrench. They do not have the same gripping power and can easily slipon a tight object. When using cutting pliers, the object being cut can fly off and cause injury. Wear safety glasses when cutting with pliers.

Screwdrivers are often misused. They should not be used for prying, as

punches, or wedges. These misuses can damage the head of thescrewdriver. A dull tip can cause the screwdriver to slip. The tip must be flatat the tip and tapered for a snug fit on the screw.

When using vises, make sure that the vise is bolted to a solid base. Whencutting material in a vise, always cut as close to the vise as possible tominimize vibration. Oil vises regularly.

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1. Pliers

Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly,for bending, or physical compression. Generally, pliers consist of apair of metal first-class levers joined at a fulcrum positioned closer toone end of the levers, creating short jaws on one side of the fulcrum,and longer handles on the other side. This arrangement createsa mechanical advantage, allowing theforce of the hand's grip to beamplified and focused on an object with precision. The jaws can alsobe used to manipulate objects too small or unwieldy to bemanipulated with the fingers.

I. Slip joint pliers

Slip joint pliers are pliers whosepivot point or fulcrum can be moved to

increase the size range of their jaws. Most slip joint pliers use a mechanism that allowssliding the pivot point into one of severalpositions when the pliers are fully opened.

II. Diagonal pliers

Diagonal pliers (or wire cutters or diagonalcutting pliers or diagonal cutters) arepliers intended for the cutting of wire (they

are generally not used to grab or turnanything). The plane defined by the cuttingedges of the jaws intersects the joint rivet atan angle or "on a diagonal", hence the name.Instead of using a shearing action aswith scissors, they cutby indenting and wedging the wire apart. The

jaw edges are ground to a symmetrical "V" shape; thus the two jawscan be visualized to form the letter "X", as seen end-on when fullyoccluded. The pliers are made of tempered steel with inductiveheating and quenching often used to selectively harden the jaws.

III. Needle-nose pliers

Needle-nose pliers (also known as long-nosepliers, pinch-nose pliers, or snipe-nosepliers) are both cutting andgripping pliers used by electricians and

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other tradesmen to bend, re-position and cutwire. Their namesakelong gripping nose provides excellent control and reach for fine workin small or crowded electrical, while cutting edges nearer the pliers'

joint provide "one-tool" convenience. Given their long shape, theyare useful for reaching into cavities where cables (or other materials)

have become stuck or unreachable to fingers or other means.

IV. Pincers

A pincer is a hand tool used inmany situations where a mechanicaladvantage is required to pinch, cut or pullan object. Pincers are first-class levers,but differ from pliers in that theconcentration of force is either to a point,

or to an edge perpendicular to the length of the tool. This allowspincers to be brought close to a surface, as is often required whenworking with nails. Carpenter's pincers are particularly suited tothese tasks. Pincer are primarily used for removing objects out of amaterial that they have been previously applied to.

V. Tongue-and-groove pliers

Tongue-and-groove pliers,also known as water pumppliers, adjustable pliers, groove-jointpliers, Multi-Grips, and Channel locks,are a type of slip-joint pliers. They haveserrated jaws generally set 45 – to 60-degrees from the handles. The lower jawcan be moved to a number of positionsby sliding along a tracking section underthe upper jaw. An advantage of thisdesign is that the pliers can adjust to a number of sizes without thedistance in the handle growing wider. These pliers often have longhandles —commonly 9.5 to 12 inches long —for increased leverage.

Tongue-and-groove pliers are commonly used for turning andholding nuts and bolts, gripping irregularly shaped objects, andclamping materials.

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2. Wrench

A wrench (or spanner) is a tool used to provide gripand mechanical advantage in applying torque to turn objects —usuallyrotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts —or keep them from turning.

In British English, spanner is the standard term. The most commonshapes are called open-ended spanner and ring spanner . Theterm wrench refers to a type of adjustable spanner. In AmericanEnglish, wrench is the standard term. The very most common shapesare called open-end wrench and box-end wrench . In AmericanEnglish, spanner refers to a specialized wrench with a series of pins or tabs around the circumference. (These pins or tabs fit into the holes ornotches cut into the object to be turned.) In American commerce, such awrench may be called a spanner wrench to distinguish it from the Britishsense of spanner .

a. Box-end wrench

Widely regarded as "the king of wrenches," this is aone-piece wrench with an enclosed opening thatgrips the faces of the bolt or nut. The recess isgenerally a six-point or twelve-point opening foruse with nuts or bolt heads with a hexagonalshape. The twelve-point fits onto the fastening attwice as many angles, an advantage where swingis limited. Eight-point wrenches are also made for

square-shaped nuts and bolt heads. Ring spannersare often double-ended and usually with offsethandles to improve access to the nut or bolt.

