kzn is the epicentre of the epidemic
DESCRIPTION
Meningitis in the context of the HIV epidemic 14 th March 2013 Kerrigan McCarthy MBBCh , DTM+H, FCPath (Micro). KZN is the epicentre of the epidemic. Image courtesy Salome Charalambous. A note on our context…. A note on our context…. Meningitis and TB across the globe - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Meningitis in the context of the
HIV epidemic14th March 2013
Kerrigan McCarthy MBBCh, DTM+H, FCPath (Micro)
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KZN is the epicentre of the epidemic
Image courtesy Salome Charalambous
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A note on our context…..
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A note on our context….Meningitis and TB across the globe
It’s a killer…..
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Meningitis - overview – A case study………..and all the things that go through our heads
? Any immediate actionDiagnostic proceduresAnti-infective chemotherapyPalliative and nursing careHIV diagnosis and managementPrognosis and long term sequelae…..An note on prevention
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A presentation we are all too familiar with:Ms PN, brought in by boyfriend26 yrs old, resident with her
boyfriend in local township, unemployed mother of 2
History taking is difficult –but it appears thatM/C is headache & confusion, progressive
over 2 weeksOccasional cough, fever and nightsweats,
loss of weightNo previous illnessNo previous admissionsNot tested ever for HIV, apparently
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A presentation we are all too familiar with: General examination:
Axillary temperature 37.5oC Resp rate 18/min Bp 90/60mmHg Pulse rate 110/min Generalised LNs, pale mucous membranes, diffuse
seborrheic dermatitis, oral thrush On examination of CNS
Mini-mental status exam GCS 14; poor recall, not orientated to time, person or
place ?neckstiffness Fundi not visualised No localising signs
Other organ systems Chest clear Cor – no abnormalities detected Abdomen – soft, non-tender
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Going through our minds……
Sub-acute meningo-
encephalitis in a young person
with signs of HIV infection
Any immediate action required
before diagnostic tests can be
done?
Diagnostic procedures• LP• ?CT / MRI
Brain
Anti-infective chemotherapy• Empiric• specific
Palliative and nursing care•Pain relief•Hydration•Prevention of bed sores
HIV diagnosis and management•Disclosure to family?
Prognosis – • how aggressive
should I be?• Will State
Hospitals serve this patient well?
Long term sequelae•Financial implications
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Going through our minds……
Sub-acute meningo-
encephalitis in a young person
with signs of HIV infection
Any immediate action
requiredbefore diagnostic tests can be done?
Diagnostic procedures• LP• ?CT / MRI
Brain
Anti-infective chemotherapy• Empiric• specific
Palliative and nursing care•Pain relief•Hydration•Prevention of bed sores
HIV diagnosis and management•Disclosure to family?
Prognosis – • how aggressive
should I be?• Will State
Hospitals serve this patient well?
Long term sequelae•Financial implications
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Immediate action….If LP can’t be done immediately…
(E.g. patient at primary health clinic (PHC)/other venue and needs transfer or patient has localising signs and needs CT brain)
Antibacterials?
Antifungals?
Steroids?
Should we start ivi antibiotics?
Do serum cryptococcal antigen using LA or LFA; if positive, start on oral fluconazole 800mg until LP can be done
If bacterial or TB meningitis suspected – should we give steroids?
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Going through our minds……
Sub-acute meningo-
encephalitis in a young person
with signs of HIV infection
Any immediate action
requiredbefore diagnostic tests can be done?
Diagnostic procedures• LP• ?CT / MRI
Brain
Anti-infective chemotherapy• Empiric• specific
Palliative and nursing care•Pain relief•Hydration•Prevention of bed sores
HIV diagnosis and management•Disclosure to family?
Prognosis – • how aggressive
should I be?• Will State
Hospitals serve this patient well?
Long term sequelae•Financial implications
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LP and laboratory tests to facilitate diagnosis of cause of meningitisShould I do a lumbar
puncture?Is it safe?
Is there raised intra-cranial pressure? Are there localising signs? Is there gross impairment of
consciousness?
