l and d isomers of amino acids. ionization state as a function of ph
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L and D isomers of amino acids
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Ionization state as a function of pH
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• Trans and cis • Peptide bonds
• Trans and cis X-Pro• Peptide bonds
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Rotation about bonds in a polypeptide
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Ramachandran diagram
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helix
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Ferritin, an iron-storage protein
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Antiparallel -sheet
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A parallel -sheet
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A fatty acid-binding protein
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A leucine-zipper
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Collagen triple helix
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Collagen helix
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Hemoglobin
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Many sequences can adopt alternative conformations in different proteins.
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Misfolding and aggregation
• Neurological diseases can be transmitted purely by proteins
• Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(mad cow disease)• Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans,
Scrapie in sheep (Nobel prize in Physiology 1997)
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Prion diseases
• Transmissible agent consists of aggregated forms of a specific protein.
• The protein aggregates are resistant to treatment with agents that degrade most proteins
• The protein is lagely or completely derived from a cellular protein, called PrP, that is normally present in brain
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Prion aggregation
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A structure of amyloid fibers
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Ribose and deoxyribose
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Backbones of DNA and RNA
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• The human genome 3 billion nucleotides 24 different chromosomes
• Indian muntjak,
3 chromosomes
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A prokaryotic and an eukaryotic cell
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Gene expression