b. Combination wrench

A double-ended tool with one end beinglike an open-end wrench or open-endedspanner, and the other end being like a box-end wrench or ring spanner. Both endsgenerally fit the same size of bolt.

c. Open-end wrench

A one-piece wrench with a U-shaped opening that grips twoopposite faces of the bolt or nut. This wrench is oftendouble-ended, with a different-sized opening at each

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end. The ends are generally oriented at an angle of around 15 degrees tothe longitudinal axis of the handle. This allows a greater range of movementin enclosed spaces by flipping the wrench over.

d. Adjustable wrenchThe most common type of adjustable wrench in use

today. The adjustable end wrench differs from themonkey wrench in that the gripping faces of the jawsare displaced to a (typically) 15 degree angle relativeto the tool's handle, a design feature that facilitatesthe wrench's use in close quarters. The modernadjustable end wrench was invented by Johan PetterJohansson of Bahco. The incorrect use of "Crescent®wrench" to describe this design is derived from

the Crescent® brand, owned by Apex Brands,Inc. Apex Tool Group, LLC. The generic term is"adjustable wrench."

e. Monkey wrench

An old type of adjustable wrench with astraight handle and smooth jaws whose grippingfaces are perpendicular to the handle.

d. Allen wrenchA wrench used to turn screw or bolt

heads designed with a hexagonal socket(recess) to receive the wrench. The wrenchescome in two common forms: L-shaped and T-handles. The L-shaped wrenches are formedfrom hexagonal wire stock, while the T-handles are the same hex wire stock with ametal or plastic handle attached to the end. There are alsoindexable-driver-bits that can be used in indexable screwdrivers.

f. 4-way lug wrench

A socket wrench used to turn lug nutson automobile wheels.

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g. Tuning wrench

A socket wrench used to tune somestringed musical instruments. Similar, and insome cases identical to drum tuning keys, butoften provide greater torque due to the highertension of strings.

II. Locking pliers

Locking pliers, Mole grips (Molewrench) or Vise-Grips are pliers that can belocked into position, using an over-center action. One side of the handle includesa bolt that is used to adjust the spacing of the jaws, the other side of the handle

(especially in larger models) often includes alever to push the two sides of the handlesapart to unlock the pliers. "Mole" and "Vise-Grip" are trade names of different brands of locking pliers. Locking pliers are available inmany different configurations, such as needle-nose locking pliers,locking wrenches, locking clamps and various shapes to fix metalparts for welding. They also come in manysizes. Leatherman manufactures a multitool, the Leatherman Crunch,which includes locking pliers instead of regular pliers, and which foldstogether to the size of other multitools.

3. Screwdrivers

A screwdriver is a tool for driving screws or bolts withspecial slots, and sometimes for rotating other machineelements with the mating drive system. The screwdriver is made upof a head or tip, which engages with a screw, a mechanism toapply torque by rotating the tip, and some way to position andsupport the screwdriver. A typical hand screwdriver comprises anapproximately cylindrical handle of a size and shape to be held by a

human hand, and an axial shaft fixed to the handle, the tip of whichis shaped to fit a particular type of screw. The handle and shaft allowthe screwdriver to be positioned and supported and, when rotated, toapply torque. Screwdrivers are made in a variety of shapes, and thetip can be rotated manually or by an electric motor or other motor.

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I. Flat Blade Screwdriver

The flat blade screwdriver and matching screws with avertical slash through their heads are the mostcommon screws that most people see. The tipof the screwdriver should fit snugly into theslot and not slip around when turned. Itshould also be the same width as the screwhead. The flat blade screwdriver was the firstdeveloped and was used in the early 1800s.

II. Phillips Head Screwdriver

This is possibly the second most common type of screw,with an x-shaped head that matches the X on the headof the screw. Invented by Henry Phillips and patentedin the 1930s, the screw first became important inautomobile manufacture. Don‘t confuse the Phillipshead screwdriver with the less common Reed andPrince screwdriver, which has a pointed, ratherthan a blunt, tip, and has straight edges on thetip, whereas the Phillips head screwdriver hascurved edges. Another similar screwdriver/screw setis the Posidrive ™, which looks like a Phillips but with asmall square area in the center of the tip.