• Papilloedema is difficult to exclude in unco-operative patients
• ICP in persons with CM requires LP as part of mx
• VI cranial nerve palsy often associated with CM, requires LP
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LP and laboratory tests to facilitate diagnosis of cause of meningitisShould I do a lumbar
puncture?Is it safe?
Is there raised intra-cranial pressure? Are there localising signs? Is there gross impairment of
consciousness?
Brouwer et al. Dilemmas in the diagnosis of meningitis. Lancet 2013:380:1684-92
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LP and laboratory tests to facilitate diagnosis of cause of meningitisShould I do a
lumbar puncture?What if the CNS signs are
subtle, such as Very moderate neck stiffness Slight/occasional confusion
or subtle personality changes and/or memory loss
• ALWAYS DO LP if you have any reason to consider intra-cranial pathology
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The differential diagnosis - working within the HIV epidemic
Could this be an acute/sub-acute bacterial meningitis?
Suggestive si/syAcute onsetMarked neck stiffnessNo antecedent history of
LOW etcHigh grade pyrexia on
examinationImage courtesy Anne von Gottberg, NICD
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LP and laboratory tests to facilitate diagnosis of cause of meningitis
Aetiology Typical Cell count
Typical CSF chemistry
Microscopy and Culture
Specific tests
Bacterial PMNsLymphs
Protein Gram’s stain helpfulResult due 24-48 hrs
Bacterial latex agglutination
Fungal (cryptococcal)
PMNsLymphs
Protein India inkResult due 14 days
LA or Lateral flow assay (new)
Tuberculous PMNsLymphs
Protein ZN rarely positiveResult due 6 weeks; uncommonly positive
GeneXpert not more helpful than culture
Viral PMNsLymphs
Protein Not helpful routinely PCR
Commonly isolated organisms
Gram-positive diplococci – Streptococcus pneumoniaeGram-negative cocci – Neisseria meningitidisGram-negative cocco-bacilli – Haemophilus influenzaeGram-positive bacilli – Listeria monocytogenes
Uncommon: Gram-negative enteric bacterial – Salmonella speciesGram-negative non-fermenters – Pseudomonas species
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A note on epidemiology
Cohen et al. AIDS AIDS 2010, 24:1351–1360
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The differential diagnosis - working within the HIV epidemic
Could this be a cryptococcal meningitis / meningo-encephalitis
Suggestive si/syCD4<200 cells/mm3, but
often <50; Diplopia / 6th CN palsySubtle changes – memory
loss, mood changesSkin lesions
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Cutaneous cryptococcal infection–
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VI CN palsy
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A note on epidemiologyCryptococcal meningitis across the globe
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A note on epidemiologyCryptococcal meningitis across the globe
It’s a killer…..
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LP and laboratory tests to facilitate diagnosis of cause of meningitis
Aetiology Typical Cell count
Typical CSF chemistry
Microscopy and Culture
Specific tests
Bacterial PMNsLymphs
Protein Gram’s stain helpfulResult due 24-48 hrs
Bacterial latex agglutination
Fungal (cryptococcal)
PMNsLymphs
Protein India inkResult due 14 days
LA or Lateral flow assay (new)
Tuberculous PMNsLymphs
Protein ZN rarely positiveResult due 6 weeks; uncommonly positive
GeneXpert not more helpful than culture
Viral PMNsLymphs
Protein Not helpful routinely PCR
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A note on newer diagnosticsLateral flow assay for C neoformans in CSF
Simple and quick: Results available in 10 minutes
Accessible: can be done at the bedside
Effective: Highly sensitive and accurate (>95%)
Affordable: costs approximately 16 rand per test
Slide courtesy N Govender. NICD
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The differential diagnosis - working within the HIV epidemicCould this be a
tuberculous meningitis?