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MeasuringToolsIn the physical sciences, quality assurance,

and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining andcomparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events.Established standard objects and events are used as units, and theprocess of measurement gives a number relating the item understudy and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuringinstruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument'suse, are the means by which these relations of numbers areobtained. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degreesof instrument error and measurement uncertainty.Scientists, engineers and other humans use a vast range of instruments to perform their measurements. These instruments mayrange from simple objects such as rulers andstopwatches to electron

microscopes and particle accelerators. Virtual instrumentation iswidely used in the development of modern measuring instruments.

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1. Tape measure

Tape measures come in a variety of

widths and lengths, I would not recomendanything less than 3/4" wide for a tape over 6feet long as they can not be extended out andremain rigid. For small projects in the shop 1/2"wide ones are adequate. Some have highlightedindicators at each foot, others have them at 16 inchintervals which is handier in construction for stud layout,whereas the foot indicators are more useful in the shop. Specialtapes are available for lefties as well as ones with digital read-outs.The hook on the end is meant to be loose so that it will give anaccurate measurement whether it is hooked over the edge or buttedup to an edge. Check if the hook has been bent if measurments arenot accurate.

2. Sliding bevel

This tool has a adjustable blade which can beused to transfer angles to mark on a board to be cutor be used to set-up a power saw. It can alsoreplace a try square but caution must be usedso that the blade is not accidentally knocked outof square.

3. Triangles

These are available in manyshapes and sizes in various materials, thetwo shown above, a double 45° and a 30°- 60° are the two shapes used most inlaying out patterns.

4. Squares

With this tool it is possible to layout andmeasure just about everything in theconstruction of a house from the basementstairs on up to the attic rafters. It may also berefered to as a steel square or a carpenters square. The most

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common size has a 24" blade and a 16" tongue, however there aresmaller sizes available but like some cheaper versions of the largerstyle they do not have the framing tables stamped on them.

5. Levels

Levels are available in many sizes and shapes,the most common being 24" long in the styleshown above. They can be made of wood,aluminium or plastic, some have fixed vials,others are adjustable. All levels have one ormore vials for vertical and horizontal use,some have 45 degree vials. Inside the vial is afluid with an air bubble, when the bubble iscentered between the two indicator lines the surface is level. Longerlevels 48" or 72" give a more accurate reading and are used inconstruction projects, if a board is bowed shorter levels will beresting on the curve. Toppedo levels have narrow ends to fit intoconfined spaces and are handy for mounting cabinets. To check alevel for accuracy, place it upon a surface that the level indicates tobe level, turn the level end for end, if it still indicates the surface islevel it is accurate.

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HoldingToolsTool for holding firmly any material that has to be cut.

Bench hooks are used with the hand when cutting lengths of timber;a bench vice can also be used. A metalwork vice is used with plasticsand metal. When drilling, a machine vice or a hand vice is usuallyused for small pieces. For larger pieces of material, a g-cramp can beused.

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1. C-clamp

A C-clamp is a type of clamp devicetypically used to holda wood or metal workpiece, and are oftenused in, but are not limited to, carpentryand welding. These clamps are called "C"clamps because of their C shaped frame,but are otherwise often called G-clampsor G-cramps because includingthe screw part they are shaped like anuppercase letter G. C-clamps or G-clamps aretypically made of steel or cast iron, though smallerclamps may be made ofpot metal. At the top of the "C" isusually a small flat edge. At the bottom is a threaded hole throughwhich a large threaded screw protrudes. One end of this screw

contains a flat edge of similar size to the one at the top of the frame,and the other end usually a small metal bar, perpendicular to thescrew itself, which is used to gain leverage when tightening theclamp.

2. Vice grip

Locking pliers, Mole grips (Mole wrench)or Vise-Grips are pliers that can be lockedinto position, using an over-center action.One side of the handle includes a bolt that

is used to adjust the spacing of the jaws, theother side of the handle (especially in largermodels) often includes a lever to push the twosides of the handles apart to unlock the pliers."Mole" and "Vise-Grip" are trade names of different brands of locking pliers. Locking pliers areavailable in many different configurations, such as needle-nose locking pliers, locking wrenches, locking clamps and variousshapes to fix metal parts for welding. They also come in manysizes. Leatherman manufactures a multitool, the Leatherman Crunch,which includes locking pliers instead of regular pliers, and which foldstogether to the size of other multitools.

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Polymers

P olymers are substances made up of very large molecules which are formed bythe chaining together of smaller molecules(as in polyethylene) or by condensation andthe removal of moisture (as in nylon). Bytradition, the industry has produced twomain types of synthetic polymer – plasticsand rubbers. Another way of classifyingpolymers is in terms of their form or function, varying from additivesto other bulk materials (e.g. viscosity modifiers in plaster), coatingsto products (e.g. paints), film and membranes to fibers (e.g. textiles)

and bulk products such as moldings, containers and pipe. Theconstruction sector is one of the world‘s largest consumers of polymer composites, such as trimmings, baths, kitchenware,vanities, cladding, decoration and finishing.