Suggestive si/syChronicity with progressive
worsening of headache over weeks
Loss of weight, night sweatsFocus of TB infection
elsewhereLNs, lungs; disseminated infection with
pancytopenia
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The differential diagnosis - working within the HIV epidemicTB meningitis
Definite –culture or ZN positive (47/109 cases)
ProbableClinical features of
meningitisSugestive CSF findings1 of the following
CXR consistent with PTB Extrameningeal TB (e.g. LNs or
splenic microabscesses on abd u/s)
CT brain evidence of TB such as basal meningeal enhancement, hydrocephalus or enhancementMarais et al. Presentation and outcome of TB meningitis in a high HIV prevalence setting. PLOS ONE
6(5):e20077)
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LP and laboratory tests to facilitate diagnosis of cause of meningitis
Aetiology Typical Cell count
Typical CSF chemistry
Microscopy and Culture
Specific tests
Bacterial PMNsLymphs
Protein Gram’s stain helpfulResult due 24-48 hrs
Bacterial latex agglutination
Fungal (cryptococcal)
PMNsLymphs
Protein India inkResult due 14 days
LA or Lateral flow assay (new)
Tuberculous PMNsLymphs
Protein ZN rarely positiveResult due 6 weeks; uncommonly positive
GeneXpert not more helpful than culture
Viral PMNsLymphs
Protein Not helpful routinely PCR
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A note on newer diagnosticsGeneXpert for M. tuberculosis in CSF
Not validated for non-sputum specimens
Limited use with CSF, Cultures are uncommonly positiveXpert sensitivity is 75% of culture
positive cases
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The differential diagnosis - working within the HIV epidemic
Could this be a viral encephalitis?HSV, VZV, enterovirus
Suggestive si/syHigh red cell countFocal temporal lobe signsOccasionally oral HSV or
disseminated VZV skin rash
Large vessel involvement with haemorrhagic CVA
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LP and laboratory tests to facilitate diagnosis of cause of meningitis
Aetiology Typical Cell count
Typical CSF chemistry
Microscopy and Culture
Specific tests
Bacterial PMNsLymphs
Protein Gram’s stain helpfulResult due 24-48 hrs
Bacterial latex agglutination
Fungal (cryptococcal)
PMNsLymphs
Protein India inkResult due 14 days
LA or Lateral flow assay (new)
Tuberculous PMNsLymphs
Protein ZN rarely positiveResult due 6 weeks; uncommonly positive
GeneXpert not more helpful than culture
Viral PMNsLymphs
Protein Not helpful routinely PCR
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A note on epidemiology…. Common things occur commonly
Hospital Country Sample size
HIV infected
Bacterial/pyogenic
Tuberculosis
Crypto-coccal
Aseptic/viral
Mulago and Mbarana1
Uganda 416 90% 4% 8% 59% 29%
GF Jooste2 South Africa
1737 96% 19% 13% 30% 38%
Queen Elizabeth3
Malawi 263 77% 20% 17% 43% 20%
Harare4 Zimbabwe 200 90% 16% 12% 45% 28%
Average 2616 93% 9.3% 12.7% 37% 41%
Slide courtesy D Boulware, CROI 2013
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Other uncommon causes of a lymphocytic meningitis…
Or perhaps syphilitic meningo-encephalitis due to Treponema pallidum?
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Outliers in the differential of a sub-acute meningo-encephalitis
HIV dementia?Metabolic derangements? Intra-cranial bleed?Trauma?Space occupying lesions
TuberculomaCryptococcomaAbscessCNS lymphoma
Or is this merely sepsis with delirium?
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The differential diagnosis – a summaryInfectious causes of meningo-
encephalitisBacterial causes
Streptococcus pneumoniae Haemophilus influenzae Listeria monocytogenes Gram-negative bacteria
Fungal causes Cryptococcus neoformans
Mycobacterial and treponemal causes Mycobacterium tuberculosisSyphilitic meningitis
Viral encephalitis Herpes simplex Herpes Zoster Enterovirus
Space-occupying lesionsToxoplasma gondii (and
other parasitic organisms)AbscessTuberculoma,
Cryptococcoma
Non-infectious causesHIV encephalopathyIntra-cranial bleedLymphoma (and other
neoplasms)Toxic, metabolic, auto-
immune, etc
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Going through our minds……
Sub-acute meningo-encephalitis in a
young person with signs of HIV infection
Any immediate action requiredbefore
diagnostic tests can be done?