Bricks

Bricks categorized with differentused; load bearing wall, non-load bearingwall, insulation wall, and covering wall. Astandard dimension of bricks is 215mm x102.5mm x 65 mm and upon selectionwould be based on their usage. Thecommon substance of bricks is clay andcalcium silicate. Various types of bricks:common brick, engineering brick, face bricks, sand-lime brick,mortar brick, press bricks, glazed bricks, fire-brick, and cored brick.The arrangement works of bricks consider important and some of thepopular arrangement is brick edge, brick head, and American,English, and Flemish arrangement.

Bitumen

In general, bitumen is a black or dark brown,oily, non-crystalline viscous material, possessingadhesive and water-proofing qualities that occurrednaturally from decomposed organic materials. It isalso known as asphalt or tar. It consists essentiallyof hydro-carbons (80% carbon, 15% hydrogen, with

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oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and lesser metals). The type of bitumento be used depends upon the type of soil to be stabilized, method of construction, and weather conditions. Normal types would be pavinggrade bitumen and cutback bitumen.

Metal

There is no straightforwarddefinition for metal; however, anychemical element having ‗metallicproperties‘ is classed as a metal. Theproperties are defined as sheen,electrical conductivity, good thermal,and the potential of beingpermanently deformed or shaped at

room temperature. Metal is used asstructural framework for largerbuildings such as skyscrapers, or asan external surface covering. Thereare many types of metals used for building such as titanium, chrome,gold, or silver. Steel is a metal alloy which major component is iron,and is the usual choice for metal structural building materialsbecause of its strength, versatility, durability, economic value, and if refined well and/or treated lasts a long time. Among its most popularuses today are standing seam metal roofs and it also 100%recyclable for future use. Corrosion becomes metal‘s prime enemy

when it comes to longevity.

Timber

As a construction material, it isavailable in the form of a vast rangeof products, from roof truss, timberframe walls, glulam beams to I-beamsfor flooring and roofing, also fromdoors and windows to floors and

staircases, as well as formworks of structures like beams and columns. There are many kinds of timber;however categorized as softwood (hemlock, western red cedar, etc.)and hardwood (black walnut, American white oak, etc.). If no propertreatment and installation, wood or timber can be easily destroyedby fungi, boring insects, decay, weathering, or fire.

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Aggregates Aggregates are vital

ingredients in most constructionprojects, the prime volumes being inroad pavements, road bases and of

course concrete. Aggregates haveamazingly huge variety of usagebecause of its internal compressivestrength and durability. The fact is,more than 80 % of concrete-mix and90% of asphalt pavements are aggregates. Moreover, aggregates arealso being used to protect our environment, through soil erosion-control programs, water purification, and reduction of sulfur dioxideemissions generated by electric power-plants. It came from twocategories; coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. We normally usedlimestone, granite and sandstone as construction materials. In somelocalities, the deposits are hard to obtain and large rocks must becrushed to form the aggregate .

Concrete

Concrete, the most widely and popular used substance isan artificial construction material made by mixing cement, coarseaggregate, fine aggregate or sand, and water together in appropriateproportions. The usage of concrete considered as must-havematerials, which allow us to build architectural structures, small to

super-structures, road or highway pavements, deep and shallowfoundations, bridges or flyovers, dams or retaining walls, parkingstructures, deep tunnels, military bunkers, and so forth. And mostimportant characteristic of concrete is the ability to withstand thepressure or force of heavy loads due to its high compressive strength(supported by aggregates and reinforced steel bars). In addition, itcan easily be molded into any desired shape and is a reasonablycheap material for any construction projects.

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1. Portland Cement

First substance for concrete, cement is asubstance that hardens with time and holdsor entraps objects or particles in a definiterelationship to each other. For concreteproduction, Portland cement is commonlyused (approximately 10% to 15% of volume)and manufactured by a standardized processconsisting of grinding of raw materials,limestone and clay. The different types of cement namely Normalportland cement (type I), Modified portland cement (type II), High-early-strength Portland (type III), Low-heat portland cement (typeIV), Sulphate-resistant portland cement (type V), Portland blast-furnace slag cement (type IS), Pozzolan cement (type IP), and Air-Entrained Cement. The differences in cement types are due to the

usage, construction requirement and resource location.

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