Diagnostic procedures• LP• ?CT / MRI
Brain
Anti-infective chemotherapy• Empiric• specific
Palliative and nursing care• Pain relief• Hydration• Prevention of
bed sores
HIV diagnosis and management• Disclosure to
family?
Prognosis – • how
aggressive should I be?
• Will State Hospitals serve this patient well?
Long term sequelae• Financial
implications
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Anti-infective chemotherapyBacterial meningitis
Empiric treatment (following Gram’s stain)Ceftriaxone +/- vancomycin
Depends on local susceptibility profile of S. pneumoniaeConsider amoxicillin ivi if not using vancomycin (Listeria
is resistant to cephalosporins)Specific therapy
3rd generation cephalosporin adequate for GPC, GNB including Haemophilus influenzae
Ask for pneumococcal MICs to penicillin and ceftriaxoneAmoxicillin for Listeria
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Anti-infective chemotherapyBacterial meningitis – empiric therapy
Van der Beek. Advances in the treatment of meningitis. Lancet 390: 1690. 2012
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Anti-infective chemotherapyBacterial meningitis – empiric therapy
Alter based on Gram’s stain result
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Anti-infective chemotherapySpecific therapy for S pneumoniae meningitis
Slide courtesy Anne von Gottberg, NICD
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Anti-infective chemotherapy
Slide courtesy Anne von Gottberg, NICD
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Anti-infective chemotherapy
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Anti-infective chemotherapyAdjunctive steroids for bacterial meningitis
Studies are confusingIn adults, in high socio-economic countries,
dexamethasone improves outcome, reduces adverse effects, but not in low income countries
Children – definite benefit if given on or with the first dose of antibiotics
Dose of dexamethasoneKids – 0.6mg/kgAdults 10mg every 6 hrly
Van der Beek. Advances in the treatment of meningitis. Lancet 390: 1690. 2012
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Anti-infective chemotherapyCryptococcal meningitis
New recommdendation – revised guidelines from HIV clinician’s society:
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Anti-infective chemotherapyCryptococcal meningitis
Why not fluconazole alone?
Bicanic T, Meintjes G, et al Fungal burden, early fungicidal activity, and outcome in cryptococcal meningitis in antiretroviral-naive or antiretroviral-experienced patients treated with amphotericin B or fluconazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Jul 1;45(1):76-80. Epub 2007 May 25.
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Anti-infective chemotherapyCryptococcal meningitis
Why not fluconazole alone?
Bicanic T, Meintjes G, et al Fungal burden, early fungicidal activity, and outcome in cryptococcal meningitis in antiretroviral-naive or antiretroviral-experienced patients treated with amphotericin B or fluconazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Jul 1;45(1):76-80. Epub 2007 May 25.
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Anti-infective chemotherapyCryptococcal meningitis
Why AMB+ fluconazole?
AMB alone
AMB + fluconazole 800mg
Pappas PG, et al. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 Jun 15;48(12):1775-83.
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Anti-infective chemotherapySupplementary
management for Cryptococcal meningitisManagement of raised
intracranial pressureEssential to mortalityMeasure pressure at
baselineTap if symptomatic
(worsening headache, LOC, 6th CN palsy)
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Anti-infective chemotherapySupplementary
management for Cryptococcal meningitis:Prehydration and K+
supplementation to prevent renal decompensation/failure 2o to amphotericin B
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Anti-infective chemotherapyTB meningitis
Practically this is a diagnosis of exclusionCSF cultures often negative for TBPrednisone essential
Brouwer et al. Dilemmas in the diagnosis of meningitis. Lancet 2013:380:1684-92
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Going through our minds……
Sub-acute meningo-encephalitis in a
young person with signs of HIV infection
Any immediate action requiredbefore
diagnostic tests can be done?
Diagnostic procedures• LP• ?CT / MRI
Brain
Anti-infective chemotherapy• Empiric• specific
Palliative and nursing care• Pain relief• Hydration• Prevention of
bed sores
HIV diagnosis and management• Disclosure to
family?
Prognosis – • how
aggressive should I be?
• Will State Hospitals serve this patient well?
Long term sequelae• Financial
implications
![Page 51: KZN is the epicentre of the epidemic](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062323/56815df9550346895dcc3237/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Palliative and nursing carePain relief
WHO analgesic ladderHydration
Watch meticulously, and esp if giving AMB
Enlist family if nursing care sub-optimal
Prevention of bed soresCrucialEnlist family if nursing
care is suboptimal
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Going through our minds……
Sub-acute meningo-encephalitis in a
young person with signs of HIV infection
Any immediate action requiredbefore
diagnostic tests can be done?
Diagnostic procedures• LP• ?CT / MRI
Brain
Anti-infective chemotherapy• Empiric• specific
Palliative and nursing care• Pain relief• Hydration• Prevention of
bed sores
HIV diagnosis and management• Disclosure to
family?
Prognosis – • how
aggressive should I be?
• Will State Hospitals serve this patient well?
Long term sequelae• Financial
implications
![Page 53: KZN is the epicentre of the epidemic](https://reader036.vdocument.in/reader036/viewer/2022062323/56815df9550346895dcc3237/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
HIV diagnosis and management in patients with meningitis Often tricky to handle
when patient is confused and brought in by family
HIV diagnosis and management is ultimately lifesaving
Options:Wait and offer HIV test
when confusion abatesDiscuss with the family
and obtain consent to test while patient confused
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HIV diagnosis and management in patients with meningitisTiming of ART is critical
Early ART improves prognosis in PTB – (STRIDE, SAPIT, CAMELIA studies) esp CD4 <50 cells/mm3,
BUT…..timing of ART initiation in pts with meningitis is complicated by potential for IRIS, and ICP47% of 34 patients with
TB meningitis developed TB IRIS
Image courtesy G MeintjiesMarais et al CID 2013:56 (3):450
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HIV diagnosis and management in patients with meningitis
Boulware et al. ART Initiation within the First 2 Weeks of Cryptococcal Meningitis Is Associated with Higher Mortality: A Multisite Randomized Trial
CROI 2013 LB#144
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HIV diagnosis and management in patients with meningitis
Boulware et al. ART Initiation within the First 2 Weeks of Cryptococcal Meningitis Is Associated with Higher Mortality: A Multisite Randomized Trial
CROI 2013 LB#144
ART >4 weeks after AMB start
ART 7-11 days after AMB start
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HIV diagnosis and management in patients with meningitisImmune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome
(IRIS)Recommendation:
For proven CC meningitis, ART should not be started until 4 weeks after amphotericin B initiation.
For TB meningitis – no evidence for timing of ART startFollow your intuition; do not initiate until symptoms of raised
intracranial pressure have abatedALWAYS use prednisone 1.5mg/kg for 2/52, followed by
0.75mg/kg for 2/52, then stop, do not wait for IRIS to occur
Be careful to use ART regimen that is compatible with TB treatment
Meintjies and Sonderup, CMEJ
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Going through our minds……
Sub-acute meningo-encephalitis in a
young person with signs of HIV infection
Any immediate action requiredbefore
diagnostic tests can be done?
Diagnostic procedures• LP• ?CT / MRI
Brain
Anti-infective chemotherapy• Empiric• specific
Palliative and nursing care• Pain relief• Hydration• Prevention of
bed sores
HIV diagnosis and management• Disclosure to
family?
Prognosis – • how
aggressive should I be?
• Will State Hospitals serve this patient well?
Long term sequelae• Financial
implications
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PrognosisTB meningitis
Marais et al. Presentation and outcome of TB meningitis in a high HIV prevalence setting. PLOS ONE 6(5):e20077)
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PrognosisCryptococcal meningitis
Park et al. Int J STD and AIDS. 2011:22:199
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Prevention is better than cureEarly HIV diagnosisVaccination when CD4 count high
Pneumococcal vaccinationEarly / appropriate ART initiationLow CD4 count
INH prophylaxisScreening for cryptococcal disease
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ConclusionWe are in the
middle of a devastating epidemic….